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107-525: Development was approved by the NATO Military Committee in December 1955. The system was to be based on four air defense regions (ADRs) coordinated by SACEUR (Supreme Allied Commander Europe). Starting from 1956 early warning coverage was extended across Western Europe using 18 radar stations. This part of the system was completed by 1962. Linked to existing national radar sites the coordinated system

214-644: A tetrarchic capital of the Roman Empire. In 343 AD, the Council of Sardica was held in the city, in a church located where the current 6th century Church of Saint Sophia was later built. The city was destroyed in the 447 invasion of the Huns and laid in ruins for a century It was rebuilt by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I . During the reign of Justinian it flourished, being surrounded with great fortress walls whose remnants can still be seen today. Serdica became part of

321-518: A Supreme Allied Commander as its commander. Sofia Sofia ( / ˈ s oʊ f i ə , ˈ s ɒ f -, s oʊ ˈ f iː ə / SOH -fee-ə, SOF - ; Bulgarian : София , romanized :  Sofiya , IPA: [ˈsɔfijɐ] ) is the capital and largest city of Bulgaria . It is situated in the Sofia Valley at the foot of the Vitosha mountain, in the western part of

428-540: A U.S. Navy admiral. His title was Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT), and the entire command was usually known as SACLANT. Both Supreme Commanders have, until 2009, been American, with a deputy commander from another NATO member, though only British and Germans have held the post. Responding to the establishment of NATO, the Warsaw Pact was established in 1955 along with their own posts of United Armed Forces Supreme Commander and Chief of Combined Staff . Until

535-586: A centre of Sredets province (Sredetski komitat, Средецки комитат). The Bulgarian patron saint John of Rila was buried in Sredets by orders of Emperor Peter I in the mid 10th century. After the conquest of the Bulgarian capital Preslav by Sviatoslav I of Kyiv and John I Tzimiskes ' armies in 970–971, the Bulgarian Patriarch Damyan chose Sredets for his seat in the next year and the capital of Bulgaria

642-498: A history of nearly 7,000 years, with the great attraction of the hot water springs that still flow abundantly in the centre of the city. The neolithic village in Slatina dating to the 5th–6th millennium BC is documented. Another neolithic settlement was founded in the 3rd–4th millennium BC near the site of the modern National Art Gallery , which has been the traditional centre of the city ever since. The earliest tribes who settled were

749-518: A period of intense demographic and economic growth. Sofia is the 14th-largest city in the European Union . It is surrounded by mountainsides, such as Vitosha by the southern side, Lyulin by the western side, and the Balkan Mountains by the north, which makes it the third highest European capital after Andorra la Vella and Madrid . Being Bulgaria's primary city, Sofia is home of many of

856-568: A significant political and economical centre, more so as it became one of the first Roman cities where Christianity was recognised as an official religion (under Galerius ). The Edict of Toleration by Galerius was issued in 311 in Serdica by the Roman emperor Galerius, officially ending the Diocletianic persecution of Christianity. The Edict implicitly granted Christianity the status of " religio licita ",

963-666: A term used by the Allies during World War I , and is currently used only within NATO for Supreme Allied Commander Europe and Supreme Allied Commander Transformation . On 26 March 1918, the French marshal Ferdinand Foch was appointed Supreme Allied Commander, gaining command of all Allied forces everywhere, and coordinated the British, French, American, and Italian armies to stop the German spring offensive ,

1070-621: A variant of the HR-3000 radar, which is also used in the German HADR radars. The newer RAT-31SL/N radars are sometimes designated SINDRE II. The Polish Armed Forces Operational Command 's Air Operations Centre is located in the Warsaw-Pyry neighborhood and reports to CAOC Uedem. The 3rd Wrocław Radiotechnical Brigade is responsible for the operation of the Armed Forces radar equipment. As of 2021,

1177-625: A worship recognised and accepted by the Roman Empire. It was the first edict legalising Christianity, preceding the Edict of Milan by two years. Serdica was the capital of the Diocese of Dacia (337–602). For Constantine the Great it was 'Sardica mea Roma est' (Serdica is my Rome). He considered making Serdica the capital of the Byzantine Empire instead of Constantinople. which was already not dissimilar to

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1284-626: A year, reaching its peak in late spring and early summer when thunderstorms are common. The driest recorded year was 2000 with a total precipitation of 304.6 mm (11.99 in), while the wettest year on record was 2014 with a total precipitation of 1,066.6 mm (41.99 in). The geographic position of the Sofia Valley limits the flow of air masses, increasing the chances of air pollution by particulate matter and nitrogen oxide . Solid fuel used for heating and motor vehicle traffic are significant sources of pollutants. Smog thus persists over

1391-476: Is 57 cm (22.4 in) (25 December 2001). The coldest recorded year was 1893 with an average January temperature of −10.4 °C (13 °F) and an annual temperature of 8.2 °C (46.8 °F). Summers are quite warm and sunny. In summer, the city generally remains slightly cooler than other parts of Bulgaria, due to its higher altitude. However, the city is also subject to heat waves with high temperatures reaching or exceeding 35 °C (95 °F) on

1498-686: Is a United States Space Force installation and its radars are part of the North American Aerospace Defense Command and United States Space Command . The Estonian Air Force 's Air Operations Control Centre is located at Ämari Air Base and reports to the Baltic Air Surveillance Network's Regional Airspace Surveillance Coordination Centre (RASCC) in Karmėlava , Lithuania, which in turn reports to CAOC Uedem. The French Air and Space Force 's Air Operations Centre

