Mushika-vamsha ( IAST : Mūṣika-vaṃśa mahā-kāvyam) is a Sanskrit dynastic chronicle composed in 11th century by poet Atula . It narrates the legendary history of the Mushika dynasty , which ruled the northern part of the present-day Kerala state of India. The chronicle moves from mythological beginnings of the founding ancestors to more authentic genealogical history in later sargas.
105-459: Several kings mentioned in the text, such as Validhara Vikrama Rama (c. 929), Jayamani and Kantan Karivarman (Srikantha Kartha) (both c. 1020) and Chera king Kota Ravi Vijayaraga (c. 883–913) can be found in the medieval inscriptions discovered from north Kerala. Mushika-vamsha is believed to have been written during the reign of the Mushika ruler Shrikantha, who is assumed to be a contemporary of
210-478: A Kshatriya prince. The divine spirit of the mountain brought to him the Heheya prince, who belonged to the lunar dynasty . After the end of Parashurama's ceremony, the prince was crowned as a king, and thus, became the founder of the Mushika dynasty. Since Parashurama performed his consecration with the holy water from a ghata (earthen pot), the king came to be known as Rama-ghata-mushika. The first six cantos deal with
315-517: A battle in which Suvarman used divine missiles, but Rama could counter him without use of Parashurama's divine missiles. Ultimately, Rama defeated and killed him in a duel. The vassals of Magadha accepted his suzerainty. He married Suvarman's daughter, and restored the Magadha territory to Suvarman's son. Gradually, Rama conquered the entire Bharata (India) and "the islands", and became a Chakravartin (universal emperor). He appointed his elder son Vatu as
420-495: A big cave, spent some days with a thousand cave girls, and then brought them to his kingdom using an elixir . After the birth of his son Aryagupta, he entered the cave once again, accompanied by many women. Aryagupta's son Achala built the city of Achalapattana on the Eli mountain. His younger son Vikramasena ascended the throne after expelling the elder son Ashvasena from the kingdom. Vikramasena's son Vinayavarman ruled by dharma , and
525-474: A cave of the mountain, protected from Parashurama. There, she gave birth to a boy, who received education from the preceptor. By the time the prince grew up, Parashurama had wiped the Kshatriyas from the earth 21 times. Feeling sorry for their widows, he decided to perform a ritual sacrifice to absolve himself from the sin of killing the Kshatriyas at the Eli mountain. For one of the sacrificial ceremonies, he needed
630-628: A decade of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered. Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from Kumari to the Himalayas (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu. The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly Kadambas ) whom he defeated in battles. Nedum Cheral Athan
735-567: A glorious reign, Ripurama was succeeded by Gambhira, a son of Palaka's sister. Gambhira was a strong ruler, who crushed a revolt by the subordinate chief of Marupura, and burnt down that city. Jayamani (Jayamanin III), the successor and younger brother of Gambhira, became a renowned ruler. During the last years of his reign, he was assisted in administration by his nephew, the crown prince Valabha II. Valabha II, said to be an incarnation , partially that of Shiva and partially that of Vishnu , made grants to
840-466: A little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank. The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai", "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai" were also discovered from Karur . The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins. All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained
945-486: A mythological origin of the Mushika dynasty, tracing its descent to a Heheya queen, whose family was killed during Parashurama 's slaughter of the Kshatriya rulers. The pregnant queen initially wanted to commit suicide, but her family preceptor dissuaded her from doing so, encouraging her not to destroy her unborn baby. With the help of the preceptor, the queen fled southwards, and came to the coastal region that later became
1050-538: A number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend. Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the Maurya coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to
1155-404: A peace treaty between the two kingdoms. Ishanavarman and Nandini did not have any children, so he married a Chola princess, with whom he had a son named Nrparama (or Nrpavarman). An upset Nandini prayed to the goddess Bhadrakali (or Chandika), and obtained a boon that the Mushika throne would be passed on to the sons of the female members of her family. (The manuscript is mutilated here, but it
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#17330856244821260-496: A person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family. A large body of Tamil works collectively known as the Sangam (Academy) texts ( c. 2nd century BCE - 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers. Among them,
