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61-541: The tower was designed by Jean Marie Legrand during the government's five-year plan and was built between 1983 and 1986. Various ministries and charities' offices are housed in the tower, such as the African Self-help Development Initiative, the New Partnership for African Development, and UNESCO. Nabemba Tower was inaugurated by President Denis Sassou Nguesso on 3 February 1990. Nabemba Tower

122-770: A "Fundamental Act" that concentrated power in the President's hands. General Sassou Nguesso accumulated the functions of President of the Republic, Head of State, Head of Government, Minister of Defense and Supreme Chief of the Armies. A government was announced on 2 November 1997; it consisted mainly of members and relatives of the FDU (Forces Démocratiques unifies, a coalition between the PCT and other parties supporting Sassou Nguesso) as well as two members respectively of UPADS and MCDDI, who were not chosen by

183-503: A 75-member National Transitional Council (NTC) to act as a legislative body. Members were elected by the forum by mid-January. However, violence did not end. By April 1998, militias opposed to Sassou Nguesso operated throughout southern Congo, coordinating their operations. In the beginning of 1999, violence had resumed in Brazzaville. Peace agreements were signed on 25 December under the auspices of President Omar Bongo of Gabon , ending

244-516: A court-martial, were executed. The command members and accomplices in the army and gendarmerie were convicted by the revolutionary court. After the events, Marien Ngouabi denounced the involvement of the CIA and President Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) in the coup. Following this attempt, the PCT met in an extraordinary congress from March 30 to April 2, 1970. The Political Bureau

305-565: A lack of transparency in the electoral process. On 10 March, two days before the election, Andre Milongo, seen as the main challenger, withdrew, also citing a lack of transparency and calling for a boycott. The elections passed peacefully and Sassou Nguesso won with 89.41% of the votes. Serious malfunctions and acts of manipulation in a few electoral commissions were reported by the European Union Election Observation Mission, who reported that these acts did not impact

366-493: A lot in maintenance costs." 4°16′20″S 15°17′21″E  /  4.27212°S 15.2891°E  / -4.27212; 15.2891 Denis Sassou Nguesso Denis Sassou Nguesso (born 23 November 1943) is a Congolese politician and former military officer who became president of the Republic of the Congo in 1997. He served a previous term as president from 1979 to 1992. During his first period as president, he headed

427-579: A partial amnesty for political prisoners. Over the following year, he attempted to improve the failing economic situation and reduce the outrageous levels of corruption. Starting in September 1990 political parties other than the PCT were allowed and Sassou Nguesso made a symbolic state visit to the United States, laying the grounds for a new series of conditional International Monetary Fund loans later that year. He introduced multiparty politics in 1990 and

488-408: A restricted "Revolutionary Special General Staff" ( Etat major spécial révolutionnaire ), composed of five members, including Sassou Nguesso, and headed by Marien Ngouabi. At the end of the extraordinary session, Marien Ngouabi asked Sassou Nguessou and five other members for a report on the economic and political situation. The paper became known as the "Declaration of 12 December 1975". It recommended

549-495: A third consecutive term of 5 years and was reelected in the first round with 60% of the vote. Opposition leader Guy-Brice Parfait Kolelas finished second with 15 percent of the vote while retired general Jean-Marie Mokoko , a former security adviser to Sassou Nguesso, came third with 14 percent. For the first time in the history of the Republic, these elections were supervised by an independent commission (CNEI: Commission Nationale Electorale Indépendante). The opposition rejected

610-457: A twenty-year friendship pact with the Soviet Union and in the same year sent two delegations to China while a Chinese minister visited Brazzaville. However, the economic impact of these relationships remained marginal: France provided up to 50% of the country's foreign aid while the Soviet Union's contribution did not exceed 1.5%. Sassou Nguesso was re-elected for a five-year term as President of