1605-596: Is also unique in Europe in possessing a Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) which is based at RAF Fylingdales . The United States Air Force 's control centres and radar stations are part of the Canadian/American North American Aerospace Defense Command. Supreme Allied Commander Supreme Allied Commander is the title held by the most senior commander within certain multinational military alliances. It originated as

1712-757: Is at Keflavik Air Base and reports to CAOC Uedem in Germany. The Italian Air Force 's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 5) in Poggio Renatico was deactivated in 2013 and replaced with the Mobile Command and Control Regiment (RMCC) at Bari Air Base , while the Centre's responsibilities were transferred to the CAOC Torrejón in Spain. The Latvian Air Force 's Air Operations Centre is located at Lielvārde Air Base and reports to

1819-527: Is headquartered in Brnik and reports to CAOC Torrejón. The Italian Air Force's 4th Wing at Grosseto Air Base and 36th Wing at Gioia del Colle Air Base rotate a QRA flight of Eurofighter Typhoons to Istrana Air Base , which are responsible for the air defense of Northern Italy and Slovenia. The Spanish Air Force 's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 8) at Torrejón Air Base was deactivated in 2013 and replaced at same location by CAOC Torrejon, which took over

1926-925: Is located at Mont Verdun Air Base and reports to CAOC Uedem. Most French radar sites use the PALMIER radar, which is being taken out of service. By 2022 all PALMIER radars will have been replaced with new radar stations using the GM 403 radar. Additionally the French Air and Space Force fields a GM 406 radar at the Cayenne-Rochambeau Air Base in French Guiana to protect the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou . The German Air Force 's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 2) in Uedem

2033-540: Is located at Nieuw-Milligen and reports to CAOC Uedem. The air force's main radars are being replaced with two modern SMART-L GB radars. The Royal Norwegian Air Force 's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 3) in Reitan was deactivated in 2008 and its responsibilities were transferred to the Combined Air Operations Centre Finderup (CAOC F). After CAOC F was deactivated in 2013 the responsibility for

2140-629: Is monitored and guarded by the Belgian Air Component's Control and Reporting Centre at Beauvechain Air Base. The Armed Forces of Montenegro do not possess a modern air defense radar and the country's airspace is monitored by Italian Air Force radar sites. The Armed Forces Air Surveillance and Reporting Centre is located at Podgorica Airport in Golubovci and reports to CAOC Torrejón in Spain. The Royal Netherlands Air Force 's Air Operations Centre

2247-498: Is most typically Central European. After World War II and the establishment of a Communist government in Bulgaria in 1944, the architectural style was substantially altered. Stalinist Gothic public buildings emerged in the centre, notably the spacious government complex around The Largo , Vasil Levski Stadium, the Cyril and Methodius National Library and others. As the city grew outwards,

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2354-500: Is registered are the duplicate of the Gospel of Serdica, in a dialogue between two salesmen from Dubrovnik around 1359, in the 14th-century Vitosha Charter of Bulgarian tsar Ivan Shishman and in a Ragusan merchant's notes of 1376. In these documents, the city is called Sofia , but, at the same time, the region and the city's inhabitants are still called Sredecheski ( Church Slavonic : срѣдечьскои , "of Sredets"), which continued until

2461-431: The 2012 Pernik earthquake occurred west of Sofia with a moment magnitude of 5.6 and a much lower Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ). The 2014 Aegean Sea earthquake was also noticed in the city. Sofia has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ; Cfb if with −3 °C isotherm ) with an average annual temperature of 10.9 °C (51.6 °F). Winters are relatively cold and snowy. In

2568-530: The Balkan mountains to the north. The valley has an average altitude of 550 metres (1,800 ft). Sofia is the second highest capital of the European Union (after Madrid ) and the third highest capital of Europe (after Andorra la Vella and Madrid). Unlike most European capitals, Sofia does not straddle any large river, but is surrounded by comparatively high mountains on all sides. Three mountain passes lead to

2675-548: The Bulgarian National Revival . In 1858 Nedelya Petkova created the first Bulgarian school for women in the city. In 1867 was inaugurated the first chitalishte in Sofia – a Bulgarian cultural institution. In 1870 the Bulgarian revolutionary Vasil Levski established a revolutionary committee in the city and in the neighbouring villages. Following his capture in 1873, Vasil Levski was transferred and hanged in Sofia by

2782-743: The First Bulgarian Empire during the reign of Khan Krum in 809, after a long siege . The fall of the strategic city prompted a major and ultimately disastrous invasion of Bulgaria by the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros I , which led to his demise at the hands of the Bulgarian army . In the aftermath of the war, the city was permanently integrated in Bulgaria and became known by the Slavic name of Sredets. It grew into an important fortress and administrative centre under Krum's successor Khan Omurtag , who made it

2889-696: The German Air Defence Ground Environment (GEADGE) , an updated radar network adding the southern part of Germany to the European system and Coastal Radar Integration System (CRIS) , adding data links from Danish coastal radars. In order to counter the hardware obsolescence, during the mid-1990s NATO started the AEGIS Site Emulator (ASE) program allowing the NATINADS/AEGIS sites to replace the proprietary hardware (the 5118ME computer and

