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32-577: MycoBank is an online database, documenting new mycological names and combinations, eventually combined with descriptions and illustrations. It is run by the Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute in Utrecht . Each novelty, after being screened by nomenclatural experts and found in accordance with the ICN ( International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants ), is allocated

64-759: A folk medicine in China , Japan , and Russia . Although the use of mushrooms in folk medicine is centered largely on the Asian continent, people in other parts of the world like the Middle East , Poland , and Belarus have been documented using mushrooms for medicinal purposes. Mushrooms produce large amounts of vitamin D when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light . Penicillin , ciclosporin , griseofulvin , cephalosporin and psilocybin are examples of drugs that have been isolated from molds or other fungi. Trichoderma see List of Trichoderma species Trichoderma

96-430: A drop of clear green liquid at the tip of each phialide. Chlamydospores may be produced by all species, but not all species produce chlamydospores on CMD at 20 °C within 10 days. Chlamydospores are typically unicellular subglobose and terminate short hyphae; they may also be formed within hyphal cells. Chlamydospores of some species are multicellular (e.g., T. stromaticum ). Trichoderma genomes appear to be in

128-486: A few phialides. In some species (e.g., T. polysporum ) the main branches are terminated by long, simple or branched, hooked, straight or sinuous, septate, thin-walled, sterile or terminally fertile elongations. The main axis may be the same width as the base of the phialide or it may be much wider. Phialides are typically enlarged in the middle but may be cylindrical or nearly subglobose . Phialides may be held in whorls, at an angle of 90° with respect to other members of

160-473: A few species. Conidia appear colorless to green, smooth to rough, and are in moist conidial masses, variable in shape and size, small, 2.8– 4.8 mm for common species. Conidiophores branch repeatedly, bearing clusters of phialides terminally in most cases. Synanamorphs are formed by some species that also have typical Trichoderma pustules. Synanamorphs are recognized by their solitary conidiophores that are verticillately branched and that bear conidia in

192-566: A unique MycoBank number before the new name has been validly published. This number then can be cited by the naming author in the publication where the new name is being introduced. Only then, this unique number becomes public in the database. By doing so, this system can help solve the problem of knowing which names have been validly published and in which year. MycoBank is linked to other important mycological databases such as Index Fungorum , Life Science Identifiers , Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and other databases. MycoBank

224-558: Is a genus of fungi in the family Hypocreaceae that is present in all soils, where they are the most prevalent culturable fungi. Many species in this genus can be characterized as opportunistic avirulent plant symbionts . This refers to the ability of several Trichoderma species to form mutualistic endophytic relationships with several plant species. Trichoderma species are also responsible for green mold disease in mushroom cultivation. The genomes of several Trichoderma species have been sequenced and are publicly available from

256-399: Is due to absorption into human cells and production of nano-channels that obstruct vital ion channels that ferry potassium and sodium ions across the cell membrane . This affects in the cells action potential profile, as seen in cardiomyocytes , pneumocytes and neurons leading to conduction defects. Trilongins are highly resistant to heat and antimicrobials making primary prevention

288-704: Is one of three nomenclatural repositories recognized by the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi ; the others are Index Fungorum and Fungal Names. Mycology Although mycology was historically considered a branch of botany , the 1969 discovery of fungi's close evolutionary relationship to animals resulted in the study's reclassification as an independent field. Pioneer mycologists included Elias Magnus Fries , Christiaan Hendrik Persoon , Heinrich Anton de Bary , Elizabeth Eaton Morse , and Lewis David de Schweinitz . Beatrix Potter , author of The Tale of Peter Rabbit , also made significant contributions to

320-575: Is typical. The species T. aggressivum (formerly T. harzianum biotype 4) has been found to infect button mushrooms. Trichoderma spp. can also be pathogenic to plants. Trichoderma viride is the causal agent of green mold rot of onion. A strain of Trichoderma viride is a known cause of dieback of Pinus nigra seedlings. The common house mold , Trichoderma longibrachiatum , produces small toxic peptides containing amino acids not found in common proteins, like alpha-aminoisobutyric acid , called trilongins (up to 10% w/w). Their toxicity

352-494: The JGI . The genus was described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1794, but the taxonomy has remained difficult to resolve. For a long time, it was considered to consist of only one species, Trichoderma viride , named for producing green mold . In 1991, Bissett divided the genus into five sections , partly based on the aggregate species described by Rifai: With the advent of molecular markers from 1995 onwards, Bissett's scheme