671-781: The Central African Republic ). After serving in Cameroon as a member of the second battalion of the tirailleurs with the rank of Sergeant (1958–1960), Ngouabi went to the Ecole Militaire Préparatoire in Strasbourg , France in September 1960 and then to the Ecole Inter-armes at Coëtquidan Saint-Cyr in 1961. He returned to Congo in 1962 as Second Lieutenant and was stationed at the Pointe-Noire garrison. He

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732-521: The Congolese Party of Labour (PCT) for 12 years. He introduced multiparty politics in 1990, but was stripped of executive powers by the 1991 National Conference, remaining in office as a ceremonial head of state. He stood as a candidate in the 1992 presidential election but placed third. Sassou Nguesso was an opposition leader for five years before returning to power during the Second Republic of

793-659: The United States–Africa Leaders Summit 2022 in Washington, D.C. and met with US President Joe Biden . Marien Ngouabi President of the Republic of the Congo Government Assassination others Marien Ngouabi (or N'Gouabi ) (December 31, 1938 – March 18, 1977) was the fourth President of the Republic of the Congo from 1969 until his assassination in 1977. Marien Ngouabi

854-436: The "radicalization" of the revolution. In the same period, he was appointed Minister of Defense and Security at age 32. On 18 March 1977, president Marien Ngouabi was assassinated. Official media stated that the assassination was conducted by a commando group led by Capt. Barthelemey Kikadidi. Others claimed that the assassination was plotted by military officers within the close circle of power. A Military Committee of

915-492: The Americas to conduct oil and mineral extraction. Although he was considered by French diplomats as representative of the radical wing of the PCT and as the Soviet Union and Cuba's man, Sassou Nguessou developed and maintained strong relationships with France on which he relied to support the staggering economy. The French oil company Elf Aquitaine played an important role in the exploitation of Congolese oil fields that led to

976-690: The Central Committee of the PCT at the party's Fifth Extraordinary Congress in December 2006. He was re-elected in the July 2009 presidential election with 78.61% of the vote amidst an opposition boycott. He said that his re-election meant continued "peace, stability and security", and he called for an end to "thinking like ... freeloaders" in reference to international aid. At his inauguration Sassou Nguesso announced that he would support an amnesty bill to pardon Lissouba, who had gone into exile after his 1997 ouster and

1037-656: The Conference, including a claim from some delegates that he was involved in Ngouabi's assassination. The first round of elections took place on 24 June, and the second on 19 July. Senate elections took place on 26 July. In the parliamentary election of June–July 1992 , the PCT won only 19 of 125 seats in the National Assembly; the Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS) led by former prime minister Pascal Lissouba,

1098-522: The Congo Civil War , in which his rebel forces ousted President Pascal Lissouba . Following a transitional period, he won the 2002 presidential election , which involved low opposition participation. He was re-elected in the 2009 presidential election . The introduction of a new constitution, passed by referendum in 2015 amidst calls for boycott then a dismissal of results by opposition leaders, enabled Sassou Nguesso to stand for another term. He

1159-545: The Congolese Labor Party ( Comité militaire du PCT ) composed of eleven officers and led by Major Sassou Nguesso immediately took power and repealed the 1973 constitution. Sassou Nguesso acted as interim head of state from 18 March to 6 April 1977, then he conceded his position to general Joachim Yhombi-Opango , who became president. Sassou Nguesso held the position of 1st vice president of the committee, while retaining his position of minister of defense. Shortly after

1220-437: The Ngouabi assassination, Massamba-Debat and his former prime minister Pascal Lissouba were arrested and accused by a courts-martial of plotting the assassination. Massamba-Debat was executed on 25 March 1977. Sassou Nguesso was appointed provisional president on 8 February, before being confirmed, during a special congress on 31 March 1979 as head of the central committee, President of the Republic, head of state and President of

1281-463: The Ninja militia clashed with Congolese and Angolan troops and Cobra militiamen. As many as 1,500 may have been killed in the fighting, and thousands more fled to escape the violence. The Forum for Unity and National Reconciliation was held from 5 to 8 January 1998 with 1,420 delegates. It decided upon a transitional period of three years, to be followed by elections under a new Constitution. It also formed

