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56-520: NEWater (pronounced New-Water) is the brand name given to highly treated reclaimed wastewater produced by Singapore's Public Utilities Board . NEWater is produced by further purifying conventionally treated wastewater through microfiltration , reverse osmosis and ultraviolet radiation. The water is potable quality and can be added to drinking water supply reservoirs where it is withdrawn and treated again in conventional water treatment plants before being distributed to consumers. However, most NEWater

112-520: A dual piping system to keep the recycled water separate from the potable water. Usage types are distinguished as follows: Irrigation with recycled municipal wastewater can also serve to fertilize plants if it contains nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. There are benefits of using recycled water for irrigation, including the lower cost compared to some other sources and consistency of supply regardless of season, climatic conditions and associated water restrictions. When reclaimed water

168-602: A few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight; applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw; cleaning vegetables with disinfectant; or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure. Drawbacks or risks often mentioned include the content of potentially harmful substances such as bacteria, heavy metals, or organic pollutants (including pharmaceuticals, personal care products and pesticides). Irrigation with wastewater can have both positive and negative effects on soil and plants, depending on

224-622: A long time. Large towns on the River Thames upstream of London ( Oxford , Reading , Swindon , Bracknell ) discharge their treated sewage ("non-potable water") into the Thames, which supplies water to London downstream. In the United States, the Mississippi River serves as both the destination of sewage treatment plant effluent and the source of potable water. Non-potable reclaimed water

280-541: A mixture of chemical and biological pollutants. In low-income countries, there are often high levels of pathogens from excreta. In emerging nations , where industrial development is outpacing environmental regulation, there are increasing risks from inorganic and organic chemicals. The World Health Organization developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 2006, advocating a ‘multiple-barrier' approach wastewater use, for example by encouraging farmers to adopt various risk-reducing behaviors. These include ceasing irrigation

336-607: A multiple-barrier water reclamation process: Since 2002, there have been pilot programs to consider replacing the activated sludge process of the secondary sewage treatment and the microfiltration/ultrafiltration stage of the NEWater with a membrane bioreactor process. The total capacity of the plants is about 200 million US gallons per day (760,000 m/d). Some 6% of this is used for indirect potable use , equal to about 1% of Singapore's potable water requirement of 380 million US gallons per day (1,400,000 m/d). The rest

392-493: A municipal water supply system. Wastewater reclamation can be especially important in relation to human spaceflight . In 1998, NASA announced it had built a human waste reclamation bioreactor designed for use in the International Space Station and a crewed Mars mission. Human urine and feces are input into one end of the reactor and pure oxygen , pure water , and compost ( humanure ) are output from

448-430: A negative connotation. Sewage treatment plants were renamed to 'water reclamation plants' and sewage or wastewater were referred to as 'used water'. This contributed to a positive framing of NEWater, enhancing public acceptance of reused water. In addition, the government extensively engaged the public through exhibitions and advertisements to educate them about NEWater. The NEWater Visitor Centre, which allows people to view

504-537: A reliable, drought-proof source of drinking water. By using advanced purification processes, they produce water that meets all applicable drinking water standards. System reliability and frequent monitoring and testing are imperative to their meeting stringent controls. The water needs of a community, water sources, public health regulations, costs, and the types of water infrastructure in place— such as distribution systems, man-made reservoirs, or natural groundwater basins— determine if and how reclaimed water can be part of

560-404: A sewage treatment plant (usually after some form of pre-treatment). Other types of wastewater treatment plants include agricultural wastewater treatment and leachate treatment plants. Treating wastewater efficiently is challenging, but improved technology allows for enhanced removal of specific materials, increased re-use of water , and energy production from waste. In the United States,

616-485: A source of friction between the Malaysian and Singapore governments. The Malaysian government is treaty-bound to sell water to Singapore until 2061, but it has no obligation to do so after that date. In 2001, PUB initiated efforts to identify non-potable uses of water. NEWater, because of its high quality, became the supply of choice for industry demands. This use provided an outlet for this new water supply without increasing