2996-763: The Great Patriotic War : the Polish Armed Forces in the East , 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps , French Normandie-Niemen Fighter Regiment and Romanian Tudor Vladimirescu Division from 1943, then from 1944 until the end of the war also the Romanian Army , Bulgarian Army and Yugoslav National Liberation Army . After the end of the Soviet Union's European theater of World War II, during the Soviet-Japanese War ,

3103-680: The Marconi S-723 radar of the Air Component's Air Traffic Control Centre in Semmerzake . The Bulgarian Air Force 's Air Sovereignty Operations Centre is located in Sofia and reports to CAOC Torrejón. The Bulgarian Air Force fields three control and surveillance zones, which operate obsolete Soviet -era radars. The Bulgarian Air Force intends to replace these radars with fewer, but more capable Western 3-D radars as soon as possible. The future locations of

3210-528: The Romanian Army entered Vrazhdebna in 1913, then a village 11 kilometres (7 miles) from Sofia, now a suburb, this prompted the Tsardom of Bulgaria to capitulate. During the war, Sofia was flown by the Romanian Air Corps , which engaged on photoreconnaissance operations and threw propaganda pamphlets to the city. Thus, Sofia became the first capital on the world to be overflown by enemy aircraft. During

3317-667: The Second World War , Bulgaria declared war on the US and UK on 13 December 1941 and in late 1943 and early 1944 the US and UK Air forces conducted bombings over Sofia . As a consequence of the bombings thousands of buildings were destroyed or damaged including the Capital Library and thousands of books. In 1944 Sofia and the rest of Bulgaria was occupied by the Soviet Red Army and within days of

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3424-602: The Thracian Tilataei . In the 500s BC, the area became part of a Thracian state union, the Odrysian kingdom from another Thracian tribe the Odrysses . In 339 BC Philip II of Macedon destroyed and ravaged the town for the first time. The Celtic tribe Serdi gave their name to the city. The earliest mention of the city comes from an Athenian inscription from the 1st century BC, attesting Astiu ton Serdon , i.e. city of

3531-609: The Vatican established the See of Sofia for Catholics of Rumelia , which existed until 1715 when most Catholics had emigrated. There was an important uprising against Ottoman rule in Sofia, Samokov and Western Bulgaria in 1737. Sofia entered a period of economic and political decline in the 17th century, accelerated during the period of anarchy in the Ottoman Balkans of the late 18th and early 19th century, when local Ottoman warlords ravaged

3638-642: The WSR-98D radar stations in Bârnova, Medgidia, Bobohalma, Timișoara, and Oradea are officially designated and operated as a civilian radar stations by the National Meteorological Administration , however their data is fed into the military air surveillance system as well. The Slovak Air Force 's Air Operations Centre is located at Zvolen and reports to CAOC Uedem. The Slovenian Air Force and Air Defense 's Airspace Surveillance and Control Centre

3745-927: The World Heritage List in 1979. With its cultural significance in Southeast Europe , Sofia is home to the National Opera and Ballet of Bulgaria , the National Palace of Culture , the Vasil Levski National Stadium , the Ivan Vazov National Theatre , the National Archaeological Museum , and the Serdica Amphitheatre . The Museum of Socialist Art includes many sculptures and posters that educate visitors about

3852-403: The most senior leaders in the British Armed Forces and United States Armed Forces . These commanders reported to the British/American Combined Chiefs of Staff , although in the case of the Pacific and South East Asia, the relevant national command authorities of the American Joint Chiefs of Staff or the British Chiefs of Staff Committee had responsibility for the main conduct of the war in

3959-402: The 11th century many Pechenegs were settled down in Sofia region as Byzantine federats. It was once again incorporated into the restored Bulgarian Empire in 1194 at the time of Emperor Ivan Asen I and became a major administrative and cultural centre. Several of the city's governors were members of the Bulgarian imperial family and held the title of sebastokrator , the second highest at

4066-516: The 14th century till the 19th century Sofia was an important administrative center in the Ottoman Empire. It became the capital of the beylerbeylik of Rumelia ( Rumelia Eyalet ), the province that administered the Ottoman lands in Europe (the Balkans ), one of the two together with the beylerbeylik of Anatolia . It was the capital of the important Sanjak of Sofia as well, including the whole of Thrace with Plovdiv and Edirne , and part of Macedonia with Thessaloniki and Skopje . During

4173-420: The 1980s the Airborne Early Warning / Ground Environment Integration Segment (AEGIS) upgraded the NATINADS with the possibility to integrate the AWACS radar picture and all of its information into its visual displays. (NOTE: This AEGIS is not to be confused with the U.S.Navy AEGIS , a shipboard fire control radar and weapons system.) AEGIS processed the information through Hughes H5118ME computers, which replaced

4280-439: The 20th century. The Ottomans came to favour the name Sofya ( صوفيه ). In 1879, there was a dispute about what the name of the new Bulgarian capital should be, when the citizens created a committee of famous people, insisting for the Slavic name. Gradually, a compromise arose, officialisation of Sofia for the nationwide institutions, while legitimating the title Sredets for the administrative and church institutions, before

4387-533: The 3rd century, it became the capital of Dacia Aureliana , and when Emperor Diocletian divided the province of Dacia Aureliana into Dacia Ripensis (at the banks of the Danube ) and Dacia Mediterranea , Serdica became the capital of the latter. Serdica's citizens of Thracian descent were referred to as Illyrians probably because it was at some time the capital of Eastern Illyria ( Second Illyria ). Roman emperors Aurelian (215–275) and Galerius (260–311) were born in Serdica. The city expanded and became

