124-462: Nätsi-Võlla Nature Reserve is a nature reserve situated in western Estonia , in Pärnu County , made up of several bogs that together form the largest bog area in Pärnu County . It is an internationally important bird area, with species such as golden eagle , merlin and ruff . The bogs are rich in cloudberries and cranberries . The bogs of Nätsi-Võlla host numerous migratory species, such as
248-572: A crusade to "defend the Christians of Livonia ". Fighting reached Estonia in 1206, when Danish King Valdemar II unsuccessfully invaded Saaremaa . The German Livonian Brothers of the Sword , who had previously subjugated Livonians , Latgalians , and Selonians , started campaigning against the Estonians in 1208, and over the next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids. A major leader of
372-833: A Cabinet of Ministers that would organise the restoration of the State of Latvia. An analogous body, the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania , emerged on 25 November 1943. On 23 March 1944, the underground National Committee of the Estonian Republic was founded. Thousands of Estonians not willing to side with the Nazis joined the Finnish Defence Forces to fight against the Soviet Union. The Finnish Infantry Regiment 200
496-476: A brutal crackdown; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia. During World War I , over 100,000 Estonian men were mobilized into the Imperial Russian Army . Of these, approximately 8,000 to 10,000 perished, and one in five suffered injuries. In the turmoil of war, ideas for establishing an Estonian national army began to take root, while the shortages and hardships on
620-698: A campaign of terror, culminating in March 1949 with operation Priboi – the mass deportation of around 20,000 Estonians to the gulag system in Siberia. Full collectivization followed shortly after, marking a new phase of Soviet control over Estonia's economy. Simultaneously, the Soviet Union initiated Russification policies that sought to reshape Estonia's demographics and dilute its cultural identity. Large numbers of ethnic Russians and other Soviet citizens were resettled in Estonia, threatening to turn native Estonians into
744-520: A major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except Tallinn, but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last maakond (county) to surrender. After the crusade, the territory of present-day south Estonia and Latvia was named Terra Mariana ; later on it became known simply as Livonia . Northern Estonia became the Danish Duchy of Estonia , while
868-418: A major split happened in the national movement. The moderate wing led by Hurt focused on development of culture and Estonian education, while the radical wing led by Jakobson started demanding increased political and economical rights. At the end of the 19th century, Russification began, as the central government initiated various administrative and cultural measures to tie Baltic governorates more closely to
992-509: A minority in their own homeland. Between 1945 and 1989, the proportion of ethnic Estonians in the country dropped from 97% to 62%. The Communist Party of Estonia , dominated by ethnic Russians, acted as a mechanism for this demographic shift. Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers. Estonians faced additional hardships, as thousands were forcibly conscripted into Soviet conflicts, including
1116-529: A single parish. By the 13th century, Estonia was divided into eight major counties – Harjumaa , Järvamaa , Läänemaa , Revala , Saaremaa , Sakala , Ugandi , and Virumaa – as well as several smaller, single-parish counties. These counties operated as independent entities and only formed loose alliances for defense against foreign threats. Estonia's culture during this period was split into two primary regions. Northern and western coastal areas maintained close connections with Scandinavia and Finland , while
1240-428: A supreme deity worshiped by the islanders of Saaremaa. Sacred groves , particularly those of oak trees, played a significant role in pagan worship practices. Christianity – both Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy – started to be introduced by foreign traders and missionaries since the 10th and 11th century, but most of the population retained their indigenous beliefs. In 1199, Pope Innocent III declared
1364-580: A telephone communication with Russian President Boris Jelcin and urged to withdraw the army on time. Eventually, the last combat unit of the Russian Armed Forces left the Lithuanian territory 15 minutes before the agreed term (on 31 August 1993 23:45), but small Russian military units had remained that also left in the near months. On 26 November 1993 the Lithuanians had taken over the last object from
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#17330862497391488-522: A trade intermediary between Novgorod and western Hanseatic cities, while Tartu filled the same role with Pskov . Many artisans' and merchants guilds were formed during the period. Protected by their stone walls and membership in the Hansa, prosperous cities like Tallinn and Tartu often defied other rulers of the medieval Livonian Confederation . The Reformation began in central Europe in 1517, and soon spread northward to Livonia despite some opposition by
1612-550: Is one of the least populous members of the European Union and NATO . Estonia has consistently ranked highly in international rankings for quality of life , education , press freedom , digitalisation of public services and the prevalence of technology companies. The name Estonia ( Estonian : Eesti [ˈeˑstʲi] ) has been connected to Aesti , a people first mentioned by Ancient Roman historian Tacitus around 98 CE. Some modern historians believe he
1736-642: Is starkly evident in the archaeological record, with a sharp drop in the number of sites and grave finds, indicating a severe population decline and slow recovery. North Estonian coast was strategically located on the route from the Varangians to the Greeks , making Estonia a trade hub while also being both a target and starting point for many raids. Coastal Estonians, particularly Oeselians from Saaremaa , adopted Viking lifestyle. Several Scandinavian sagas referred to major confrontations with Estonians, notably when in
1860-642: Is the Pulli settlement ; according to radiocarbon dating , it was settled around 11,000 years ago. The earliest human habitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to the Kunda culture . Around 5300 BCE, ceramics appear of the neolithic period, known as Narva culture . This was followed by the Comb Ceramic culture around 3900 BC, bringing early agriculture and sophisticated religious art. Starting from around 2800 BC
1984-451: Is widely recognised as one of the most liberal in the world at that time. The Great Depression put heavy pressure on Estonia's political system, and in 1933, the right-wing Vaps movement spearheaded a constitutional reform establishing a strong presidency. On 12 March 1934 the acting head of state, Konstantin Päts , extended a state of emergency over the entire country, under the pretext that