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672-408: A water treatment plant or distribution system. Modern technologies such as reverse osmosis and ultraviolet disinfection are commonly used when reclaimed water will be mixed with the drinking water supply. Many people associate a feeling of disgust with reclaimed water and 13% of a survey group said they would not even sip it. Nonetheless, the main health risk for potable use of reclaimed water

728-447: A water-saving measure. When used water is eventually discharged back into natural water sources, it can still have benefits to ecosystems , improving streamflow, nourishing plant life and recharging aquifers , as part of the natural water cycle . Global treated wastewater reuse is estimated at 40.7 billion m per year, representing approximately 11% of the total domestic and manufacturing wastewater produced. Municipal wastewater reuse

784-442: A wide range of manufacturing industries, mining industries, oil and gas extraction, and service industries. There are several kinds of wastewater which are treated at the appropriate type of treatment plant. Domestic wastewater (also called municipal wastewater or sewage ) is processed at a sewage treatment plant . For industrial wastewater, treatment either takes place in a separate industrial wastewater treatment facility, or in

840-439: Is also the implementation of advanced wastewater treatment for the removal of organic micropollutants, which leads to an overall improved water quality. Water recycling and reuse is of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments. Already, the groundwater aquifers that are used by over half of the world population are being over-drafted. Reuse will continue to increase as

896-471: Is cleaner than Singapore's other water sources. The following table compares the water quality of NEWater to the WHO and USEPA standards. Reclaimed water There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from pathogens . The following are some of

952-431: Is currently used for non-drinking purposes, mostly by industries with production requirements for high purity water. Singapore considered water recycling to augment its limited fresh water supply starting in the 1970s. A Master Plan drafted in 1972 identified water reclamation and desalination as alternatives to reduce dependence on imported water from Malaysia. Subsequently, an experimental water reclamation treatment plant

1008-445: Is generally treated to only secondary level treatment when used for irrigation. A pump station distributes reclaimed water to users around a city. These may include golf courses, agricultural uses, cooling towers, or landfills. Rather than treating municipal wastewater for reuse purposes, other options can achieve similar effects of freshwater savings: The cost of reclaimed water exceeds that of potable water in many regions of

1064-551: Is increasingly using untreated municipal wastewater for irrigation – often in an unsafe manner. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so they are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste directly to water their crops. There can be significant health hazards related to using untreated wastewater in agriculture. Municipal wastewater can contain

1120-674: Is often distributed with a dual piping network that keeps reclaimed water pipes completely separate from potable water pipes. There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from pathogens . Some common technologies include ozonation , ultrafiltration , aerobic treatment ( membrane bioreactor ), forward osmosis , reverse osmosis , advanced oxidation or activated carbon . Reclaimed water providers use multi-barrier treatment processes and constant monitoring to ensure that reclaimed water

1176-696: Is particularly high in the Middle East and North Africa region , in countries such as the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait and Israel. For the Sustainable Development Goal 6 by the United Nations, Target 6.3 states "Halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally by 2030". Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in cooling towers ), in artificial recharge of aquifers, in agriculture, and in

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1232-598: Is particularly high in the Middle East and North Africa region , in countries such as the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait and Israel. The term "water reuse" is generally used interchangeably with terms such as wastewater reuse, water reclamation, and water recycling. A definition by the USEPA states: "Water reuse is the method of recycling treated wastewater for beneficial purposes, such as agricultural and landscape irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, and groundwater replenishing (EPA, 2004)." A similar description is: "Water Reuse,

1288-513: Is publicly acknowledged as an intentional project to recycle water for drinking water. There are two ways in which potable water can be delivered for reuse – "Indirect Potable Reuse" (IPR) and "Direct Potable Reuse". Both these forms of reuse are described below, and commonly involve a more formal public process and public consultation program than is the case with de facto or unacknowledged reuse. Some water agencies reuse highly treated effluent from municipal wastewater or resource recovery plants as

1344-408: Is released to surface water. Wastewater percolated or injected into groundwater may not be described as effluent if soil is assumed to perform treatment by filtration or ion exchange ; although concealed flow through fractured bedrock , lava tubes , limestone caves , or gravel in ancient stream channels may allow relatively untreated wastewater to emerge as springs . Effluent in