1365-453: A ruler from present-day Kerala conquered Magadha or other regions of northern India. Although the text's description of the dynasty's origin is purely legendary, some historians, such as M. G. S. Narayanan , believe that it indicates northern origins of the dynasty. Narayanan theorizes that the Mushika family may have migrated from the Heheya kingdom of Central India to Kerala at the beginning of
1470-560: A sister's son inheriting property rather than one's own son. There ( Punjab ) where the five rivers flow just after issuing from the mountains, there among the Aratta - Vahikas , no respectable person should dwell even for two days. There are two Pishacas named Vahi and Hika in the river Vipasa . The Vahikas are the offspring of those two Pishacas. The Karashakas, the Mahishakas , the Kalingas ,
1575-598: A strong case of identification with the location. Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni). A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the Amaravati riverbed in Tamil Nadu, are a major source of early Chera historiography. This includes
1680-456: A temple ( virakkallu ) for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi . A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with Gajabahu , king of Sri Lanka (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi. In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE. as per akananuru Kaluvul was a velir chieftain of Kamur who fought against
1785-558: Is Onam , celebrated in the remembrance of King Mahabali . Mahabali was described in ancient Indian texts as belonging to the Asuras , who were half-siblings of Devas . Small pockets of Asura regions existed in Northern India and regions beyond the Himalayas as well. Vrishaparvan , was a famous Asura King. The founder of the Puru dynasty of kings (described in the epic Mahabharata as
1890-510: Is celebrated. This event is commemorated in Karnataka with the festival of Bali padyami that's observed every year on first day after amavase full moon night that marks the beginning of karthika masa or to be precise this festival is celebrated during deepavali every year. In terms of modern scholarship, and according to the existing line of thinking with regard to recorded Indian History, this legend can be interpreted as follows. Vamana represents
1995-566: Is clear that the Goddess says something about women: the editor theorized that the goddess talks about matrilineal descent, which is what effectively happens in the subsequent portions of the text.) Sometime later, she gave birth to a son named Palaka, and a daughter named Nandini (II). To avoid a war of succession between Nrparama and Palaka, Ishanavarman sent Palaka to the Chedi kingdom. Ishanavarman patronized scholars, and built several Shiva temples. Towards
2100-509: Is identified as the 11th century Chola king Rajendra . The Mushika-vamsha mentions that Shrikantha restored the temples that had been plundered by the enemies, and then ends abruptly after describing the worship rituals at the restored temples. It appears that the Chola king Rajendra successfully invaded Kerala around 1020, and Atula has omitted this fact to avoid spoiling his glorious description of Vallabha's reign. Shrikantha seems to have restored
2205-561: Is known about Cheras during this period. Cheras of Kongu country ( Karur ) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala . There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule). The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre- Pallava (early historic) south India. There are clear attestations of repeated Pandya conquests of
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#17330856244822310-606: Is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean. Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai. He also punished and extracted ransom from the Yavanas. Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle) Kauthamanar Headquarters
2415-456: Is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to c. 1st - 2nd century CE. Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts. Ilango Adigal author of the legendary Tamil epic poem Chilapathikaram describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate
2520-612: The Asura Kings and their Bhargava Priests, to the Deva worshipping rulers and their Kashyapa Priests. The Sage Agastya was so popular in the South Indian kingdoms including the Kerala kingdom. Agastya was described as a brother of Sage Vasistha . Sage Vasistha is also linked with the story of the Kerala tribe as per the epic Mahabharata . (See Mbh 1.177 and the section named The Myth regarding
2625-564: The Chera Perumal kingdom and Kongu Chera kingdom (c. 9th–12th century CE). The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers are unclear. After this, the present day parts of Kerala and Kongunadu became autonomous. Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola - seem to have conquered the Kongu Chera country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into