2108-544: The Letter of 40 intellectuals in 1980, which openly criticized Soviet policies. Most Western nations refused to recognize Estonia's annexation by the Soviet Union, maintaining that it was illegal under international law. Legal continuity of the Estonian state was preserved through the government-in-exile and the Estonian diplomatic representatives which Western governments continued to recognise. This stance drew support from
2232-508: The Corded Ware culture appeared; this included new activities like primitive farming and animal husbandry. The Comb Ceramic and Corded Ware cultures coexisted in Estonia for a millennium, before eventually blending into a Bronze Age Estonian culture. Archaeological estimates place the population within Estonian territory at a modest level, with approximately 6,000 inhabitants in 3900 BC, rising to around 10,000 by 2000 BC. The Bronze Age saw
2356-699: The Courland Pocket where they held out until the final German surrender at the end of the war. The day is not far off when we will completely liberate the Ukraine , and the White Russia , Leningrad and Kalinin regions from the enemy; when we will liberate … the people of the Crimea and Lithuania , Latvia , Estonia , Moldavia and Karelo-Finnish Republic . — Joseph Stalin in a public speech broadcast in Moscow during
2480-525: The Estonian Constituent Assembly was elected. The Constituent Assembly passed a sweeping land reform expropriating large estates, and adopted a new highly liberal constitution establishing Estonia as a parliamentary democracy. In 1924, the Soviet Union organised a communist coup attempt , which quickly failed. Estonia's cultural-autonomy law for ethnic minorities, adopted in 1925,
2604-591: The Estonian War of Independence . The Red Army came within 30 km of Tallinn, but in January 1919, the Estonian Army , led by Johan Laidoner , went on a counter-offensive, ejecting Bolshevik forces from Estonia within a few weeks. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in the spring of 1919, the Estonian army, in co-operation with White Russian forces, advanced into Russia and Latvia . In June 1919, Estonia defeated
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#17330862497392728-612: The European Union (green) – [ Legend ] Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe . It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland , to the west by the sea across from Sweden , to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia . The territory of Estonia consists of
2852-514: The Forest Brothers . By mid-July, the Forest Brothers' uprising succeeded in liberating South Estonia ahead of the advancing German army, allowing local institutions of the pre-war Republic of Estonia to resume operation. The USSR fully evacuated Tallinn by late August, suffering massive losses in the process. A puppet Estonian Self-Administration was established, and occupied Estonia
2976-694: The German Landeswehr which had attempted to dominate Latvia, restoring power to the government of Kārlis Ulmanis there. After the collapse of the White Russian forces, the Red Army launched a major offensive against Narva in late 1919, but failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 2 February 1920, the Tartu Peace Treaty was signed by Estonia and Soviet Russia, with the latter pledging to permanently give up all sovereign claims to Estonia. In April 1919,
3100-647: The Iron Curtain . In the late 1970s, Moscow's ideological pressure intensified with a new wave of Russian immigration, and Karl Vaino , an official from Moscow who barely spoke Estonian, was appointed head of the Communist Party of Estonia . Estonian dissidents, responding to this escalating Russification, grew increasingly vocal, with notable protests such as the Baltic Appeal to the United Nations in 1979, and
3224-581: The Learned Estonian Society and other scientific societies, supported Estonian-language education and founded the first newspapers in the Estonian language. They also began to value and collect the Estonian folklore , including surviving pre-Christian myths and traditions. Another sign of a rising Estonian national consciousness was a mass movement in South Estonia to convert to Eastern Orthodoxy in
3348-616: The National Committee of the Republic of Estonia . The Estonian Forest Brothers (established in 1941) initially maintained a low profile during the Soviet reoccupation. The 1945 VE Day did not bring a restoration of independence to Estonia, and the Forest Brothers then renewed their campaign of killing Soviet senior armed forces and NKVD officers. In Latvia, NKVD units were the main anti-partisan force fighting against 10,000 active members of
3472-670: The Novgorod Slavs who migrated to the area, expanding westward. Kievan Rus attempted to subjugate Estonia in the 11th century, with Yaroslav the Wise capturing Tartu around 1030. This foothold lasted until 1061 when an Estonian tribe, the Sosols, destroyed it. In 1187, Estonians, Curonians and Karelians sacked Sigtuna , which was a major city of Sweden at the time. In the early centuries AD, Estonia's first political and administrative subdivisions began to take shape. The primary units were
3596-686: The Second Battle of Kiev , November 1943 By 2 February 1944 the siege of Leningrad was over and the Soviet troops were on the border with Estonia. Having failed to break through , the Soviets launched the Tartu Offensive on 10 August, and the Baltic Offensive on 14 September with forces totalling 1.5 million. The High Command of the German Army issued Operation Aster on 16 September, whereby
3720-558: The Soviet–Afghan War and the Chernobyl disaster cleanup. The Soviet regime seized all industry and centralized agriculture, emphasizing heavy industrial development that often neglected local well-being and caused significant environmental damage. The military presence was pervasive, with closed military zones occupying 2% of the country, while entry into coastal areas required special permits, rendering Estonia partially isolated from
3844-522: The Stimson Doctrine , which denied recognition of territorial changes enacted through force, and appeared on USA-made maps, which carried disclaimers affirming non-recognition of the 1940 Soviet annexation. In 1980, Tallinn hosted the sailing events for the Moscow Olympics , an occasion that triggered international boycotts in protest of both the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the occupation of
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3968-513: The Wielbark culture and Dollkeim-Kovrovo cultures. Historical sources identify these people as Goths and Aesti . There is some speculation that the name Estonia may have originated from the Aesti tribes. In the 4th century, Gothic ruler Ermanaric claimed to have subjugated the territories corresponding to Estonia, but there is no archaeological evidence to support this. The Late Antique Little Ice Age