1400-641: Is safe and treated properly for the intended end use. Some water-demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. One example of this scenario is in the domestic environment where toilets can be flushed using greywater from baths and showers with little or no treatment. In the case of municipal wastewater , the wastewater must pass through numerous sewage treatment process steps before it can be used. Steps might include screening, primary settling, biological treatment, tertiary treatment (for example reverse osmosis), and disinfection. Wastewater

1456-410: Is the potential for pharmaceutical and other household chemicals or their derivatives ( environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants ) to persist in this water. This would be less of a concern if human excreta was kept out of sewage by using dry toilets or, alternatively, systems that treat blackwater separately from greywater . Indirect potable reuse (IPR) means the water is delivered to

1512-565: Is then used to feed the bacteria in biofilters . In the context of a thermal power station and other industrial facilities, the output of the cooling system may be referred to as the effluent cooling water, which is noticeably warmer than the environment and is called thermal pollution . In chemical engineering practice, effluent is the stream exiting a chemical reactor . Effluent may carry pollutants such as fats, oils and greases; solvents, detergents and other chemicals; heavy metal; other solids; and food waste. Possible sources include

1568-457: Is used at wafer fabrication plants and other non- potable applications in industries in Woodlands , Tampines , Pasir Ris , and Ang Mo Kio . Government figures show the country's NEWater plans can meet up to 40% of Singapore's current needs, and the figure is expected to go up to 55% by 2060. The quality of NEWater consistently exceeds the requirements set by US EPA and WHO guidelines and

1624-780: Is used for irrigation in agriculture, the nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content of the treated wastewater has the benefit of acting as a fertilizer . This can make the reuse of excreta contained in sewage attractive. The irrigation water can be used in different ways on different crops, such as for food crops to be eaten raw or for crops which are intended for human consumption to be eaten raw or unprocessed. For processed food crops: crops which are intended for human consumption not to be eaten raw but after food processing (i.e. cooked, industrially processed). It can also be used on crops which are not intended for human consumption (e.g. pastures, forage, fiber, ornamental, seed, forest and turf crops). In developing countries , agriculture

1680-482: Is water that is used more than one time before it passes back into the natural water cycle. Advances in municipal wastewater treatment technology allow communities to reuse water for many different purposes. The water is treated differently depending upon the source and use of the water as well as how it gets delivered. The World Health Organization has recognized the following principal driving forces for municipal wastewater reuse: In some areas, one driving force

1736-577: The Clean Water Act requires all direct effluent discharges to surface waters to be regulated with permits under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Indirect dischargers–facilities which send their wastewater to municipal sewage treatment plants–may be subject to pretreatment requirements. NPDES permits require discharging facilities to limit or treat effluent to the levels that result from using

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1792-663: The Deep Tunnel Sewerage System. In January 2017, a new NEWater plant was launched at Changi , and is the first plant to be jointly developed by a foreign and local company. The Bedok and Kranji plants are operated by the Public Utilities Board, while the Ulu Pandan and Changi plants are under DBOO concessions by Keppel Seghers and Sembcorp Industries . There is a Visitor Centre in the NEWater factory in Bedok, near

1848-468: The NEWater treatment process, was also opened to enhance visitors' understanding of how NEWater is produced. These public engagement efforts were aimed at correcting any misunderstandings people might have towards recycled water and increasing public support for reused water. Also, innovative technologies which was promoted by international industries applied on NEWater, such as Toray and DuPont in its reverse osmosis technologies. The first NEWater plant

1904-678: The Singapore Expo Tanah Merah MRT station . The visitor centre was awarded the Best Sightseeing/Leisure/Educational Programme at the 20th Tourism Awards 2005 and the IWA Marketing & Communication Award in 2006. The visitor centre provides multiple free programmes to educate the public regarding the technologies and production of NEWater: NEWater source water comes from effluent of secondary sewage treatment plants. The effluent passes through

1960-434: The artificial sense is in general considered to be water pollution , such as the outflow from a sewage treatment facility or an industrial wastewater discharge. An effluent sump pump , for instance, pumps waste from toilets installed below a main sewage line. In the context of waste water treatment plants , effluent that has been treated is sometimes called secondary effluent , or treated effluent . This cleaner effluent