2730-602: The Cholas and the Pandyas . The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in the early 11th century CE (in order to break the monopoly of trade with the Middle East). When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in the 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent. The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from
2835-742: The Cholas were mentioned in Tamil literature (consisting of Silappatikaram , Tirukkural etc.), complementing their mention in the existing Sanskrit literature (constituted by the Puranas , Vedas , Ramayana and the Mahabharata ). The modern people of Kerala, Karnataka along with other southern states of India , celebrate the King Mahabali who it is believed, was the Emperor of Bharatavarsha in pre-ancient times, several aeons ago. The biggest festival of Kerala
2940-498: The Deva group of beings. The consequence of this consent by Mahabali was that the Kashyapas, starting from their small settlement permitted for occupation by the King, spread throughout the kingdom of Mahabali and finally overthrew him or his dynasty from his Kingship. Mahabali was later forgotten and existed only in the minds of his loyal subjects as a great King. The transfer of power from
3045-513: The Graeco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to the Cheras as Keprobotras . All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with northern India . The term Chera , derived from Dravidian words Cheran (meaning island), is a Classical Tamil name of Sri Lanka that takes root from the term "Chera". Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that
3150-816: The Kauravas . They consisted of Dhrishtadyumna and Shikhandi and the five sons of Draupadi and the Prabhadrakas, and Satyaki and Chekitana with the Dravida forces, and the Pandyas , the Cholas , and the Keralas , surrounded by a mighty array, all possessed of broad chests, long arms, tall statures, and large eyes. Karna , due to his enmity towards Shalya , who was from the Vahlika tribe of Madra , dislikes all these tribes that had cultures similar to that of Shalya. Thus he rebukes many cultural traits of this group, including that of
3255-741: The Kurukshetra War by feeding both armies. According to the Puranas , the navigators and survivors of the Yadavas of Dwaraka also settled in Kerala later. Some remnants of the Naga culture are also found here. This Kerala kingdom has been identified with the Chera kingdom , which existed from the 5th century BCE to the 12th century CE in present-day Kerala state and Tamil Nadu in South India . The Pandyas , Cheras and
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3360-556: The Mauryan rule . Nandana of Atula's text may be same as Nannan, a king described in the Tamil Sangam literature , but this cannot be said with certainty. According to the Sangam literature, Nannan ruled Ezhilmalai (Eli mountain), and fought many battles against the neighbouring rulers. However, Atula does not credit Nandana with any military achievements. Indologist A. K. Warder notes that
3465-521: The Vallabhapatnam fort, named after himself. He installed a statue of Shiva at the Vatukeshvara temple. His army crossed the ocean, and conquered many islands. Vallabha II was succeeded by his younger brother Shrikantha ( IAST : Śrīkaṇṭha) alias Rajavarman. He commissioned restoration of the Vatukeshvara, Kharavana, and Ahiraneshvara temples. He restored the wealth that the enemies had plundered from
3570-536: The 11th century Chola ruler Rajendra I (see Historicity below). If this belief is true, Mushika-vamsha is the earliest known historical Sanskrit mahakavya , pre-dating Kalhana 's Rajatarangini by a few decades. Indologist A. K. Warder classifies Atula's style as Vaidarbhi , and believes that he was influenced by the 6th century poet Bharavi , among others. ...you should not take your own unhappy life, Nor yet ought you to obstruct this offspring left like this in you by your husband. Atula provides
3675-533: The 1st century CE, in the Periplus of the 1st century CE, and by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE. There are brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator Katyayana (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher Patanjali (c. 5th century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher Kautilya (Chanakya) ( c. 3rd - 4th century BCE ) [though Sanskrit grammarian Panini (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either
3780-617: The Asura group maintained their reverence for both Varuna and Mitra . It is believed, that there was a hermitage of Agastya near Panchavati or Nasik , where Raghava Rama made his temporary abode. There are numerous places in Kerala and Tamil Nadu , believed to be related to Agastya, like Agastyavata , Agasteswara , etc. The attribution of Sage Agastya, as a son of the Sea-God Varuna, could be due to his being good at sea navigation and probably sea warfare as well. Indra and other Devas sought
3885-465: The Bhargavas to the Kashyapas might also be interpreted from the legend of Bhargava Rama, where it is described that Bhargava Rama , after overthrowing the Kshatriya rulers of Central India , took the lordship of their lands and transferred the lands and the wealth to the Kashyapas, before retiring to the woods. Thus the legend of Vamana, can be interpreted in a way to signify the transfer of power from