4092-472: The interwar period , Estonia declared neutrality at the outbreak of World War II , however the country was repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied ; first by the Soviet Union in 1940 , then Nazi Germany in 1941, and ultimately reoccupied in 1944 by, and annexed into, the USSR as an administrative subunit ( Estonian SSR ). Throughout the 1944–91 Soviet occupation, Estonia's de jure state continuity
4216-604: The mainland , the larger islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa , and over 2,300 other islands and islets on the east coast of the Baltic Sea, covering a total area of 45,335 square kilometres (17,504 sq mi). Tallinn , the capital city , and Tartu are the two largest urban areas . The Estonian language is the official language and the first language of the majority of the population of 1.4 million. Present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BCE. The medieval indigenous population of Estonia
4340-811: The self-determination principle of the Atlantic Charter, but that it should be kept in mind that the Baltic states had been part of the Russian Empire before 1918. On 11 March 1990, the Supreme Council – Reconstituent Seimas adopted Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania , however the withdrawal of the Russian Armed Forces from Lithuania began in 1992 and according to an agreement had to be completed until 1 September 1993. Nevertheless,
4464-837: The tundra swan ( Cygnus columbianus ). It also sees an annual congregation of numerous wader species. The bogs are also home to a significant percentage of the total national breeding population of such species as common crane ( Grus grus ) and black-tailed godwit ( Limosa limosa ). Other birds found here are whooper swan ( Cygnus cygnus ), Montagu's harrier ( Circus pygargus ), Eurasian golden plover ( Pluvialis apricaria ) and Eurasian eagle-owl ( Bubo bubo ) The reserve comprises broadleaf deciduous woodland, mixed woodland, and native coniferous forests. There are also extensive wetlands system consisting of fens, transition mires and springs, raised bogs and standing freshwater. Estonia – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in
4588-460: The " Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty ", allowing the USSR to establish military bases in Estonia. On 14 June 1940 the Soviet Union instituted a full naval and air blockade on Estonia, shooting down the airliner Kaleva . On 16 June, the USSR presented another ultimatum demanding free passage of the Red Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance
4712-478: The 1530s onward the regular religious services were held in Estonian. Early Estonian-language Protestant texts emerged, including Wanradt–Koell Catechism in 1535. During the 16th century, the expansionist monarchies of Muscovy , Sweden, and Poland–Lithuania consolidated power, posing a growing threat to decentralised Livonia weakened by disputes between cities, nobility, bishops, and the Order. In 1558, Tsar Ivan
4836-432: The 1840s, following a famine and a promise for being rewarded with land. By the 1850s, several leading figures were promoting an Estonian national identity among the general populace. Widespread farm buyouts by Estonians and the resulting rapidly growing class of land-owning farmers provided the economic basis for the political affirmation of the Estonian identity. In 1857, Johann Voldemar Jannsen started publishing one of
4960-581: The 1860s, such as a campaign to establish the Estonian language Alexander School, the founding of the Society of Estonian Literati and the Estonian Students' Society , and the first national song festival , held in 1869 in Tartu. Linguistic reforms helped to develop the Estonian language. The national epic Kalevipoeg was published in 1857, and 1870 saw the first performances of Estonian theatre . In 1878
5084-573: The 20th century and the indigenous Setos were converted to Eastern Orthodoxy . Initially, the Estonian nobles who accepted baptism were able to retain their power and influence by becoming vassals of the Danish king or the church; they intermarried with newcomer Crusader familiers and over the centuries become Germanised , leading to the ethnogenesis of the Baltic Germans . The Estonian pagans rose several times against foreign Christian rule. During
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5208-496: The Baltic states to secure Soviet cooperation in the war. The British ambassador to the U.S., Halifax , reported, "Mr. Eden cannot incur the danger of antagonizing Stalin, and the British War Cabinet have... agree[d] to negotiate a treaty with Stalin, which will recognize the 1940 frontiers of the Soviet Union." In March, 1942, Churchill wrote to Roosevelt urging the sacrifice of the Baltic states: "The increasing gravity of
5332-527: The Baltic states. Though the Olympics brought economic investments to Tallinn, many Estonian exiles and Western nations condemned the events held on occupied soil. The introduction of perestroika by the Soviet government in 1987 reopened the possibility for political activism in Estonia, sparking the Singing Revolution , a peaceful movement towards independence. One of the first major acts of resistance
5456-710: The Estonian SSR to the Russian SFSR . Following the renewed Soviet occupation of Estonia, thousands of Estonians once again joined the Forest Brothers to resist Soviet rule. This armed resistance was particularly intense in the immediate post-war years, but Soviet forces eventually wore it down through relentless attrition tactics, bringing an end to organized armed resistance by the 1960s. The Soviet regime also intensified its policy of collectivisation , forcing Estonian farmers to abandon private agriculture and join state-run collectives. When locals resisted, authorities launched
5580-648: The Estonian borders again in early 1944, heightening fears of renewed Soviet occupation. The Estonian Self-Administration, with the support of major pre-war political parties and acting president Jüri Uluots , declared a general mobilization, drafting 38,000 men into the Waffen-SS . With significant support from Estonian units, German forces managed to halt the Soviet advance for six months in fierce battles near Narva . The Soviet Air Force launched extensive bombing raids on Tallinn and other Estonian cities, resulting in severe damage and loss of life. From July to September,
5704-575: The Estonian forces would cover the German withdrawal. Soon after the Soviet reoccupation of the Estonian capital Tallinn , the first mission of the NKVD was to stop anyone escaping from the country. However, many refugees escaped to Sweden or Finland , particularly the Estonian Swedes , who had lived in coastal Estonia since the days of Danish and Swedish Estonia . The NKVD also targeted members of