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384-520: The anamorphs of Hypocrea . Cultures are typically fast-growing at 25–30 °C (77–86 °F), but some species of Trichoderma will grow at 45 °C (113 °F). Colonies are transparent at first on media such as cornmeal dextrose agar (CMD) or white on richer media such as potato dextrose agar (PDA). Mycelium are not typically obvious on CMD, conidia typically form within one week in compact or loose tufts in shades of green or yellow or less frequently white. A yellow pigment may be secreted into

416-406: The botanical kingdom Fungi and reasonably modern. Many fungi produce toxins , antibiotics , and other secondary metabolites . For example, the cosmopolitan genus Fusarium and their toxins associated with fatal outbreaks of alimentary toxic aleukia in humans were extensively studied by Abraham Z. Joffe . Fungi are fundamental for life on earth in their roles as symbionts , e.g. in

448-561: The 30–40 Mb range, with approximately 12,000 genes being identifiable. Teleomorphs of Trichoderma are species of the ascomycete genus Hypocrea . These are characterized by the formation of fleshy, stromata in shades of light or dark brown, yellow or orange. Typically the stroma is discoidal to pulvinate and limited in extent but stromata of some species are effused, sometimes covering extensive areas. Stromata of some species (Podostroma) are clavate or turbinate. Perithecia are completely immersed. Ascospores are bicellular but disarticulate at

480-405: The agar, especially on PDA. Some species produce a characteristic sweet or 'coconut' odor. Conidiophores are highly branched and thus difficult to define or measure, loosely or compactly tufted, often formed in distinct concentric rings or borne along the scant aerial hyphae. Main branches of the conidiophores produce lateral side branches that may be paired or not, the longest branches distant from

512-556: The descriptions were later amended as invalid by modern rules). The founding nomenclaturist Carl Linnaeus included fungi in his binomial naming system in 1753, where each type of organism has a two-word name consisting of a genus and species (whereas up to then organisms were often designated with Latin phrases containing many words). He originated the scientific names of numerous well-known mushroom taxa , such as Boletus and Agaricus , which are still in use today. During this period, fungi were still considered to belong to

544-409: The field. Pier Andrea Saccardo developed a system for classifying the imperfect fungi by spore color and form, which became the primary system used before classification by DNA analysis . He is most famous for his Sylloge Fungorum , which was a comprehensive list of all of the names that had been used for mushrooms . Sylloge is still the only work of this kind that was both comprehensive for

576-683: The form of mycorrhizae , insect symbionts, and lichens . Many fungi are able to break down complex organic biomolecules such as lignin , the more durable component of wood , and pollutants such as xenobiotics , petroleum , and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons . By decomposing these molecules, fungi play a critical role in the global carbon cycle . Fungi and other organisms traditionally recognized as fungi, such as oomycetes and myxomycetes ( slime molds ), often are economically and socially important, as some cause diseases of animals (including humans) and of plants. Apart from pathogenic fungi, many fungal species are very important in controlling

608-520: The formal description of sections has been largely replaced by informal descriptions of clades, such as the Aureoviride clade or the Gelatinosum clade. The belief that Trichoderma was monotypic persisted until the 1969 work of Rifai, who recognised nine species. There are currently 89 accepted species in the genus Trichoderma . Hypocrea are teleomorphs of Trichoderma , with Trichoderma being

640-466: The fungi that had been perpetuated by the classical authors. The start of the modern age of mycology begins with Pier Antonio Micheli 's 1737 publication of Nova plantarum genera . Published in Florence , this seminal work laid the foundations for the systematic classification of grasses, mosses and fungi. He originated the still current genus names Polyporus and Tuber , both dated 1729 (though

672-419: The funguses [ sic ]". Some fungi can cause disease in humans and other animals; the study of pathogenic fungi that infect animals is referred to as medical mycology . It is believed that humans started collecting mushrooms as food in prehistoric times. Mushrooms were first written about in the works of Euripides (480–406 BC). The Greek philosopher Theophrastos of Eresos (371–288 BC)

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704-657: The name Agaricus deliciosus to the saffron milk-cap, but its current name is Lactarius deliciosus . On the other hand, the field mushroom Agaricus campestris has kept the same name ever since Linnaeus's publication. The English word " agaric " is still used for any gilled mushroom, which corresponds to Linnaeus's use of the word. The term mycology and the complementary term mycologist are traditionally attributed to M.J. Berkeley in 1836. However, mycologist appeared in writings by English botanist Robert Kaye Greville as early as 1823 in reference to Schweinitz . For centuries, certain mushrooms have been documented as