3990-457: The Cheras, have been discovered from Pattanam in central Kerala. Bronze dyes for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur. Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend " Kuttuvan Kotai " above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c. 1st century CE or
4095-457: The Himalayas to sculpt the idol of goddess Pattini. Controlled the port of Naravu. He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas . Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli. Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan. He is sometimes identified as
4200-594: The Indian Ocean coast ( Kerala ) and Kongunadu . They governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during the Sangam period between c. 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu . However
4305-663: The Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs). According to Chilapathikaram , Chenguttuvan led his army to north India to get the sacred stone from
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4410-603: The Kerala or Chera country in the 7th and 8th centuries CE. While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in Tamil Nadu emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in Kerala took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE. Scholars tend to identify Alvar saint Kulasekhara and Nayanar saint Cherman Perumal (literally "the Chera king") with some of
4515-543: The Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur ( c. 2nd century CE ). Described as the descendant of Nedum Cheral Athan . The following Cheras are knowns from Purananuru collection (some of the names are re-duplications) . After the 5th century CE, the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably. Comparatively little
4620-613: The Malabar and Kerala parts became autonomous of Karur. The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East. The port of Kollam , in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia. Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in
4725-763: The Marishas. Sahadeva vanquished and brought under his subjection numberless kings of the Mlechchha tribe living on the sea coast, and the Nishadas and the cannibals and even the Karnapravarnas, and those tribes also called the Kalamukhas who was a cross between human beings and Rakshasas , and the whole of the Cole mountains, and also Surabhipatna, and the island called the Copper island, and
4830-413: The Mushika kingdom. There, she was attacked by a huge rat ( mushika ), who was actually the divine spirit of the Eli mountain ( Ezhimala ), and had been cursed by the sage Kaushika to become a rat. The queen burned the rat to ashes with the flame emitted from her eyes: the rat was thus redeemed, and became transformed into its original form. At the request of the divine spirit, the queen started living in
4935-504: The Pandya political system by 10th/11th century CE. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas". The rulers of Venad (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of Kollam in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from
5040-414: The Paundrayas and the Dravidas along with the Udra-Keralas and the Andhras and the Talavanas (Telingas?), the Kalingas and the Ushtrakarnikas, and also the delightful city of Atavi and that of the Yavanas. Having arrived at the seashore, he then dispatched messengers unto the illustrious Vibhishana (of Lanka ), the grandson of Pulastya. The Pandavas , headed by Vrikodara ( Bhima ), advanced against
5145-496: The Perumals. Cheranad was also the name of an erstwhile province in the kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut , which had included parts of present-day Tirurangadi and Tirur Taluks of Malappuram district in it. Later it became a Taluk of Malabar District , when Malabar came under the British Raj . The headquarters of Cheranad Taluk was the town of Tirurangadi . Later the Taluk was merged with Eranad Taluk. The term Chera — and its variant form "Keralaputas" — stands for
5250-448: The Sangam epic poem Cilappatikaram . After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably. Cheras of the Kongu country are known to have controlled eastern Kerala and only a few kilometres of current western Tamil Nadu in the early medieval period. Present-day central Kerala and Kongu Cheras detached around 8th–9th century CE to form
5355-438: The Sangam texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decade of Pathitrupattu ). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" ( Purananuru ) . His headquarters were at Kuzhumur near Kuttanad ( Akananuru ). He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the Kurukshetra War ( Purananuru and Akananuru ). He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and