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1342-530: The PCT Central Committee and President of the Republic at the party's Third Ordinary Congress on 27–31 July 1984, He announced the release of Yhombi-Opango. He served as Chairman of the Organization of African Unity from 1986 to 1987. In late 1987 he faced down a serious military revolt in the north of the country with French aid. At the PCT's Fourth Ordinary Congress on 26–31 July 1989, Sassou Nguesso

1403-401: The PCT's congress was held, during which Sassou Nguesso integrated the political bureau of the PCT. On 18 May 1973, Sassou Nguesso, who had been corps commander of the airborne group, was made Director of State Security. In 1975, amid an economic crisis, an extraordinary session of the PCT central committee was summoned. The eight members of the political bureau resigned and were replaced by

1464-455: The Rally for Democracy and Social Progress (RDPS) was constituted. It was soon joined by the PCT, which was unhappy with the distribution of ministerial portfolios, thus ensuring a new parliamentary majority. On 31 October, the National Assembly approved a motion of no confidence against Bongho-Nouarra who resigned. On 17 November, President Lissouba dissolved Parliament, announcing elections to break

1525-565: The army began military operations in the Goma Tse-tse region to dismantle the M22 insurgency led by former army members led by Vice President Ange Diawara . During the same month, Ngouabi denounced another attempted Diawara coup and arrested 45 people, including Pascal Lissouba and Sylvain Bemba, Minister of Information. His trial took place from March 16 to 23. Several sentences were pronounced, while Lissouba

1586-525: The army in 1960 just before the country was granted independence. He received military training in Algeria . In 1962, he returned to Congo and was reassigned to active duty with the rank of second lieutenant. A year later, he joined the Application School for Infantry, at Saint-Maixent-l'École, France whence he graduated with the rank of lieutenant. He returned to join Congo's elite paratroop regiment. He

1647-487: The army's inflexibility in politics and voicing strong criticism to the president. President Alphonse Massamba-Débat had Ngouabi and Second Lieutenant Eyabo arrested on July 29, 1968. Ngouabi's arrest provoked discontent among the military, and on July 31, Ngouabi was freed by soldiers from the Civil Defense. The National Revolutionary Council (CNR), headed by Ngouabi, was created on August 5, 1968. On 1 October 1968, he

1708-585: The authorities. The situation in the country was severely destabilized. There was an attempted coup in February 1972 that triggered a series of 'purges' of the opposition. It is claimed that Ngouabi was under French pressure to annex the oil -rich Cabinda enclave , a part of Portuguese Angola , and his refusal to act cost him the French support. There is some speculation that the French financed several coups in order to remove Ngouabi in power. Starting in February 1973,

1769-525: The civil war, leaving 8,000–10,000 dead, around 800,000 displaced persons and a devastated country. Presidential elections were held on 10 March 2002. 12 candidates entered the race, but only seven remained throughout the electoral process., Two candidates were disqualified by the Supreme Court on 10 February 2002 while two (Martin Mberi and General Anselme Makoumbou) withdrew from the race, on 6 March, protesting

1830-594: The council of ministers, for five years. On 8 July 1979, general elections were held and confirmed the PCT as the dominant political force: the Congolese Labor Party won all the seats in the People's National Assembly. A new constitution was adopted by referendum, confirming the socialist foundations of the country. As the newly elected president, Sassou Nguesso negotiated loans from the International Monetary Fund and allowed foreign investors from France and

1891-511: The country's name to the People's Republic of the Congo , declaring it to be Africa 's first Marxist–Leninist state, and founded the Congolese Workers' Party ( Parti Congolais du Travail , PCT) as the country's only legal political party. Ngouabi was a Mbochi from the north and his regime shifted control of the country away from the south. Such moves created opposition among the population in