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4494-480: The 54th Radar Regiment "Veszprém" , however it is unclear if they will remain in service once Hungary's newest radar at Medina reaches full operational capability. The Iceland Air Defense System , which is part of the Icelandic Coast Guard , monitors Iceland's airspace. Air Defense is provided by fighter jets from NATO allies, which rotate units for the Icelandic Air Policing mission to Keflavik Air Base. The Iceland Air Defense System's Control and Reporting Centre

4601-557: The 90s and 102,623 between 2000 and 2011. Until 1949, 13,114 buildings were constructed and between 10,000 and 20,000 in each following decade. Sofia's architecture combines a wide range of architectural styles, some of which are aesthetically incompatible. These vary from Christian Roman architecture and medieval Bulgarian fortresses to Neoclassicism and prefabricated Socialist-era apartment blocks, as well as newer glass buildings and international architecture. A number of ancient Roman, Byzantine and medieval Bulgarian buildings are preserved in

4708-399: The Allied Powers (SCAP). The Pacific Ocean Areas (POA), divided into the Central Pacific Area, the North Pacific Area and the South Pacific Area, were commanded by Admiral Chester W. Nimitz , Commander-in-Chief Pacific Ocean Areas. Although not bearing any official title of Supreme Allied Commander, Joseph Stalin , as Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Armed Forces , as well as

4815-428: The Balkan Mountains, passing between the eastern city suburbs, next to the main building and below the runways of Sofia Airport , and flows out of the Sofia Valley at the town of Novi Iskar , where the scenic Iskar Gorge begins. The city is known for its 49 mineral and thermal springs. Artificial and dam lakes were built in the twentieth century. While the 1818 and 1858 earthquakes were intense and destructive,

4922-441: The Baltic Air Surveillance Network's Regional Airspace Surveillance Coordination Centre (RASCC) in Karmėlava, Lithuania, which in turn reports to CAOC Uedem. The Lithuanian Air Force 's Air Operations Control Centre is located in Karmėlava and reports to the Baltic Air Surveillance Network's Regional Airspace Surveillance Coordination Centre (RASCC) co-located in Karmėlava, which in turn reports to CAOC Uedem. Luxembourg's airspace

5029-404: The Catholic Cathedral of St Joseph . Sofia has been named one of the top ten best places for startup businesses in the world, especially in information technologies. It was Europe's most affordable capital to visit in 2013. The Boyana Church in Sofia, constructed during the Second Bulgarian Empire and holding much patrimonial symbolism to the Bulgarian Orthodox Church , was included onto

5136-612: The EU norm of 50 μg/m . Even areas with few sources of air pollution, like Gorna Banya , had PM2.5 and PM10 levels above safe thresholds. In response to hazardous spikes in air pollution, the Municipal Council implemented a variety of measures in January 2018, like more frequent washing of streets. However, a report by the European Court of Auditors issued in September 2018 revealed that Sofia has not drafted any projects to reduce air pollution from heating. The report also noted that no industrial pollution monitoring stations operate in Sofia, even though industrial facilities are active in

5243-520: The European continent. The command is based at Ramstein Air Base in Germany and has two subordinate commands in Germany and Spain. The Royal Canadian Air Force and United States Air Force fall under command of the Canadian /American North American Aerospace Defense Command . The Albanian Air Force 's Air Surveillance Centre is based in Rinas and the Air Force operates a Lockheed Martin AN/TPS-77 radar on top of Mida mountain near Pukë . The Belgian Air Component 's Control and Reporting Centre

5350-428: The H3118M computers installed at NADGE sites in the late 1960s and early 1970s. NATINADS ability to handle data increased with faster clock rates. The H5118M computer had a staggering 1 megabyte of memory and could handle 1.2 million instructions per second while the former model had a memory of only 256 kilobytes and a clock speed of 150,000 instructions per seconds. NATINADS/AEGIS were complemented, in West Germany by

5457-443: The Muslim population left Sofia. For a few decades after the liberation, Sofia experienced large population growth, mainly by migration from other regions of the Principality (Kingdom since 1908) of Bulgaria, and from the still Ottoman Macedonia and Thrace . In 1900, the first electric lightbulb in the city was turned on. In the Second Balkan War , Bulgaria was fighting alone practically all of its neighbouring countries. When

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5564-475: The Ottomans. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 , Suleiman Pasha threatened to burn the city in defence, but the foreign diplomats Leandre Legay, Vito Positano , Rabbi Gabriel Almosnino and Josef Valdhart refused to leave the city thus saving it. Many Bulgarian residents of Sofia armed themselves and sided with the Russian forces. Sofia was relieved (see Battle of Sofia ) from Ottoman rule by Russian forces under Gen. Iosif Gurko on 4 January 1878. It

5671-436: The Polish Air Force possesses three NUR-12M and three RAT-31DL long-range radars making up BACKBONE system, which are listed below. The Portuguese Air Force 's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 10) in Lisbon was deactivated in 2013 and its responsibilities were transferred to CAOC Torrejón in Spain. The Romanian Air Force 's Air Operations Centre is headquartered in Balotești and reports to CAOC Torrejón. Additionally,

5778-424: The Serdi. According to the inscription and to the writings of Dio Cassius , the Roman general Crassus subdued the Serdi and behanded the captives. Dio Cassius, Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy say that in 27–29 BC Crassus attacked the region "Segetike", which is assumed to be Serdica, or the city of the Serdi. The ancient city is located between TZUM , Sheraton Hotel and the Presidency. It gradually became