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#17330856244825460-412: The Vedic agrahara of Cellura. This agrahara is described as a hermitage with a variety of trees. At Cellura, there were two head brahmanas (priests) named Bhava and Nandin, said to have descended from the heavens. They are compared to Shukra and Brihaspati (the teachers of the Asura and Devas respectively, in Hindu mythology). Vallabha visited the "cities" (shrines) of Vishnu and Shiva ,
5565-403: The ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans. Kerala Kingdom The Keralas or Udra Keralas were a royal dynasty mentioned in Sanskrit epics of ancient India . In the Mahabharata , the Keralian empire took part in
5670-434: The arrival of a new foreign tribe into the kingdom of Mahabali. Since Vamana was described as the son of Sage Kashyapa this new tribe could be the Kashyapa tribe. They asked the King for a small piece of land for their settling in his kingdom. The king consented to it, in spite of the warning of his priest, the Bhargava Sukra. The Bhargavas were already aware of the Kashyapas as another priest-class but as having adherence to
5775-435: The beloved to a deserted creeper-house. The Cantos 7-10 describe the "amorous exploits" of Nandana: the poet describes him as a mighty and glorious monarch, but does not describe his achievements as a king. Nandana was succeeded by Ugra; Canto 11 lists the names of the next 51 rulers (all patrilineal descendants). Ugrasena, the sixth successor of Nandana, repulsed an invasion from the Kerala Kingdom . His successor Chitrasena
5880-402: The birth of Kerala Tribe ) This epic also says that Agastya and Vasistha were the sons of the ancient Devas Mitra and Varuna . Both were Gods common to the Deva and Asura groups of pre-ancient beings. But the Deva group demoted Varuna, who was one of the important deities of both the groups, to the status of the Sea-God while Indra took over the role of Varuna as the main God for them. But
5985-427: The boon of living as long as he wished from Shiva, for himself and his 20 descendants. His descendant Vatukavarman built the large Vatukeshvara Shiva temple at Alashuddhi. His successor Ahirana built the Ahiraneshvara Shiva temple on the western bank of the Pṛthana river (identified as Valapattanam ). Ahirana's son Ranabhara was attracted some girls while chasing elephants in the Sahya mountains. He followed them into
6090-400: The bow and arrow symbol. An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur. The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin. A silver coin with the portrait of
6195-413: The bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the Palghat Gap to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence. Historians have yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at Pattanam (near Cochin ) suggest
6300-419: The breeze from the wings of a bird violently dragging out his intestines Vallabha's army defeated Ramavikrama's forces in a fierce battle. Vallabha punished the surviving dissidents, and took control of the Mushika kingdom. The poet describes his coronation and construction activities in detail. Vallabha built the city of Marahi , an international commercial port, at the mouth of the Killa river. He also built
6405-405: The chera supremacy. Perum chera irumporai along with fourteen chieftains attacked kamur but perum chera irumporai was impressed with Kaluvuls resistance in battle field and let him rule kamur and accepted friendship from him. .Some of the velirs under Kaluvul joined the chera after the defeat. Uthiyan Cheral Athan is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from
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#17330856244826510-422: The chieftain of Bhatasthali, and made his relative Nrparama the in-charge of that territory. His younger brother and successor Kundavarman built the Narayananapura city and a Vishnu temple in that city. The next ruler Palaka was a son of a sister of Kundavarman. At the time of his death, Palaka did not have an adult younger brother or a maternal nephew. He was succeeded by Ripurama, a chieftain of Bhatasthali. After
6615-456: The conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe." The Chera Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with
6720-482: The earliest Perumals. The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure. The Later arrived Nambutiris from Northern land asked for a regent of the Chera king from Karur in Coimbatore and were granted lands from Tamil kings hailing from Pundurai . Hence the Tamil kings lost their power to Newly arrived Namboothris who created Zamorin and started to call themselves title 'Punthurakkon' (King from Punthura). After this,
6825-423: The early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative Nalam Killi on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which
6930-420: The end of his life, he suffered from a severe fever, and died after performing a Mahadana ("Great Donation") ceremony. The ministers then appointed Nrparama as the new king, whose infant son Chandravarman became the titular ruler after his death. Taking advantage of this situation, the Kerala king invaded the Mushika kingdom, whose ministers recalled Palaka from Chedi. Palaka repulsed the invasion, slaughtered