5828-425: The Estonian public education system appeared in the 1680s, largely due to efforts of Bengt Forselius , who also introduced orthographical reforms to written Estonian. The population of Estonia grew rapidly until the Great Famine of 1695–97 in which 70,000–75,000 people died – about 20% of the population. During the Great Northern War , Peter the Great of Russia launched another invasion of Estonia in 1700. By
5952-422: The Estonian resistance was Lembitu , an elder of Sakala County , but in 1217 the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the Battle of St. Matthew's Day , where Lembitu was killed. In 1219, Valdemar II landed at Lindanise , defeated the Estonians in the Battle of Lyndanisse , and started conquering Northern Estonia. The next year, Sweden invaded Western Estonia, but were repelled by the Oeselians. In 1223,
6076-465: The European Left tended to support the official Soviet view on the Baltic states, regarding them as "naturally" belonging to the Soviet Union to safeguard its "legitimate" security interests. The Germans' defeat in 1945 left Eastern Europe within the Soviet sphere of influence. However, despite territorial losses and a heavy reparations burden in the Continuation War , Finland survived as a neutral, western-oriented capitalist democracy and did not share
6200-425: The French under Charles de Gaulle or the Polish under Władysław Sikorski , and their geographic location made communication to the West of circumstances there difficult. The leaders of Great Britain and the United States had little interest in the Baltic cause, particularly while the war against Nazi Germany remained undecided and secretly regarded them as disposable in order to secure Stalin's cooperation. Members of
6324-507: The Germans once again. It was hoped that by engaging in such a war the Baltic countries would be able to attract Western support for the cause of independence from the USSR. In Latvia an pro-independence resistance movement called the Latvian Central Council was formed on 13 August 1943 by members of the four biggest Latvian political parties. These men survived the Soviet terror of the Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940 , still called "The Horrible Year" (Latvian: Baigais Gads ) as it saw
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#17330862497396448-425: The Livonian Constitutions re-established Livonia as a Catholic bishopric, marking a turning point in religious influence in the region. Jesuit influence flourished, establishing institutions such as the Collegium Derpatense in Tartu, where Estonian-language catechisms were published to support local missions. Despite the Jesuits' efforts, including extensive publishing and education initiatives, their presence in Tartu
6572-399: The Livonian Order. Protestant preaching began actively in Tallinn in 1524, leading the town council to align with the Reformation by the following year. Similar events unfolded in Tartu, where tensions arose with Catholic Bishop Johann Blankenfeld, resulting in iconoclastic riots that damaged Catholic churches and monasteries in both cities. By the late 1520s, most Estonian towns had embraced
6696-449: The Nazi and Soviet occupation of Latvia during 1940–1991. One month before the occupation, On May 17th 1940, the Cabinet of Ministers of Latvia granted extraordinary powers to Kārlis Zariņš , the Ambassador of Latvia to the United Kingdom . This authorized Mr. Zariņš to supervise the work of Latvia's representations abroad and handle their finances and property. As a result Latvian diplomats who were stationed in embassies and consulates at
6820-411: The North Eastern border prevented a swift Soviet breakthrough into Estonia, which gave the underground Estonian National Committee enough time for an attempt to re-establish Estonian independence . On 1 August 1944, the Estonian National Committee pronounced itself Estonia’s highest authority, and on 18 September 1944, acting Head of State Jüri Uluots appointed a new government led by Otto Tief . Over
6944-399: The Reformation, although Catholic influence remained stronger in Viljandi, Haapsalu , and Vana-Pärnu. Unlike the cities, rural areas were slower to adopt Protestantism, with Catholic influence persisting among local nobility and peasants well into the 1530s. With the Reformation, church services began to be conducted in vernacular language, which initially meant Low German , but already from
7068-424: The Restoration of the Republic of Latvia [ lv ] . The adoption of the Declaration was an attempt to restore de facto independence of the Republic of Latvia, in hopes of international support and by taking advantage of the interval between changes of occupying powers. The Declaration prescribed that the Satversme is the fundamental law of the restored Republic of Latvia, and provided for establishment of
7192-458: The Russian central government to align Estonian governance with broader imperial standards, the autonomy of the Baltic provinces generally remained intact, as the tsarist regime sought to avoid conflicts with the local nobility. From 1783 to 1796, the administrative structure shifted temporarily under Empress Catherine II 's "Governorate System," aiming to centralize governance and bring the Baltic regions closer to imperial norms; however, this system
7316-472: The Russians they could take over and control Romania, Bulgaria, Bukovina, Eastern Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, and Finland. The future was sealed when on 9 October 1944, Churchill met with Stalin in Moscow and penciled out the post-war partition of Europe. Churchill recounts: "At length I said, 'Might it not be thought rather cynical if it seemed that we had disposed of these issues, so fateful to millions of people, in such an offhand manner? Let us burn
7440-424: The Soviet Union in 1932, and with Germany in 1939. In 1939, Estonia declared neutrality, but this proved futile in World War II . A week before the outbreak of World War II , the secret protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact assigned Estonia to the Soviet Union 's sphere of influence. During the invasion of Poland , Joseph Stalin presented Estonia with an ultimatum, and the Estonian government signed
7564-437: The Soviet Union on 22 June, the Summer War began in Estonia. The Soviet authorities forcibly conscripted around 34,000 young Estonian men; fewer than 30% would survive the war. Soviet extermination battalions adopted a scorched-earth policy , massacring many civilians in the process, and NKVD units executed political prisoners who could not be evacuated. Thousands of Estonians joined anti-Soviet partisan groups known as
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#17330862497397688-444: The Soviet forces launched several major offensives , compelling German troops to withdraw. During the German retreat, Jüri Uluots appointed a government led by Otto Tief in a final effort to restore independence. The government took control in Tallinn and parts of western Estonia, but failed to stop the Soviet offensive, which captured Tallinn on 22 September and the rest of mainland Estonia shortly after. In November and December,