5885-404: The Soviet invasion Bulgaria declared war on Nazi Germany. In 1945, the communist Fatherland Front took power. The transformations of Bulgaria into the People's Republic of Bulgaria in 1946 and into the Republic of Bulgaria in 1990 marked significant changes in the city's appearance. The population of Sofia expanded rapidly due to migration from rural regions. New residential areas were built in

5992-401: The Turkish radar system is unknown. The Royal Air Force 's Air Surveillance and Control System is located at RAF Boulmer , and reports to CAOC Uedem. The RAF operates seven Remote Radar Heads (RRHs) across the UK, which feed back to the Control and Reporting Centre at RAF Boulmer . Under Project Guardian, all of the UK's radar stations and systems are being upgraded and strengthened. The UK

6099-486: The air defense of Norway was transferred to CAOC Uedem in Germany and the Royal Norwegian Air Force's Control and Reporting Centre in Sørreisa reports to it. Until 2016 the Royal Norwegian Air Force's radar installations were distributed between two CRCs. That year the CRC Mågerø was disbanded. In its place a wartime mobilization back-up CRC has been formed with a reduction in personnel from the around active 170 duty to about 50 air force home guardsmen . The SINDRE I radars are

6206-458: The centre of the city. These include the 4th century Rotunda of St. George , the walls of the Serdica fortress and the partially preserved Amphitheatre of Serdica . After the Liberation War, knyaz Alexander Battenberg invited architects from Austria-Hungary to shape the new capital's architectural appearance. Among the architects invited to work in Bulgaria were Friedrich Grünanger , Adolf Václav Kolář, and Viktor Rumpelmayer , who designed

6313-449: The city as temperature inversions and the mountains surrounding the city prevent the circulation of air masses. As a result, air pollution levels in Sofia are some of the highest in Europe. Particulate matter concentrations are consistently above the norm. During the October 2017 – March 2018 heating season, particulate levels exceeded the norm on 70 occasions; on 7 January 2018, PM10 levels reached 632 μg/m , some twelve times

6420-411: The city begins with the attestation of the conquest of Serdica by the Roman Republic in 29 BC from the Celtic tribe Serdi . During the decline of the Roman Empire , the city was raided by Huns , Visigoths , Avars , and Slavs . In 809, Serdica was incorporated into the Bulgarian Empire by Khan Krum and became known as Sredets. In 1018, the Byzantines ended Bulgarian rule until 1194, when it

6527-445: The city's earliest name, first appeared on paper in an 11th-century text. The city was called Atralisa by the Arab traveller Idrisi and Strelisa , Stralitsa , or Stralitsion by the Crusaders . The name Sofia comes from the Saint Sofia Church , as opposed to the prevailing Slavic origin of Bulgarian cities and towns . The origin is in the Greek word sophía ( σοφία , "wisdom"). The earliest works where this latest name

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6634-423: The city, which have been key roads since antiquity, Vitosha being the watershed between Black and Aegean Seas . A number of shallow rivers cross the city, including the Boyanska , Vladayska and Perlovska . The Iskar River in its upper course flows near eastern Sofia. It takes its source in Rila , Bulgaria's highest mountain, and enters Sofia Valley near the village of German . The Iskar flows north toward

6741-414: The city. A monitoring station on Eagles' Bridge, where some of the highest particulate matter values were measured, was moved away from the location and has measured sharply lower values since then. Particulates are now largely measured by a network of 300 sensors maintained by volunteers since 2017. The European Commission has taken Bulgaria to court over its failure to curb air pollution. The area has

6848-400: The coldest days temperatures can drop below −15 °C (5 °F), most notably in January. The lowest recorded temperature is −31.2 °C (−24 °F) (16 January 1893). On average, Sofia receives a total snowfall of 98 cm (38.6 in) and 56 days with snow cover. The snowiest recorded winter was 1939/1940 with a total snowfall of 169 cm (66.5 in). The record snow depth

6955-531: The commander of China Burma India Theater (CBI) and Deputy Allied Commander of South East Asia Command (SEAC). It was not until late 1944 that the land forces chain of command was clarified, after Stilwell was recalled to Washington. His overall role, and the CBI command were then split among three people: Lt Gen. Raymond Wheeler became Deputy Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia; Maj. Gen. Albert Wedemeyer became Chief of Staff to Chiang, and commander of US Forces, China Theater (USFCT). Lt Gen. Daniel Sultan

7062-449: The commanders of the 1st Belorussian , 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 4th Ukrainian Fronts of the Soviet Red Army - Zhukov , Rokossovsky , Konev , Malinovsky , Tolbukhin , Sokolovsky , Yeremenko , Petrov , Vatutin , etc. - acted in de facto capacity of Supreme Allied Commanders in that units of foreign Allied armies were incorporated into the fronts' order of battle and fought against the European Axis powers under their command during

7169-446: The commanders of the Red Army's 1st and 2nd Far Eastern fronts and Transbaikal Front - Vasilevsky (in overall command of all three fronts), Malinovsky, Meretskov and Purkayev - once again acted in de facto capacity of Supreme Allied Commanders as the Mongolian People's Army and partisans of the Chinese Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army and Korean People's Revolutionary Army were incorporated into their order of battle for