736-417: The only management option. Cyclosporine A (CsA), a calcineurin inhibitor produced by the fungi Trichoderma polysporum , Tolypocladium inflatum , and Cylindrocarpon lucidum , is an immunosuppressant prescribed in organ transplants to prevent rejection. Trichoderma , being a saprophyte adapted to thrive in diverse situations, produces a wide array of enzymes. By selecting strains that produce

768-527: The plant diseases caused by different pathogens. For example, species of the filamentous fungal genus Trichoderma are considered one of the most important biological control agents as an alternative to chemical-based products for effective crop diseases management. Field meetings to find interesting species of fungi are known as 'forays', after the first such meeting organized by the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club in 1868 and entitled "A foray among

800-474: The plant kingdom, so they were categorized in his Species Plantarum . Linnaeus' fungal taxa were not nearly as comprehensive as his plant taxa, however, grouping together all gilled mushrooms with a stem in genus Agaricus . Thousands of gilled species exist, which were later divided into dozens of diverse genera; in its modern usage, Agaricus only refers to mushrooms closely related to the common shop mushroom, Agaricus bisporus . For example, Linnaeus gave

832-910: The septum early in development into 16 part-ascospores so that the ascus appears to contain 16 ascospores. Ascospores are hyaline or green and typically spinulose. More than 200 species of Hypocrea have been described but few have been grown in pure culture and even fewer have been described in modern terms. Trichoderma species are frequently isolated from forest or agricultural soils at all latitudes . Hypocrea species are most frequently found on bark or on decorticated wood but many species grow on bracket fungi (e.g. H. pulvinata ), Exidia ( H. sulphurea ) or bird's nest fungi ( H. latizonata ) or agarics ( H. avellanea ). Several strains of Trichoderma have been developed as biocontrol agents against fungal diseases of plants. The various mechanisms include antibiosis , parasitism , inducing host-plant resistance , and competition . Most biocontrol agents are from

864-851: The species T. asperellum , T. harzianum , T. viride , and T. hamatum . The biocontrol agent generally grows in its natural habitat on the root surface, and so affects root disease in particular, but can also be effective against foliar diseases . Many species of Trichoderma are major pathogens of cultivated mushrooms, with infections being referred to as "green mold." Trichoderma species have been found to infect button mushrooms , shiitake , oyster mushrooms , among others. Trichoderma infections have caused major crop losses and widespread epidemics in mushroom growing regions, with estimates of damages caused by infections totaling to tens of millions of dollars. Infected substrate leads to lower yields due to competition, and also causes mushrooms to be malformed, discolored, lesioned, and of lower mass than

896-427: The superfluous moisture or earth, of trees, or rotten wood, and of other rotting things. This is plain from the fact that all fungi and truffles, especially those that are used for eating, grow most commonly in thundery and wet weather. The Middle Ages saw little advancement in the body of knowledge about fungi. However, the invention of the printing press allowed authors to dispel superstitions and misconceptions about

928-431: The tip and often phialides arising directly from the main axis near the tip. The branches may rebranch, with the secondary branches often paired and longest secondary branches being closest to the main axis. All primary and secondary branches arise at or near 90° with respect to the main axis. The typical Trichoderma conidiophore with paired branches assumes a pyramidal aspect. Typically the conidiophore terminates in one or

960-584: The whorl, or they may be variously penicillate ( gliocladium -like). Phialides may be densely clustered on a wide main axis (e.g., T. polysporum , T. hamatum ), or they may be solitary (e.g., T. longibrachiatum ). Conidia typically appear dry, but in some species, they may be held in drops of clear green or yellow liquid (e.g., T. virens , T. flavofuscum ). Conidia of most species are ellipsoidal, 3–5 x 2–4  μm (L/W = > 1.3); globose conidia (L/W < 1.3) are rare. Conidia are typically smooth but tuberculate to finely warted conidia are known in

992-438: Was largely confirmed but Saturnisporum was merged with Longibrachiatum . While Longibrachiatum and Hypocreanum appeared monophyletic , Pachybasium was determined to be paraphyletic , many of its species clustering with Trichoderma . Druzhina and Kubicek (2005) confirmed the genus as circumscribed was holomorphic . They identified 88 species which they demonstrated could be assigned to two major clades . Consequently,

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1024-572: Was perhaps the first to try to systematically classify plants; mushrooms were considered to be plants missing certain organs. It was later Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD), who wrote about truffles in his encyclopedia Natural History . The word mycology comes from the Ancient Greek : μύκης ( mukēs ), meaning "fungus" and the suffix -λογία ( -logia ), meaning "study". Fungi and truffles are neither herbs, nor roots, nor flowers, nor seeds, but merely

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