7812-427: The Soviets conscripted 82,000 Lithuanians. There were efforts to restore independence during the German occupation. In 1941, the Lithuanians had overthrown Soviet rule two days before the Germans arrived in Kaunas. The Germans allowed the Provisional Government to function for over a month. Towards the end of the war, once it became clear that Germany would be defeated, many Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians joined
7936-450: The Terrible of Russia (Muscovy) invaded Livonia, starting the Livonian War . The Livonian Order was decisively defeated in 1560. The majority of Livonia accepted Polish–Lithuanian rule, while Tallinn and the nobles of northern Estonia swore loyalty to the Swedish king, and the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek sold his lands to the Danish king. Tsar Ivan's forces were at first able to conquer the larger part of Livonia. Epidemics of plague swept through
8060-451: The Vaps movement had been planning a coup. Päts went on to rule by decree for several years, while the parliament did not reconvene (" era of silence "). A new constitution was adopted in a 1937 referendum, and in 1938 a new bicameral parliament was elected in a popular vote, where both pro-government and opposition candidates participated. The Päts régime was relatively benign compared to other authoritarian régimes in interwar Europe, and
8184-407: The West. Estonia joined the League of Nations in 1921. Attempts to establish a larger alliance together with Finland , Poland , and Latvia failed, with only a mutual-defence pact being signed with Latvia in 1923, and later was followed up with the Baltic Entente of 1934. In the 1930s, Estonia also engaged in secret military co-operation with Finland . Non-aggression pacts were signed with
8308-399: The Western Allies with regard to the Baltic states following World War II was summarized by Hector McNeil , the Under-Secretary of the Foreign Affairs (1945-1946), before the House of Commons on 10 February 1947. McNeil stated that the British government recognized the absorption of the Baltic States into the Soviet Union de facto but not de jure . He also agreed that the annexation violated
8432-408: The commercial district of Tallinn and in a number of wealthy landowners' manors in the Estonian countryside. The flag of Estonia , adopted by the Estonian Students' Society since 1881, was prominently featured during these demonstrations. In December 1905, the first attempt to declare Estonia an independent country took place in the village of Vaali, Järvamaa . The Tsarist government responded with
8556-512: The committee declared Estonia's independence , forming the Estonian Provisional Government . Shortly thereafter, German occupation commenced, accompanied by an attempt to create the United Baltic Duchy , which aimed to establish a client state of the German Empire in the region. However, following Germany's defeat in World War I, the Germans were compelled to transfer power back to the Estonian Provisional Government on 19 November 1918. On 28 November 1918, Soviet Russia invaded , starting
8680-459: The continuity of the Estonian state and prepare the foundation for a restoration based on legal principles. In 1988, new political movements emerged, including the Popular Front of Estonia , representing a moderate faction within the independence movement, and the Estonian National Independence Party , which became the first non-communist political party legally registered in the Soviet Union. The parliament of Soviet-controlled Estonia asserted
8804-441: The continuity of the Estonian state forward until 1992, when Heinrich Mark , the last prime minister in the role of Head of State, handed his credentials over to the incoming President Lennart Meri . The Lithuanian Diplomatic Service continued, based in their pre-war embassies in the U.S. and UK. The Latvian diplomatic service in exile was the only governmental body of the Republic of Latvia which continued its activities during
8928-517: The decades following initial Christianization, there were several uprisings against the Teutonic rulers in Saaremaa. In 1343, a major uprising encompassed North Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order suppressed the rebellion by 1345, and in 1346 the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the upper-class German minority. For
9052-563: The defeat of Germany, which by that time was widely expected. The memorandum was drawn up in several original copies and photographically reproduced with the aim of taking it out of Latvia and getting it into the hands of the governments of the Western allies and the German occupation government. On 8 September 1944 in Riga , the leadership of the Latvian Central Council adopted Declaration on
9176-466: The dominant faith. Estonia was divided into two governorates : the Governorate of Estonia , which included Tallinn and the northern part of Estonia, and the southern Governorate of Livonia , which extended to the northern part of Latvia. The rights of local farmers reached their lowest point, as serfdom completely dominated agricultural relations during the 18th century. Despite occasional attempts by
9300-758: The early 7th century "Estonian Vikings" defeated and killed Ingvar Harra , the King of Swedes . The Salme ship burials dating from mid-8th century have been suggested as a possible starting point for the Viking Age in Europe. In the East Slavic sources, Estonians and other closely related Finnic tribes were known as Chuds . In 862, Chuds participated in the founding of the Rurik dynasty in Novgorod , gradually losing their influence to
9424-492: The empire. The Russian language replaced German and Estonian in most secondary schools and universities, and many social and cultural activities in local languages were suppressed. In the late 1890s, there was a new surge of nationalism with the rise of prominent figures like Jaan Tõnisson and Konstantin Päts . In the early 20th century, Estonians started taking over control of local governments in towns from Germans. Nationalist poets such as Juhan Liiv began openly calling for
9548-539: The era, though diverse in origin and political stance, depicted Ivan and his armies as barbaric and tyrannical, emphasizing the suffering of local populations under Muscovite occupation. These accounts helped to shape European perceptions of the conflict, solidifying Ivan's reputation as a brutal oppressor. This did not stop Magnus, Duke of Holstein from playing a controversial role marked by shifting allegiances and aspirations for power. On June 10, 1570, he arrived in Moscow and
9672-404: The establishment of an independent Estonian state. During the 1905 Revolution , the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification. The unrest was accompanied by both peaceful political demonstrations and violent riots with looting in