7035-413: The enemies on the battlefield, and became the king. He was succeeded by Validhara, the son of his sister. Validhara defended his kingdom against the Ganga invaders, and was succeeded by his maternal nephews, first Ripurama, and then Vikramarama. Vikramarama build a huge wall of large rocks to prevent a Buddha ( Jina ) shrine from being swallowed by the Arabian Sea . (This temple remains unidentified, and
7140-519: The events described in this and subsequent cantos are historical. For example, Ishanavarman's purported march to Chedi is of doubtful historicity, although his conflict with the Kerala king seems to have some historical basis. Shrikantha is identified with king Kandan (Kantan) Karivarman mentioned in the Eramam inscription, which records the Samayasanketam ceremony conducted at the Chalappuram temple during Kandan's reign. The inscription also mentions Rajendra-chola Samayasenapati of Kadappappalli, who
7245-431: The exploits of Rama. He established a council of ministers, and his favourite minister was Mahanavika ("great sailor"), a member of the trading class ( Shreshti ) of Mahishmati . Rama also established the fortified city of Kolam, and the Mushika rulers came to be known as Kolabhupas. Once, he visited the hermitage of Parashurama, who gave him an invincible bow called Ajita and several divine missiles. Meanwhile, he received
7350-435: The forefather of the Pandavas and Kauravas ), viz King Puru , was the son of Sarmishta, the daughter of King Vrishaparvan. Vrishaparvan's priest was the sage Sukra , (alias Venus), who was a Bhargava (the son or a descendant of the sage Bhrigu .) Often, the Asura Kings chose sages in the line of Bhrigu as their priests, whereas the Devas chose sages in the line of Brihaspati or Angiras , as their priests. Mahabali
7455-403: The froth of her mouth came out hosts of Paundras and Kiratas , Yavanas , Sinhalas , Khasas , Chivukas, Pulindas, Chinas , Hunas , Keralas , and also the Mlechchhas. Chapter (6:9) of Mahabharata mentions the kingdoms and provinces of ancient India (Bharata Varsha). In this list we found mention of Keralas two times, on along with many north Indian kingdoms like Videha and Magadha and
7560-479: The grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai. Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam A short Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at Edakkal in the Western Ghats. Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as
7665-480: The grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan. Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names, with the Chera symbols of the bow and the arrow depicted in the reverse. The anthologies of early Sangham texts are a major source of information about the early Cheras. Cenguttuvan , or the good Chera, is famous for the traditions surrounding Kannaki , the principal female character of
7770-419: The head of Mahabali and sent him to the netherworld. Vamana stands as the guard of Mahabali in the netherworld. Vamana also gave Mahabali a boon, that his subjects and everybody else in all the ages to come, would always remember him as a great, virtuous and true King forever, and that every year he would be able to come and see them. It is to supposedly commemorate his arrival every year that the festival of Onam
7875-481: The help of Agastya, in defeating a clan of Asuras called Kalakeyas , who were ferocious sea-warriors. When the sage Vasistha was attacked by king Viswamitra's army, Vasistha's cow, Kamadehnu, brought forth from her tail, an army of Palhavas , and from her udders, an army of Dravidas and Sakas ; and from her womb, an army of Yavanas , and from her dung, an army of Savara's; and from her urine, an army of Kanchis ; and from her sides, an army of Savaras. And from
7980-446: The latter of which had been built by the earlier king Shatasoma, and paid obeisance to the deities. He commissioned repairs to these two temples, which had decayed with age, and gave benedictions to the brahmanas before leaving. Jayamani made Vallabha his heir apparent , and then asked him to march to aid the Kerala king, who was preparing to attack the Chola king. Vallabha had to abandon
8085-542: The march midway, when a loyal subject told him that Jayamani had died, and an enemy named Ramavikrama had usurped the throne. Vallabha sent an envoy to the Kerala king, and then turned back towards the Mushika capital. On the way back, he visited the Mulavasa shrine, and paid obeisance to the Buddha . His belly rent by a sharp sword, though fallen on the ground unconscious, The enemy soldier slowly regained consciousness through
8190-659: The most important sources for the Cheras are the Pathitrupattu , the Akananuru , and the Purananuru . The Pathitrupattu , the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family. Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet. However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far. A method known as Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism ,