2016-510: The augmentation of drinking water supplies with municipal wastewater treated to a level suitable for IPR followed by an environmental buffer (e.g. rivers, dams, aquifers, etc.) that precedes drinking water treatment. In this case, municipal wastewater passes through a series of treatment steps that encompasses membrane filtration and separation processes (e.g. MF, UF and RO), followed by an advanced chemical oxidation process (e.g. UV, UV+H 2 O 2 , ozone). In ‘indirect' potable reuse applications,

2072-480: The composition of the wastewater and on the soil or plant characteristics. The use of reclaimed water to create, enhance, sustain, or augment water bodies including wetlands , aquatic habitats, or stream flow is called "environmental reuse". For example, constructed wetlands fed by wastewater provide both wastewater treatment and habitats for flora and fauna. Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in cooling towers ). Planned potable reuse

2128-753: The consumer indirectly. After it is purified, the reused water blends with other supplies and/or sits a while in some sort of storage, man-made or natural, before it gets delivered to a pipeline that leads to a water treatment plant or distribution system. That storage could be a groundwater basin or a surface water reservoir. Some municipalities are using and others are investigating IPR of reclaimed water. For example, reclaimed water may be pumped into (subsurface recharge) or percolated down to (surface recharge) groundwater aquifers, pumped out, treated again, and finally used as drinking water. This technique may also be referred to as groundwater recharging . This includes slow processes of further multiple purification steps via

2184-506: The demand on the limited potable water supply. The PUB launched NEWater to the public in 2003, with the opening of the first two NEWater plants - the Bedok and Kranji plants - as well as the NEWater Visitor Centre. In anticipation of the potential public concerns over the safety of recycled water, NEWater was carefully implemented. The PUB was cautious in its usage of terms, avoiding terms such as 'wastewater' or 'sewage' that carried

2240-432: The drinking water supply. Some communities reuse water to replenish groundwater basins. Others put it into surface water reservoirs. In these instances the reclaimed water is blended with other water supplies and/or sits in storage for a certain amount of time before it is drawn out and gets treated again at a water treatment or distribution system. In some communities, the reused water is put directly into pipelines that go to

2296-444: The layers of earth/sand (absorption) and microflora in the soil (biodegradation). IPR or even unplanned potable use of reclaimed wastewater is used in many countries, where the latter is discharged into groundwater to hold back saline intrusion in coastal aquifers. IPR has generally included some type of environmental buffer, but conditions in certain areas have created an urgent need for more direct alternatives. IPR occurs through

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2352-436: The most effective treatment technologies possible at a practical cost to mitigate the effects of discharges on the receiving waters. EPA has published technology-based regulations, called " effluent guidelines ", for 59 industrial categories.  The agency reviews the standards annually, conducts research on various categories, and makes revisions as appropriate. Noncompliance with these standards and all other conditions in

2408-427: The need to frequently resupply the space station. De facto, unacknowledged or unplanned potable reuse refers to situations where reuse of treated wastewater is practiced but is not officially recognized. For example, a sewage treatment plant from one city may be discharging effluents to a river which is used as a drinking water supply for another city downstream. Unplanned Indirect Potable Use has existed for

2464-585: The other end. The soil could be used for growing vegetables , and the bioreactor also produces electricity . Aboard the International Space Station, astronauts have been able to drink recycled urine due to the introduction of the ECLSS system. The system costs $ 250 million and has been working since May 2009. The system recycles wastewater and urine back into potable water used for drinking, food preparation, and oxygen generation. This cuts back on

2520-505: The overall system Reclaimed water systems usually require a dual piping network, often with additional storage tanks , which adds to the costs of the system. Barriers to water reclamation may include: Effluent Effluent is wastewater from sewers or industrial outfalls that flows directly into surface waters , either untreated or after being treated at a facility. The term has slightly different meanings in certain contexts, and may contain various pollutants depending on