9796-527: The establishment of the first hill fort settlements. The Seima-Turbino phenomenon brought the first bronze artefacts to the region and is often connected to the development of the Finno-Ugric languages . A transition from hunter-fisher subsistence to single-farm-based settlement started around 1000 BC, and was complete by the beginning of the Iron Age around 500 BC. The large amount of bronze objects indicate
9920-610: The existence of active communication with Scandinavian and Germanic tribes. By the end of the Bronze Age, domestic manufacture of bronze artefacts began. In the Iron Age , population grew. Local production of iron started approximately in 200 BC. During the first centuries CE, North Estonia, particularly the coastal region of Virumaa , emerged as a cultural hub. This period saw an influx of North Estonian settlers into sparsely populated Baltic Sea region. This cultural and linguistic expansion originating from North Estonia gave also rise to
10044-632: The fate of the Baltic states. Despite this apparent freedom, the Finns still had to take into consideration Soviet foreign policy interests including specific accommodations in their domestic affairs, with critics calling the process " Finlandisation ". The precedent under international law established by the earlier-adopted Stimson Doctrine , as applied to the Baltic states in the Welles Declaration , issued on 23 July 1940 by US Under Secretary of State Sumner Welles , then acting Secretary of State , and
10168-418: The first successful circulating Estonian-language weekly newspapers, Perno Postimees , and began popularising the denomination of oneself as eestlane (Estonian). Schoolmaster Carl Robert Jakobson and clergyman Jakob Hurt became leading figures in a nationalist movement , encouraging Estonian farmers to take pride in their language and ethnic Estonian identity. The first nationwide movements formed in
10292-455: The first waves of Soviet deportations from the country . On March 17, 1944, 189 Latvian political leaders and public figures signed the Memorandum of the Latvian Central Council, which declared the urgent need to restore the de facto sovereignty of the Republic of Latvia and create a Latvian government. The memorandum was a call to resist the reoccupation of Latvia by the Soviet Union following
10416-687: The home front led to civil unrest. Despite repeated appeals and promises, the Russian imperial government resisted expanding Estonian political rights. In 1917, following the February Revolution , the Russian Provisional Government finally conceded to Estonian demands. Estonia was granted autonomy , and the Estonian Provincial Assembly was formed through democratic elections. In addition, the territory of autonomous Estonia
10540-580: The hope that in ten or twenty years they will be able to live well with the Russians." Meeting with Stalin in Tehran on 1 December 1943, Roosevelt "said that he fully realized the three Baltic Republics had in history and again more recently been part of Russia and jokingly added, that when the Soviet armies re-occupied these areas, he did not intend to go to war with the Soviet Union on this point." A month later, Roosevelt related to Otto von Habsburg that he had told
10664-653: The inland south had stronger ties to the Balts and the principality of Pskov . The Estonian landscape was dotted with numerous hill forts, and evidence of ancient harbor sites has been found along the coast of Saaremaa. During the Viking Age, Estonia was a region of active trade, with exports such as iron, furs, and honey. Imports included fine goods like silk, jewelry, glass, and Ulfberht swords . Estonian burial sites from this era often contain both individual and collective graves, with artifacts such as weapons and jewelry that reflect
10788-538: The last German troops on Estonian islands were evacuated to the Courland Pocket , leaving Estonia under Soviet occupation. Facing a second Soviet occupation, tens of thousands of Estonians fled westward. Overall, Estonia lost about 25% of its population through deaths, deportations and evacuations in World War II. Estonia also suffered some irrevocable territorial losses, as the Soviet Union transferred border areas comprising about 5% of Estonian pre-war territory from
10912-447: The mobilisation. The call drew support from across the country: 38,000 conscripts jammed registration centers. Two thousand Finland Boys returned. In 1943 and 1944, two divisions of Waffen SS were formed from Latvians, predominantly conscripts, to fight against the Red Army . The battles of Narva were perceived by Estonian people as the fight for their country, a consolation for the humiliation of 1940. The lengthy German defense on
11036-445: The moment of the occupation in 1940, refused to recognize the occupation and return to Soviet Latvia. They continued to formally represent the interests of Latvia in countries that did not recognize the Soviet annexation. After the restoration of Latvian independence in 1991, the diplomats started reporting to the restored Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The Baltic states did not have governments in exile as effective as those of
11160-411: The neighboring Finnish language and continued until the early 2nd millennium AD when the encroachment of Baltic and Slavic tribes limited the reach of Finnic cultures. Commercial contacts in the Baltic Sea region grew and extended. During this period, North Estonia developed increasingly robust connections with the southern and southeastern Baltic Sea regions, particularly with tribes associated with
11284-620: The offensive and the war ended in 1583 with Russian defeat. As a result of the Livonian War, northern Estonia became Swedish Duchy of Estonia and southern Estonia became Polish Duchy of Livonia . Saaremaa remained under Danish control while Ruhnu was part of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia . During Polish rule in South Estonia, efforts were made to restore Catholicism, yet this was distinct from traditional Counter-Reformation actions, as Poland–Lithuania fostered religious tolerance. In 1582,
11408-523: The only public statement of policy by the US, defined the basis for non-recognition by the United States of the Soviet Union's forcible incorporation of the Baltic states. Despite Welles's statement, the Baltic states soon reprised their centuries-long role as pawns in the conflicts of larger powers. After visiting Moscow in the winter of 1941–1942, British Foreign Minister Eden had already advocated sacrificing
11532-505: The outside world. Although occupied Estonia had one of the highest standards of living in the Soviet Union, it lagged far behind its neighbor Finland in economic development and quality of life. Soviet security forces in Estonia enjoyed vast powers to suppress dissent, yet underground resistance endured. Despite heavy censorship, many Estonians bypassed restrictions by covertly listening to Voice of America broadcasts and watching Finnish television , offering rare glimpses into life beyond