8295-651: The mountain called Ramaka. He, having brought under subjection king Timingila, conquered a wild tribe known by the name of the Kerakas who were men with one leg ( probably mentioning people living along with the trees with one trunk i.e. the coconut tree ). He also conquered the town of Sanjayanti and the country of the Pashandas and the Karanatakas by means of his messengers alone and made all of them pay tributes to him. The hero brought under his subjection and exacted tributes from
8400-424: The neighbouring Kerala Kingdom . His son Ishanavarman married Nandini, the daughter of a Chedi king who had been dethroned. Ishanavarman led an army to Chedi, and restored the throne to his father-in-law. Upon his return to the Mushika kingdom, he faced an invasion from the Kerala king Jayaraga. The warring kings decided to engage in a personal combat, but the Kerala prince Goda and Ishanavarman's nephew negotiated
8505-505: The news that his ancestral Heheya kingdom had been conquered by the Magadhas . Rama wanted to march against Magadha, but his ministers advised him to subjugated the southern kingdoms first. After consolidating his rule in southern India, Rama crossed the Vindhya mountain , and asked the Magadha ruler Suvarman to hand over the former Heheya territory to him. When Suvarman refused, the two kings fought
8610-464: The next ruler Rajavarman built a Buddhist monastery ( vihara ) called Rajavihara. Ashvasena's son Jayamanin I became the next ruler with the help of an army from the Pandya kingdom . Jayamanin's grandson Udayavarman patronized Brahmins . The next ruler Virochana I killed a Pallava king, and married his daughter Harini. Two of his descendants - Shashidatta and Janavrata - killed each other in order to seize
8715-1335: The other along with South Indian kingdoms like the Dravidas , the Mushikas , Karanatakas , the Mahishakas the Cholas etc. Keralas in North India :- .....the Aswakas, the Pansurashtras, the Goparashtras, and the Karityas; the Adhirjayas, the Kuladyas, the Malla -Rashtras, the Keralas , the Varatrasyas, the Apavahas, the Chakras, the Vakratapas, the Sakas ; the Videhas , the Magadhas . Keralas in South India :- There are other kingdoms in
8820-491: The people or the land]. Archaeologists have found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras. Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near Karur ) dated to c. 1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo , and
8925-449: The present day northern-central Kerala and Kongu region western Tamil Nadu. The rest of Kerala was under Ay dynasty (southern tip of Kerala) and Mushika dynasty (northern tip of Kerala).The political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources". There
9030-412: The ruler of the Heheya kingdom, and returned to Kola with his younger son Nandana. At Kola, he performed a horse sacrifice , and after a long time, retired to penance , crowning Nandana as the new king of the Mushika kingdom. The very skilful girl friend, having understood the emotion of the playful one whose mind was besieged by Love, On the pretext of a spray she could pick with her own hand, led
9135-493: The ruling lineage and the country associated with them. The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from Cheral , a corruption of Charal meaning "declivity of a mountain" in Tamil , suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala . Another theory argues that the "Cheralam" is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land". Apart from
9240-1295: The south. They are the Dravidas , the Keralas , the Prachyas, the Mushikas , and the Vanavashikas; the Karanatakas , the Mahishakas , the Vikalpas, and also the Mushakas; the Jhillikas, the Kuntalas, the Saunridas, and the Nalakananas; the Kankutakas, the Cholas , and the Malavayakas; the Samangas, the Kanakas, the Kukkuras, and the Angara-marishas; the Samangas, the Karakas, the Kukuras, the Angaras,
9345-493: The southern region of the present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and southern Alappuzha ) was under Ay dynasty , who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai . The early historic pre-Pallava polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics". Old Tamil Brahmi cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo , and
9450-514: The speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies. In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor Ashoka 's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE). While Pliny the Elder and Claudius Ptolemy refer to the Cheras as Kaelobotros and Kerobottros respectively,
9555-421: The story of Shiva's boon (of living as long as they wished) to Sharmadatta and his 20 successors solves the chronological inconsistencies arising from dating the dynasty's origin to Parashurama 's time, by allowing as much as hundred years for the kings' lifespans. All of these kings appear to be imaginary. Canto 12 onwards, the text describes rulers who can be identified as historical figures. However, not all of
9660-462: The structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a Tamil military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century. Nambudiri-Brahmin settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom. "A naval campaign led to