7276-434: The country territory. The metropolitan area of Sofia is based upon one hour of car travel time, stretches internationally and includes Dimitrovgrad in Serbia. The metropolitan region of Sofia is inhabited by a population of 1.66 million. For a long time, the city possessed a Thracian name, Serdica ( Ancient Greek : Σερδικη , Serdikē , or Σαρδικη , Sardikē ; Latin : Serdica or Sardica ), derived from

7383-461: The country. The city is built west of the Iskar river and has many mineral springs, such as the Sofia Central Mineral Baths . It has a humid continental climate . Being in the centre of the Balkans , it is midway between the Black Sea and the Adriatic Sea and closest to the Aegean Sea . Known as Serdica in antiquity and Sredets in the Middle Ages , Sofia has been an area of human habitation since at least 7000 BC. The recorded history of

7490-474: The countryside. 1831 Ottoman population statistics show that 42% of the Christians were non-taxpayers in the kaza of Sofia and the amount of middle-class and poor Christians were equal. Since the 18th century the beylerbeys of Rumelia often stayed in Bitola , which became the official capital of the province in 1826. Sofia remained the seat of a sanjak (district). By the 19th century the Bulgarian population had two schools and seven churches, contributing to

7597-413: The creation of the command to execute Operation Overlord and ending in July 1945 shortly after the End of World War II in Europe . In 1951, Eisenhower would again be a Supreme Allied Commander, the first to hold the post for NATO (see next section). Field Marshal Henry Maitland Wilson succeeded Eisenhower in the Mediterranean theatre, given the title Supreme Allied Commander Mediterranean. Wilson

7704-577: The disbandment of the Warsaw Pact in 1991, both posts had always been held by a Marshal of the Soviet Union or Army General due to their expertise in commanding and coordinating forces of enormous sizes in the Soviet Armed Forces . In June 2003, the commands were reshuffled. One command was given responsibility for operations, and one for transforming the military components of the alliance to meet new challenges. In Europe, Allied Command Operations

7811-599: The functions of CAOC 5, CAOC 7, CAOC 8 and CAOC 10. CAOC Torrejón is responsible for the NATO airspace South of the Alps. The Turkish Air Force 's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 6) in Eskişehir was deactivated in 2013 and its responsibilities were transferred to CAOC Torrejón in Spain. Turkey's Air Force fields a mix of HR-3000, AN/FPS-117, RAT-31SL and RAT-31DL radars, however the exact number of each of these radar and their location in

7918-532: The hottest days, particularly in July and August. The highest recorded temperature is 40.2 °C (104 °F) (5 July 2000). The hottest recorded month was July 2012 with an average temperature of 24.8 °C (77 °F). The warmest year on record was 2023 with an annual temperature of 12.1 °C (54 °F). Springs and autumns in Sofia are usually short with variable and dynamic weather. The city receives an average precipitation of 625.7 mm (24.63 in)

8025-513: The initial stages of the Crusade of Varna in 1443, it was occupied by Hungarian forces for a short time in 1443, and the Bulgarian population celebrated a mass Saint Sofia Church . Following the defeat of the crusader forces in 1444, the city's Christians faced persecution. In 1530 Sofia became the capital of the Ottoman province (beylerbeylik) of Rumelia for about three centuries. During that time Sofia

8132-467: The largest bedesten (market) of the Balkans. Additionally, there were fountains and hammams (bathhouses). Most prominent churches such as Saint Sofia and Saint George were converted into mosques, and a number of new ones were constructed, including Banya Bashi Mosque built by the renowned Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan . In total there were 11 big and over 100 small mosques by the 17th century. In 1610

8239-594: The last large offensive of the German Empire. He was the one who accepted the German cessation of hostilities in his private train. On 16 April 1918, at his own request, Foch was appointed "Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies". Despite his promotion 19 days earlier, and the subsequent Beauvais Conference of 3 April 1918, he was not provided a title. He remedied this by making up his own title and by writing to Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau to request it, which

8346-464: The last mention was in the 19th century in a Bulgarian text ( Сардакіи , Sardaki ). Other names given to Sofia, such as Serdonpolis ( Byzantine Ancient Greek : Σερδών πόλις , "City of the Serdi") and Triaditza ( Τριάδιτζα , "Trinity"), were mentioned by Byzantine Greek sources or coins. The Slavic name Sredets ( Church Slavonic : Срѣдецъ ), which is related to "middle" ( среда , "sreda") and to

8453-450: The latter was abandoned through the years. Sofia City Province has an area of 1344 km , while the surrounding and much bigger Sofia Province is 7,059 km . Sofia's development as a significant settlement owes much to its central position in the Balkans . It is situated in western Bulgaria, at the northern foot of the Vitosha mountain, in the Sofia Valley that is surrounded by

8560-475: The liberation of Northern China , Northeastern China and northern Korea from Japanese imperialist occupation. The term came into use again with the formation of NATO in 1949. In 1952, Allied Command Europe was established, led by Eisenhower. He became the Supreme Allied Commander (SACEUR). Soon afterwards, Allied Command Atlantic was established, at Norfolk, Virginia, under Lynde McCormick ,

8667-764: The lifestyle in communist Bulgaria . The population of Sofia declined from 70,000 in the late 18th century, through 19,000 in 1870, to 11,649 in 1878, after which it began increasing. Sofia hosts some 1.28 million residents within a territory of 500 km , a concentration of 17.9% of the country population within the 200th percentile of the country territory. The urban area of Sofia hosts some 1.54 million residents within 5723 km , which comprises Sofia City Province and parts of Sofia Province ( Dragoman , Slivnitsa , Kostinbrod , Bozhurishte , Svoge , Elin Pelin , Gorna Malina , Ihtiman , Kostenets ) and Pernik Province ( Pernik , Radomir ), representing 5.16% of