11656-431: The paper.' — 'No, you keep it,' said Stalin." The February 1945 Yalta Conference , widely regarded as determining the future of Europe, invoked the Atlantic Charter and the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; however, it did not directly address the issue of the Baltic states, paving the path to unopposed Soviet hegemony over post-war Eastern Europe. The attitude taken by
11780-443: The parish (Estonian: kihelkond ) and the county (Estonian: maakond ), the latter composed of multiple parishes. Each parish was typically governed by local nobles referred to as kings (Estonian: kuningas ). Ancient Estonia had a professional warrior caste while the nobles' wealth and prestige was based on international trade. The parishes were commonly centered around hill forts, though occasionally multiple forts existed within
11904-431: The population of Estonia from about 250–270,000 people in the mid 16th century to 115–120,000 in the 1630s. The Swedish era in Estonia was complex, marked by both cultural repression and significant reforms. Initially, Swedish rule brought Protestant puritans who opposed traditional Estonian beliefs and practices, leading to witch trials , bans on folk music, and the burning of traditional costumes. While large parts of
12028-553: The pre-war republic. This led to the formation of the Congress of Estonia , a grassroots parliament dedicated to achieving independence through legal continuity and sovereignty. In March 1991, a referendum was held where 78.4% of voters (including Soviet citizens) supported full independence. During the coup attempt in Moscow , Estonia declared restoration of independence on 20 August 1991. Soviet authorities recognised Estonian independence on 6 September 1991, and on 17 September Estonia
12152-652: The primacy of Estonian laws with the Sovereignty Declaration on 16 November 1988, inspiring similar declarations across other Soviet republics . On 23 August 1989, approximately two million people formed the Baltic Way , a human chain spanning Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, to demonstrate unity in pursuit of independence. In 1989, the Estonian Citizens' Committees began registering citizens according to jus sanguinis – those whose citizenship traced back to
12276-663: The radio, in English, the Estonian government declared its neutrality in the war. The government issued two editions of the State Gazette . On 21 September, nationalist forces seized the government buildings in Tallinn and ordered the German forces to leave. The Estonian flag was raised to the permanent flag mast on the tallest tower of Tallinn only to be removed by the Soviets four days later. The Estonian Government in Exile served to carry
12400-590: The resistance forces. The Soviets signed separate ceasefire agreements with the different resistance forces, which did not become active until after the end of the war; the agreement in Lithuania differed from those in Estonia and Latvia. The Soviets introduced conscription immediately after their occupation of Vilnius in July 1944. Only 14 percent of those eligible responded to the summons. The Soviets tracked down draft evaders and killed over 400 people . During 1944 and 1945
12524-900: The rest was divided between the Sword Brothers and prince-bishoprics of Dorpat and Ösel–Wiek . In 1236, after suffering a major defeat , the Sword Brothers merged into the Teutonic Order becoming the Livonian Order . The eastern border with the Novgorod Republic was fixed after the Battle on the Ice took place on Lake Peipus in 1242, where the combined armies of the Livonian Order and Estonian infantry were defeated by Novgorod. The southeastern region of Setomaa remained under Russian rule until
12648-543: The rural population remained in serfdom during the Swedish rule, legal reforms under King Charles XI strengthened both serfs' and free tenant farmers' land usage and inheritance rights – hence this period got the reputation of "The Good Old Swedish Time" in historical memory. Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus established gymnasiums in Tallinn and Tartu; the latter was upgraded to Tartu University in 1632. Printing presses were also established in both towns. The beginnings of
12772-428: The régime never used violence against political opponents. In spite of political complications, Estonia enjoyed rapid economic growth during the interwar period. Land reforms improved the farmers' conditions, but the country also prospered from industrialisation and the development of oil shale mining. With the independence, most economic links with Russia were severed, but trade was rapidly reoriented towards markets in
12896-539: The shared material culture of Scandinavia and Northern Europe. The spiritual and religious beliefs of medieval Estonians before their Christianization remain a topic of historical interest and debate. Estonian spirituality was deeply rooted in animistic traditions, with shamans ( nõid ) and fortunetellers known abroad, as noted by sources like Adam of Bremen and the Novgorod First Chronicle . The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as
13020-499: The subsequent centuries Low German remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside. Tallinn , the capital of Danish Estonia founded on the site of Lindanise, adopted the Lübeck law and received full town rights in 1248. The Hanseatic League controlled trade on the Baltic Sea, and overall the four largest cities in Estonia became members: Tallinn, Tartu , Pärnu , and Viljandi . Tallinn acted as
13144-560: The territory, compounding the destruction. Estonian peasants, growing increasingly resentful of local authorities' failure to protect them from Russian raids, erupted in uprisings in 1560, besieging Koluvere Castle in Läänemaa . The rebellion saw Estonians briefly elect their own king before it was ultimately suppressed. Reports of Russian atrocities against Livonians, led by Ivan the Terrible and his forces, spread widely in Europe. Chroniclers of
13268-489: The time of the Great Northern War, many Estonians were loyal to the Swedish crown, with up to 20,000 fighting to defend Estonia against Russian invasion. Stories of the Swedish king Charles XII , who was revered in Estonian folk memory, embody a sentiment that distinguished the Swedish era from the harsher Russian rule that followed. Despite the initial Swedish success in the victorious Battle of Narva , Russia conquered
13392-529: The university in Tartu in 1802 gave opportunities for higher education to both Baltic German and a growing number of Estonian students. Among the latter were first public proponents of Estonian nationalism , such as young poet Kristjan Jaak Peterson . At the same time, the nationalist ideas of Johann Gottfried Herder greatly influenced the Baltic German intelligentsia to see the value in the native Estonian culture. The resulting Estophile movement gave rise to
13516-625: The war has led me to feel that the principles of the Atlantic Charter ought not to be construed so as to deny Russia the frontiers she occupied when Germany attacked here. ... I hope therefore that you will be able to give us a free hand to sign the treaty which Stalin desires as soon as possible." By 1943 Roosevelt had also consigned the Baltic states and Eastern Europe to Stalin. Meeting with his confidante, Archbishop (later, Cardinal) Spellman in New York on 3 September, Roosevelt stated, "The European people will simply have to endure Russian domination, in