2576-445: The permits is punishable by law. Each year, effluent guidelines regulations prevent billions of pounds of contaminants from being released into bodies of water. EPA regulations require effluent limitations to be expressed as mass-based limits (rather than concentration-based limits) in the permits, so that discharging facilities will not use dilution as a substitute for treatment. In cases where setting mass-based limits are infeasible,

2632-544: The reclaimed wastewater is used directly or mixed with other sources. Direct potable reuse (DPR) means the reused water is put directly into pipelines that go to a water treatment plant or distribution system. Direct potable reuse may occur with or without "engineered storage" such as underground or above ground tanks. In other words, DPR is the introduction of reclaimed water derived from domestic wastewater after extensive treatment and monitoring to assure that strict water quality requirements are met at all times, directly into

2688-498: The rehabilitation of natural ecosystems (for example in wetlands ). The main reclaimed water applications in the world are shown below: In rarer cases reclaimed water is also used to augment drinking water supplies. Most of the uses of water reclamation are non-potable uses such as washing cars, flushing toilets, cooling water for power plants, concrete mixing, artificial lakes, irrigation for golf courses and public parks, and for hydraulic fracturing . Where applicable, systems run

2744-570: The source. Effluent is defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as "wastewater–treated or untreated–that flows out of a treatment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall. Generally refers to wastes discharged into surface waters". The Compact Oxford English Dictionary defines effluent as "liquid waste or sewage discharged into a river or the sea". Wastewater is not usually described as effluent while being recycled , re-used, or treated until it

2800-405: The typical technologies: Ozonation , ultrafiltration , aerobic treatment ( membrane bioreactor ), forward osmosis , reverse osmosis , and advanced oxidation , or activated carbon . Some water-demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. The cost of reclaimed water exceeds that of potable water in many regions of

2856-483: The use of reclaimed water from treated wastewater, has been a long-established reality in many (semi)arid countries and regions. It helps to alleviate water scarcity by supplementing limited freshwater resources." The water that is used as an input to the treatment and reuse processes can be from a variety of sources. Usually it is wastewater ( domestic or municipal, industrial or agricultural wastewater) but it could also come from urban runoff . Reclaimed water

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2912-1016: The world's population becomes increasingly urbanized and concentrated near coastlines, where local freshwater supplies are limited or are available only with large capital expenditure . Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by municipal wastewater reuse and recycling, reducing environmental pollution and improving carbon footprint . Reuse can be an alternative water supply option. Achieving more sustainable sanitation and wastewater management will require emphasis on actions linked to resource management, such as wastewater reuse or excreta reuse that will keep valuable resources available for productive uses. This in turn supports human wellbeing and broader sustainability . Water/wastewater reuse, as an alternative water source, can provide significant economic, social and environmental benefits, which are key motivators for implementing such reuse programs. These benefits include: Reclaiming water for reuse applications instead of using freshwater supplies can be

2968-413: The world, where fresh water is plentiful. However, reclaimed water is usually sold to citizens at a cheaper rate to encourage its use. As fresh water supplies become limited from distribution costs, increased population demands, or climate change , the cost ratios will evolve also. The evaluation of reclaimed water needs to consider the entire water supply system, as it may bring important flexibility into

3024-467: The world, where fresh water is plentiful. The costs of water reclamation options might be compared to the costs of alternative options which also achieve similar effects of freshwater savings, namely greywater reuse systems, rainwater harvesting and stormwater recovery , or seawater desalination . Water recycling and reuse is of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments. Municipal wastewater reuse

3080-674: Was built in 1974, but the operation was terminated after only one year due to costs and reliability issues. In 1998, the Public Utilities Board (PUB) and the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR) initiated the Singapore Water Reclamation Study (NEWater Study). The aim was to determine if NEWater was a viable source of raw water for Singapore's needs. NEWater and desalination both were explored to reduce reliance on water imported from Malaysia , which has long been

3136-698: Was completed in May 2000. Singapore currently has four operational NEWater factories, at Bedok, Kranji, Ulu Pandan and Changi. The Bedok and Kranji factories were commissioned in 2002, the Ulu Pandan plant in March 2007 and the Changi plant in August 2009. A plant at Seletar, commissioned in February 2004, was closed in 2011, as the PUB implemented its plan to centralize the treatment of used water, under

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