8774-408: The major local universities, cultural institutions and commercial companies. The city has been described as the "triangle of religious tolerance". This is because three temples of three major world religions— Christianity , Islam and Judaism —are situated close together: Sveta Nedelya Church , Banya Bashi Mosque and Sofia Synagogue . This triangle was recently expanded to a "square" and includes

8881-508: The most important Roman city of the region. It became a municipium during the reign of Emperor Trajan (98–117). Serdica expanded, as turrets , protective walls, public baths , administrative and cult buildings, a civic basilica , an amphitheatre , a circus, the City council (Boulé), a large forum, a big circus (theatre), etc. were built. Serdica was a significant city on the Roman road Via Militaris , connecting Singidunum and Byzantium . In

8988-472: The most important public buildings needed by the newly re-established Bulgarian government, as well as numerous houses for the country's elite. Later, many foreign-educated Bulgarian architects also contributed. The architecture of Sofia's centre is thus a combination of Neo-Baroque , Neo- Rococo , Neo-Renaissance and Neoclassicism , with the Vienna Secession also later playing an important part, but it

9095-497: The near future is the Air Command and Control System (ACCS). Because of changing politics, NATO expanding and financial crises most European (NATO) countries are trying to cut defence budgets; as a direct result, many obsolete and outdated NATINADS facilities are phased out earlier. As of 2013, operational NATO radar sites in Europe are as follows: Allied Air Command (AIRCOM) is the central command of all NATO air forces on

9202-664: The new radars are as of 2018 unknown. The Royal Canadian Air Force's control centres and radar stations are part of the Canadian/American North American Aerospace Defense Command. The Croatian Air Force and Air Defense 's Airspace Surveillance Centre is headquartered in Podvornica and reports to CAOC Torrejón. The Czech Air Force 's Control and Reporting Centre is located in Hlavenec and reports to CAOC Uedem. The Royal Danish Air Force 's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 1) in Finderup

9309-698: The outskirts of the city, like Druzhba, Mladost and Lyulin. During the Communist Party rule, a number of the city's most emblematic streets and squares were renamed for ideological reasons, with the original names restored after 1989. The Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum , where Dimitrov's body had been preserved in a similar way to the Lenin mausoleum , was demolished in 1999. In Sofia there are 607,473 dwellings and 101,696 buildings. According to modern records, 39,551 dwellings were constructed until 1949, 119,943 between 1950 and 1969, 287,191 between 1970 and 1989, 57,916 in

9416-686: The theatre, depending on the Supreme Commander's nationality. General of the United States' Army Dwight D. Eisenhower served in successive Supreme Allied Commander roles. Eisenhower was the Commander-in-Chief, Allied Force for the Mediterranean theatre . Eisenhower then served as Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force (SCAEF) in the European theatre , starting in December 1943 with

9523-535: The time, after the tsar . Some known holders of the title were Kaloyan , Peter and their relative Aleksandar Asen (d. after 1232), a son of Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria ( r.  1189–1196 ). In the 13th and 14th centuries Sredets was an important spiritual and literary hub with a cluster of 14 monasteries in its vicinity, that were eventually destroyed by the Ottomans. The city produced multicolored sgraffito ceramics, jewelry and ironware. In 1382/1383 or 1385, Sredets

9630-512: The tribe Serdi , who were either of Thracian , Celtic , or mixed Thracian-Celtic origin. The emperor Marcus Ulpius Traianus (53–117 AD) gave the city the combinative name of Ulpia Serdica ; Ulpia may be derived from an Umbrian cognate of the Latin word lupus , meaning "wolf" or from the Latin vulpes (fox). It seems that the first written mention of Serdica was made during his reign and

9737-402: The various operator consoles IDM-2, HMD-22, IDM-80) with commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) servers and workstations. In the first years 2000, the initial ASE capability was expanded with the possibility to run, thanks to the new hardware power, multiple site emulators on the same hardware, so the system was renamed into Multi-AEGIS Site Emulator (MASE) . The NATO system designed to replace MASE in

9844-502: Was ambushed and soundly defeated by the Bulgarians in the battle of the Gates of Trajan . The city eventually fell to the Byzantine Empire in 1018, following the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria . Sredets joined the uprising of Peter Delyan in 1040–1041 in a failed attempt to restore Bulgarian independence and was the last stronghold of the rebels, led by the local commander Botko. During

9951-461: Was based at Glons , where also its main radar was located. The radar was deactivated in 2015 and the Centre moved to Beauvechain Air Base in 2020. The Belgian Control and Reporting Centre reports to CAOC Uedem in Germany and is also responsible for guarding the airspace of Luxembourg . At the new location the Control and Reporting Centre uses digital radar data of the civilian radars of Belgocontrol and

10058-539: Was called the NATO Air Defence Ground Environment ( NADGE ). From 1960 NATO countries agreed to place all their air defence forces under the command of SACEUR in the event of war. These forces included command & control (C2) systems, radar installations, and Surface-to-Air (SAM) missile units as well as interceptor aircraft. By 1972 NADGE was converted into NATINADS consisting of 84 radar sites and associated Control Reporting Centers (CRC) and in