13640-530: The wars stretched on until 1629, concluding with Sweden gaining Livonia , including Southern Estonia and Northern Latvia, altering the power balance in the Baltic region. In addition, Danish Saaremaa was transferred to Sweden in 1645. During the Russo-Swedish War , Russia in 1656 captured eastern parts of Estonia, including Tartu, holding it until the Treaty of Cardis was concluded in 1661. The wars had halved
13764-551: The whole of Estonia by the end of 1710. The war again devastated the population of Estonia, with the 1712 population estimated at only 150,000–170,000. Under the terms of the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia , the country was incorporated into the Russian Empire under the "Baltic Special Order" ( Balti erikord ). This policy restored the political and landholding rights of the local aristocracy , and recognized Lutheranism as
13888-464: The withdrawal process was not always performed according to the agreed plans and even on 19 August 1993 the Ministry of National Defence of Lithuania had received notice from the Ministry of Defence of Russia that the withdrawal procedure has been stopped because there allegedly was no signed political agreement regarding it. In the morning of 30 August 1993, Lithuanian President Algirdas Brazauskas had
14012-420: Was preserved by diplomatic representatives and the government-in-exile . Following the 1988–90 bloodless Estonian " Singing Revolution " against Soviet rule, the nation's full independence was restored on 20 August 1991 . Estonia is a developed country with a high-income advanced economy . It is a democratic unitary parliamentary republic , administratively subdivided into 15 maakond (counties) . It
14136-468: Was admitted into the United Nations . The last units of the Russian Army left Estonia in 1994. Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944) The Soviet Union (USSR) occupied most of the territory of the Baltic states in its 1944 Baltic Offensive during World War II . The Red Army regained control over the three Baltic capitals and encircled retreating Wehrmacht and Latvian forces in
14260-521: Was crowned King of Livonia by Ivan, pledging allegiance to the Russian Tsar as his overlord. Põltsamaa became the capital of his short-lived Kingdom of Livonia . Ivan and Magnus twice laid a brutal siege on Tallinn, however failing to capture it. An Estonian peasant army led by Ivo Schenkenberg was wreaking havoc in Russian rear. By the 1580s, the Polish–Lithuanian and Swedish armies had gone on
14384-432: Was cut short by Swedish conquest in the early 17th century. The Polish–Swedish War , which began in 1600, unleashed years of further devastation across Estonia. The Battle of Weissenstein ( Paide ) in 1604 marked a critical turning point, where Lithuanian hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz led a smaller Polish-Lithuanian force of 2,300 to a decisive victory against a Swedish army of 6,000. Despite this victory and others,
14508-820: Was expanded to include the Estonian-speaking areas of Livonia. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Estonia, declaring the Provincial Assembly disbanded. In response, the Assembly established the Estonian Salvation Committee , which played a crucial role during the brief period between the Bolshevik retreat and the arrival of German forces . On 23 February 1918 in Pärnu and on 24 February in Tallinn,
14632-497: Was formed out of the volunteers known colloquially as the "Finnish Boys" (Estonian: soomepoisid ). On 2 February 1944, the front reached the former Estonian border, starting the battle of Narva . The city was evacuated. Jüri Uluots , the last legitimate prime minister and the head of the National Committee of the Republic of Estonia delivered a radio address that implored all able-bodied men born from 1904 through 1923 to report for military service. Prior to this, Uluots had opposed
14756-665: Was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and the whole country was occupied. The Independent Signal Battalion was the only unit of the Estonian Army to offer armed resistance. On 6 August 1940, Estonia was formally annexed by the Soviet Union as the Estonian SSR . The USSR established a repressive wartime regime in occupied Estonia, targeting the country's elite for arrest. Soviet repression escalated on 14 June 1941, when approximately 11,000 Estonians were deported to Russia . When Germany launched Operation Barbarossa against
14880-550: Was merged into Reichskommissariat Ostland . About a thousand Estonian Jews were killed in 1941 and numerous forced labour camps were established. German occupation authorities started recruiting men into volunteer units and limited conscription was instituted in 1943, eventually leading to formation of the Estonian Waffen-SS division . Thousands of Estonians escaped to Finland, where many volunteered to fight together with Finns against Soviets . The Red Army reached
15004-531: Was one of the last pagan civilisations in Europe to adopt Christianity following the Northern Crusades in the 13th century. After centuries of successive rule by the Teutonic Order , Denmark , Sweden , and the Russian Empire , a distinct Estonian national identity began to reemerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 1918 Estonian Declaration of Independence from the then-warring Russian and German empires. Democratic throughout most of
15128-451: Was referring to Balts , while others have proposed that the name then applied to the whole eastern Baltic Sea region. Scandinavian sagas and Viking runestones referring to Eistland are the earliest known sources that definitely use the name in its modern geographic meaning. From Old Norse the toponym spread to other Germanic vernaculars and reached literary Latin by the end of 12th century. The oldest known settlement in Estonia
15252-493: Was repealed, and the Baltic Special Order was restored under Emperor Paul I . This Baltic Special Order remained largely in effect until the late 19th century, marking a distinctive period of localized governance within the Russian Empire. Serfdom was abolished in 1816–1819, but this initially had little practical effect; major improvements in farmers' rights started with reforms in the mid-19th century. The reopening of
15376-627: Was the Phosphorite War , an environmental protest against Soviet plans to establish large phosphate mines in Virumaa . On 23 August 1987, the Hirvepark meeting in Tallinn called for the public disclosure of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and its secret protocols which had led to Estonia's loss of independence. Although direct demands for independence were not yet made, organizers aimed to reinforce
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