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1952-805: The deadlock. In December, Claude Antoine Dacosta was appointed prime minister at the head of a transitional government. Civil war started in November 1993, when the opposition parties (UDR and PCT) contested the results of the parliamentary elections (October 1993) giving victory to the coalition supporting President Lissouba (Tendance présidentielle). Armed militia supporting President Lissouba (Cocoyes, Zoulous and Mambas) clashed with Kolelas' Ninjas and Sassous Nguesso's Cobras. The conflict ended in December 1995, but left at least 2,000 dead and more than 100,000 displaced. After this episode Sassou Nguesso spent seven months in Paris in 1996, returning on 26 January 1997 to contest

2013-508: The doubling of oil production and in supporting Congolese government expenses via pre-financing loans. He visited France in October 1979 and in July 1981 to seek economic support. In October 1980, high-ranking French political figures including former president Valery Giscard d'Estaing , and former prime ministers Jacques Chirac and Pierre Messmer , were guests to the celebration of the Brazzaville centenary. In May 1980 Sassou Nguessou signed

2074-564: The final result, and called for the sanction of those responsible in order to prevent the situation from happening again in the next elections. Sassou Nguesso was elected Chairman of the African Union , the OAU's successor body, in January 2006. His election was the result of a compromise reached to prevent the chairmanship from going to Omar al-Bashir . Sassou Nguesso was re-elected as President of

2135-566: The head of a commando attempting to overthrow the regime. His attempt failed and he was shot dead near the national radio station he had just taken. His body and that of his command members who fell with him remained exposed for a long time in front of the radio building. Several enthusiastic young supporters who had joined Kinganga's column were also armed. Captain Augustin Poignet, also involved, managed to escape to Kinshasa. A week later, 3 accomplices (Miawouama, Nkoutou and Mengo), sentenced by

2196-519: The highly politicized environment of Brazzaville . Bureaucratic centralism, repression, the "mechanism" of the party apparatus, and Ngouabi's tribalist orientation towards Mbochi and La Cuvette immigrants created opposition within the Communist Party itself, especially its youth organization. In the fall of 1971, students that went on strike in Brazzaville and Pointe Noire were severely repressed by

2257-418: The leadership of Marien Ngouabi, the group limited the president's powers, before the latter finally resigned on 3 September 1968. Ngouabi officially became head of state in January 1969. In December 1969, Sassou Nguesso was elected as a member of the first central committee of the new Congolese Labor Party ( Parti Congolais du travail , PCT). It was a communist party with a Marxist–Leninist doctrine. It

2318-448: The north. The second round was held between Lissouba (UPADS) and Kolelas (MCDDI); Sassou Nguesso backed Lissouba, who won in the second round with 61.32% of the vote. Lissouba became President of the Republic on 31 August and a new Cabinet headed by Prime Minister Stephane Bongho-Nouarra of UPADS, was formed on 7 August. In the meantime, a new alliance of seven parties, including the MCDDI and

2379-458: The outcome, alleging fraud and calling for civil disobedience . During the presidential election that took place on 21 March 2021 , Sassou Nguessou, who faced six challengers for the presidency, came first once again, garnering 88.4% of the votes. His main challenger, Guy Brice Parfait Kolélas , finished second with 7.96%, Mathias Dzon received 1.92%, and the other four candidates each received less than 1% each. In December 2022, he attended

2440-553: The presidential election scheduled for July. The second round of the civil war erupted a few weeks before the presidential election. In May 1997, a visit by Sassou Nguesso to Owando , Yhombi-Opango's political stronghold, led to the outbreak of violence between his supporters and those of Yhombi-Opango. On 5 June 1997, government forces surrounded Sassou Nguesso's home in the Mpila section of Brazzaville , attempting to arrest Pierre Aboya and Engobo Bonaventure, who had been implicated in

2501-461: The presidents in exile. He also called for a National reconciliation forum. However, the idea was rejected by Lissouba's followers who continued to strike into the region between the country's economic capital, Pointe Noire and Brazzaville, having cut the railway between the coast and Brazzaville for three months. In December 1997 heavy fighting resumed in the capital's southern suburbs (the Pool area) where