9765-535: The temples in the aftermath of this first Chola invasion, as described in the Mushika-vamsha and the Eramam inscription. The Kerala kingdom subsequently rebelled against Rajendra's overlordship, leading to a second Chola invasion around 1028, in which both the Kerala king and Kandan were killed. Chera dynasty Kongu Cheras Chera Perumals The Chera dynasty ( or Cēra , IPA: [t͡ʃeːɾɐr] ),
9870-465: The temples, and paid obeisance to Shiva . The extant text breaks off after a description of the Shiva worship and rituals. The poet Atula was primarily focused on eulogizing the dynasty's rulers, rather than on describing their reign based on the historical facts. The first six cantos, which are about the dynasty's founder Rama, describe an ideal ruler rather than a historical figure. There is no evidence that
9975-530: The three major rulers – the Pandya , the Chera and the Chola – based originally in Madurai in Tamil Nadu, Vanchi , present day Karur , in Tamilnadu and Uraiyur ( Tiruchirappalli ) in Tamil Nadu, respectively. They had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely Korkai , Muchiri (Muziris), and Kaveripattinam respectively. Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava ) consisted of
10080-497: The throne. Nothing is known about the last 38 kings mentioned in the Canto 11, except their names. Where (in Kola) the totality of deities live together like the species of animals of the forest who have found a place In a hermitage of successful ascetics, perceived in the world as extremely contradictory. Canto 12 begins with the reign of Kunchivarman, whose daughter married the ruler of
10185-584: The warning by the Bhargava Sukra , his priest. Vamana, after getting the consent of the King, started to measure the three feet of land he wanted. But prior to that, he grew in size to unimaginably large, and then he measured the land he wanted in just two steps - the first covering all-sky, and the second taking up all earth, and therefore in effect, covered the whole of Mahabali's kingdom. Upon Mahabali's own request, (so as to be able to fulfil his given promise of three feet of land), Vamana placed his third step on
10290-489: Was a Sangam age Tamil dynasty which unified various regions of the western coast and western ghats in southern India to form the early Chera empire. The dynasty, known as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam alongside the Chola and Pandya , has been documented as early as the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE. Their governance extended over diverse territories until the 12th century CE. The Chera country
10395-456: Was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks . Exchange of spices, especially black pepper , with Middle Eastern and Graeco-Roman merchants are attested in several sources. The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third century CE ) are known to have had their original centre at Kuttanad in Kerala, and harbours at Muchiri (Muziris) and Thondi (Tyndis) on
10500-433: Was killed by a lion during a hunting expedition. The next ruler Shatasoma, described as a descendant of the solar dynasty , performed a hundred horse sacrifices . On the advice of sage Agastya , he visited Kailasha and brought a sacred idol of the god Shiva . This idol was installed in a newly-constructed shrine at Celera (also known as Cellura, Taliparamba or Lakshmipura). Shatasoma's descendant Sharmadatta obtained
10605-400: Was located on the mouth river Periyar. Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief). In
10710-407: Was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu). The Cheras are referred to as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor Ashoka 's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII). The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by Pliny the Elder in
10815-479: Was probably lost to the sea in the later years.) His successors were Janamani, Samghavarman (or Shankhavarman), Jayamani (Jayamanin II), and Valabha I. Excellent women emerged from the houses because of the threshing fire, their children hanging on to them in the danger; Their very unsteady hands waving to the dancing of their braids of hair. Valabha I, described in Canto 13, was a powerful warrior king, who subjugated
10920-574: Was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan ( Pathitrupattu (II) ). Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler Karikala . Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. As the name Pathitrupattu indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting
11025-511: Was yet another king whose priest also was named Sukra , in the line of Bhrigu . The legend of Vamana coming and disrupting the sacrifice of Mahabali is as follows: Vamana (meaning a dwarf-bodied man), who was a small Brahmin Boy, came and requested of the King Mahabali, three feet of land as alms, for his daily use and for practising his daily ceremonial customs. Mahabali agreed to it, in spite of
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