10165-735: Was deactivated in 2008 and reactivated as CAOC Uedem in 2013. CAOC Uedem is responsible for the NATO airspace North of the Alps. The HADR radars are a variant of the HR-3000 radar, while the RRP-117 radars are a variant of the AN/FPS-117. 1st Area Control Centre, inside Mount Chortiatis, with Marconi S-743D 2nd Area Control Centre, inside Mount Parnitha, with Marconi S-743D 9th Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mount Pelion, with Marconi S-743D 10th Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mount Chortiatis, with Marconi S-743D The Hellenic Air Force 's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 7) at Larissa Air Base

10272-658: Was deactivated in 2008 and replaced at the same location by the Combined Air Operations Centre Finderup (CAOC F), which had responsibility for the airspaces of Iceland , Norway , Denmark and the United Kingdom . CAOC F was deactivated in 2013 and its responsibilities were transferred to CAOC Uedem in Germany. The national Danish Control and Reporting Centre is located at Karup Air Base and it reports to CAOC Uedem. The Pituffik Space Base in Greenland

10379-541: Was deactivated in 2013 and its responsibilities transferred to the CAOC Torrejón in Spain. The Hellenic Air Force fields two HR-3000, four AR-327 and six Marconi S-743D radar systems, however as of 2018 the air force is in the process of replacing some of its older systems with three RAT-31DL radars. The Hungarian Air Force 's Air Operations Centre is located in Veszprém and reports to CAOC Uedem. There are additional three radar companies with Soviet-era equipment subordinate to

10486-456: Was established from the former Allied Command Europe, and given responsibility for all NATO military operations worldwide. However, for legal reasons, SACEUR retained the traditional title including Europe. In the United States, SACLANT was decommissioned and Allied Command Transformation established. The headquarters of ACT is at the former SACLANT headquarters in Norfolk, Virginia , USA. Each has

10593-492: Was immediately granted. During World War II , the Allied leaders appointed Supreme Allied Commanders to manage the multi-nation, multi-discipline fighting forces for a particular theater of war . These Supreme Allied Commanders were given operational control over all air, land, and sea units in that theatre. In other cases, senior commanders were given the title Commander-in-Chief . These Supreme Allied Commanders were drawn from

10700-687: Was marked by a wave of persecutions against the Bulgarian Christians, a total of nine became New Martyrs in Sofia and were sainted by the Orthodox Church, including George the New (1515), Sophronius of Sofia (1515), George the Newest (1530), Nicholas of Sofia (1555) and Terapontius of Sofia (1555). When it comes to the cityscape, 16th century sources mention eight Friday mosques , three public libraries, numerous schools, 12 churches, three synagogues, and

10807-540: Was promoted, from deputy commander of CBI to commander of US Forces, India-Burma Theater (USFIBT) and commander of the NCAC. General of the Army Douglas MacArthur was appointed Supreme Allied Commander, South West Pacific Area (SWPA) on 18 April 1942. However, he preferred to use the title Commander-in-Chief. During the Allied occupation of Japan following the war, MacArthur held the title of Supreme Commander for

10914-448: Was proposed as a capital by Marin Drinov and was accepted as such on 3 April 1879. By the time of its liberation the population of the city was 11,649. Most mosques in Sofia were destroyed in that war, seven of them destroyed in one night in December 1878 when a thunderstorm masked the noise of the explosions arranged by Russian military engineers. Following the war, the great majority of

11021-588: Was reincorporated by the reborn Bulgarian Empire . Sredets became a major administrative, economic, cultural and literary hub until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1382. From 1530 to 1836, Sofia was the regional capital of Rumelia Eyalet , the Ottoman Empire's key province in Europe. Bulgarian rule was restored in 1878. Sofia was selected as the capital of the Third Bulgarian State in the next year, ushering

11128-584: Was seized by the Ottoman Empire in the course of the Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars by Lala Şahin Pasha , following a three-month siege . The Ottoman commander left the following description of the city garrison: "Inside the fortress [Sofia] there is a large and elite army, its soldiers are heavily built, moustached and look war-hardened, but are used to consume wine and rakia —in a word, jolly fellows." From

11235-672: Was succeeded by Field Marshal Harold Alexander , who continued in charge of those Allied forces until the end of the war. Admiral of the Fleet Lord Louis Mountbatten was Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia (SACSEA) throughout most of its existence. He replaced General Archibald Wavell . Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek was named the Supreme Commander of Allied forces in China Theater on 1942. However, US forces in China were usually overseen by General Joseph Stilwell ,

11342-563: Was temporarily moved there. In the second half of 10th century the city was ruled by Komit Nikola and his sons, known as the " Komitopuli ". One of them was Samuil , who was eventually crowned Emperor of Bulgaria in 997. In 986, the Byzantine Emperor Basil II laid siege to Sredets but after 20 days of fruitless assaults the garrison broke out and forced the Byzantines to abandon the campaign. On his way to Constantinople, Basil II

11449-589: Was the largest import-export-base in modern-day Bulgaria for the caravan trade with the Republic of Ragusa . In the 15th and 16th century, Sofia was expanded by Ottoman building activity. Public investments in infrastructure, education and local economy brought greater diversity to the city. Amongst others, the population consisted of Muslims , Bulgarian and Greek speaking Orthodox Christians , Armenians , Georgians , Catholic Ragusans, Jews ( Romaniote , Ashkenazi and Sephardi ), and Romani people . The 16th century

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