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2562-680: The reverential treatment of dead bodies. He visited the People's Republic of China in July 1973. Ngouabi was re-elected to his post as Chairman of the PCT Central Committee on December 30, 1974; he was additionally elected as Permanent Secretary of the PCT. He was then sworn in as president for another term on January 9, 1975. Also in 1975, he signed an economic aid pact with the Soviet Union . On March 23, Lieutenant General Pierre Kinganga, in exile in Kinshasa in neighbouring Zaire since his alleged June 1969 coup attempt, disembarked in Brazzaville at

2623-404: The techniques of building construction, civil engineering, or even architectural expertise. Each year, the maintenance alone of the tower costs the equivalent of £3,000,000, a significant cost for what is still a relatively poor country. The local architect Norbert Mbila describes Nabemba Tower as "a symbolic building, built purely for prestige. It is neither necessary nor useful, as it swallows up

2684-438: The violence. Fighting broke out between government forces and Cobras, which led to the second civil war . At the beginning of the conflict, Kolelas' militia remained neutral, but on 8 September 1997, he joined the president's camp and became prime minister. On 18 September, Angolan troops and airforce entered the battle, providing significant support to Sassou Nguesso. By 14 October a final assault covered by Angolan MiG aircraft

2745-452: The yoke of poverty." On 27 March 2015 Sassou Nguesso announced that his government would hold a referendum to change the 2002 constitution , which would allow him to run for a third consecutive term. The proposal was overwhelmingly approved by voters, with 92.96% in favor. Turnout was officially placed at 72.44%. However the opposition argued that due to low turnout, the results should be annulled. On 20 March 2016, Sassou Nguesso ran for

2806-532: Was acquitted. The M22 business abruptly ended on April 24, 1973, with the capture and execution of the maquis. The bodies of Diawara, Ikoko and Bakekolo were toured around Brazzaville and exhibited by Ngouabi in person during a popular gathering held at the Stade de la Révolution. The lack of consideration for the lifeless bodies of the Maquis caused considerable disapproval nationally due to the cultural sensitivity surrounding

2867-534: Was assassinated. Those accused of taking part in the assassination were tried and some were executed including Massamba-Débat . In the aftermath of the assassination, the Military Committee of the Party (CMP) was named to head an interim government with the conservative Colonel Joachim Yhombi-Opango to serve as Head of State. March 18 is Marien Ngouabi Day in the Republic of Congo. The country's only university

2928-565: Was assigned to the Pointe-Noire garrison as a deputy commander of an infantry battalion. In 1963, Ngouabi was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant. In 1965, he created the first battalion of paratroopers in the Congo Republic. Known for his leftist views, in April 1966 Ngouabi was demoted to the rank of soldier second class when he refused to be posted again at Pointe-Noire, after rebelling against

2989-561: Was born in 1938 at the village of Ombellé, Cuvette Department , in Kouyou territory to Dominique Osséré m'Opoma and Antoinette Mboualé-Abemba. He is originally from a kuyu humble family. From 1947 to 1953, he went to primary school in Owando . On 14 September 1953, he went to study at the Ecole des enfants de troupes Général Leclerc in Brazzaville and in 1957, he was sent to Bouar , Oubangui-Chari (now

3050-418: Was convicted of crimes in absentia . Sassou Nguesso said that he wanted the amnesty bill to be presented to Parliament by the end of 2009. As Congo-Brazzaville prepared to celebrate the 50th anniversary of its independence from France in 2010, Sassou Nguesso noted that the country had far to go in fully realizing the dream of independence: "Our country will not be totally independent until our people are free of

3111-521: Was expanded to 10 members, to the benefit of Ambroise Noumazalaye and Captain Sassou N'Guesso. The Gendarmerie, whose loyalty was not complete during the events, was dissolved and its members joined the army. The Council of State was reorganized. On August 29, 1970, former Minister Stéphane-Maurice Bongo-Nouarra was arrested for a counter-revolutionary conspiracy. He was sentenced to 10 years of forced labour. On March 18, 1977, at 14:30 hours, President Ngouabi

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3172-401: Was headed by Marien Ngouabi as president of the central committee, president of the republic and head of state. A new constitution was issued on 31 December 1969, which designated the country as the People's Republic of Congo. In March 1970, following a failed coup attempted by Pierre Kinganga, a former lieutenant who was exiled in the neighboring Congo-Kinshasa, an extraordinary session of

3233-521: Was launched on the Presidential Palace and neighborhoods in south Brazzaville, then on Pointe Noire, against the President's militias (Zoulou, Cocoys, Aubervillois and Mambas) and the Ninjas. By October, Sassou Nguesso was in control, while Lissouba as well as Kolelas and Opango left the country. On 25 October 1997, Sassou Nguesso was sworn in. He repealed the 1992 Constitution, and replaced it with

3294-724: Was one of the first officers of the Airborne Group, the first paratroop battalion of the Congolese Army, which was created by Marien Ngouabi in 1965. He commanded the Airborne Group, the army and the Brazzaville Military Zone (ZAB), and then headed the Intelligence department of the State Security Services. He became captain, then commander, and was promoted to colonel (1978) and later as army general (1989). He

3355-622: Was part of the 1968 military coup that overthrew president Massemba Debat and brought Marien Ngouabi to power. He was a founding member of the National Revolution Council ( Conseil National de la revolution ) in December 1968. In 1968, Sassou Nguesso took part in the military coup led by Commander Marien Ngouabi against Debat: He was a member of the Congolese National Revolution Council ( Conseil National de la révolution ) established on 5 August 1968. Under

3416-463: Was promoted to the rank of Commanding Officer, a rank he held until his death. Massamba-Débat, whose powers had been curtailed by the CNR, resigned on September 4, and Prime Minister Alfred Raoul served as acting head of state until December 31, 1968, when the CNR formally became the country's supreme authority and Ngouabi, as head of the CNR, assumed the presidency. Once in power, President Ngouabi changed

3477-409: Was re-elected as President of the PCT Central Committee and President of the Republic, and the PCT won all of the seats of the People's National Assembly. With the collapse of the socialist states of Eastern Europe, as well as influence from the French, Sassou Nguesso began to bring the country towards capitalism. In December 1989 he announced the end of government control of the economy and declared

3538-750: Was re-elected in the 2016 presidential election with a majority in the first round. A member of the Mbochi tribe, Sassou Nguesso was born in Edou in the Oyo district in northern Congo in 1943. His parents are Julien Nguesso and Émilienne Mouebara. Nguesso was the youngest child in the family. His father was a notable hunter chief in Edou. He received primary education in Fort Rousset, now Owando . He studied in Dolisie Normal College between 1956 and 1960. He joined

3599-433: Was severely damaged in 1997 during the Republic of the Congo Civil War . When President Sassou Nguesso returned to power, however, the building was rebuilt at the exorbitant cost of £16,000,000. This was more than the entire initial construction cost. Elf Aquitaine funded work on the building, which was assigned to a start-up company in Congo led by two French brothers without any qualifications in company management, nor in

3660-508: Was the largest party. But it could not obtain an absolute majority in the National Assembly, with the Congolese Movement for Democracy and Integral Development (MCDDI) led by former army General Bernard Kolelas in second position. In the August 1992 presidential election , Sassou Nguesso was eliminated in the first round, placing third with 17% of the vote. He fared poorly everywhere except

3721-450: Was then stripped of executive powers by the 1991 National Conference, remaining in office as a ceremonial head of state. He stood as a candidate in the 1992 presidential election but placed third. In February 1991, a national conference began; the opposition gained control of the conference. The conference's declaration of its own sovereignty was not challenged by Sassou Nguesso. He was subjected to serious criticism and allegations during

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