Misplaced Pages

#722277

68-545: The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone (known as the Multi-effect Protocol or the Gothenburg Protocol ) is a multi- pollutant protocol designed to reduce acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone by setting emissions ceilings for sulphur dioxide , nitrogen oxides , volatile organic compounds and ammonia to be met by 2010. As of August 2014,

136-451: A country can far exceed the amount of such pollution produced domestically due to pollution arriving from one or more upwind countries. In 1976, the environment ministers from the Nordic countries proposed a European convention on transboundary air pollution that emphasized sulphur compounds ( Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP)). After negotiations, 34 countries and

204-442: A disease that comes with time. The term chronic is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for more than three months. Common chronic diseases include diabetes , functional gastrointestinal disorder , eczema , arthritis , asthma , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , autoimmune diseases , genetic disorders and some viral diseases such as hepatitis C and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome . An illness which

272-738: A major cause for the disparities observed in the care of chronic disease. Lack of access and delay in receiving care result in worse outcomes for patients from minorities and underserved populations. Those barriers to medical care complicate patients monitoring and continuity in treatment. In the US, minorities and low-income populations are less likely to seek, access and receive preventive services necessary to detect conditions at an early stage. The majority of US health care and economic costs associated with medical conditions are incurred by chronic diseases and conditions and associated health risk behaviors. Eighty-four percent of all health care spending in 2006

340-451: A means of improving the number of people with chronic conditions that miss medical appointments, however there is no strong evidence that these approaches make a difference. Nursing can play an important role in assisting patients with chronic diseases achieve longevity and experience wellness. Scholars point out that the current neoliberal era emphasizes self-care, in both affluent and low-income communities. This self-care focus extends to

408-710: A much larger scale in these areas. In Europe, the European Chronic Disease Alliance was formed in 2011, which represents over 100,000 healthcare workers. In the United States, there are a number of nonprofits focused on chronic conditions, including entities focused on specific diseases such as the American Diabetes Association , Alzheimer's Association , or Crohn's and Colitis Foundation . There are also broader groups focused on advocacy or research into chronic illness in general, such as

476-440: A nursing-heavy approach to the management of chronic disease. Foregrounding the problem of distance from healthcare facility, the study recommends patients increase their request for care. It uses nurses and health officers to fill, in a cost-efficient way, the large unmet need for chronic disease treatment. They led their health centers staffed by nurses and health officers; so, there are specific training required for involvement in

544-431: A psychosocial approach to chronic illness to aid the increasing number of individuals diagnosed with these conditions. Despite this movement, there is still criticism that chronic conditions are not being treated appropriately, and there is not enough emphasis on the behavioral aspects of chronic conditions or psychological types of support for patients. The mental health intersectionality on those with chronic conditions

612-631: A report that estimated investing $ 10 per person annually in community-based programs of proven effectiveness and promoting healthy lifestyle (increase in physical activity, healthier diet and preventing tobacco use) could save more than $ 16 billion annually within a period of just five years. A 2017 review (updated in 2022) found that it is uncertain whether school-based policies on targeting risk factors on chronic diseases such as healthy eating policies, physical activity policies, and tobacco policies can improve student health behaviours or knowledge of staffs and students. The updated review in 2022 did determine

680-525: A result, it is estimated that human life-years lost as a result of the chronic effects of ozone exposure will be about 2,300,000 lower in 2010 than in 1990. In addition, there will be approximately 47,500 fewer premature deaths resulting from ozone and particulate matter in the air. Furthermore, the amount of vegetation exposed to excessive ozone levels will be reduced by 44% from 1990 levels. However, for large parts of Europe, human exposure to particulate matter and ozone will remain higher than recommended by

748-719: A result, the acidification of forests and lakes was halted in large parts of Europe. Reduction of NO x emissions from traffic has less than originally expected. The Protocol required only modest ammonia emission reductions and therefore in most parts of Europe, excess nitrogen deposition will be reduced only by a small percentage. It is predicted that the implementation of the Protocol in Europe will reduce sulphur emissions there by at least 63%, NO x emissions by 41%, VOC emissions by 40% and ammonia emissions by 17% compared to levels in 1990. In addition, Protocol implementation in Europe will: As

SECTION 10

#1732873648723

816-481: A role in AIDS prevalence, only exposure is truly needed to contract this chronic disease. Communicable chronic diseases are also typically only treatable with medication intervention, rather than lifestyle change as some non-communicable chronic diseases can be treated. As of 2003, there are a few programs which aim to gain more knowledge on the epidemiology of chronic disease using data collection. The hope of these programs

884-420: A series of Annexes that address specific pollutants and emission source sectors (e.g. Annex V: "Limit values for emissions of nitrogen oxides from stationary sources"). The Annexes typically allow Canada and the United States to participate with different commitments than other Parties to the Protocol. This is due to the different regulatory nature of Canada and the United States versus most European countries. In

952-592: A slight improvement in measures of obesity and physical activity as the use of improved strategies lead to increased implementation interventions but continued to call for additional research to address questions related to alcohol use and risk. Encouraging those with chronic conditions to continue with their outpatient ( ambulatory ) medical care and attend scheduled medical appointments may help improve outcomes and reduce medical costs due to missed appointments. Finding patient-centered alternatives to doctors or consultants scheduling medical appointments has been suggested as

1020-436: A straightforward cause and effect relationship with chronic disease diagnosis. While typically higher socioeconomic status is correlated with lower occurrence of chronic disease, it is not known is there is a direct cause and effect relationship between these two variables. The epidemiology of communicable chronic diseases such as AIDS is also different from that of noncommunicable chronic disease. While Social factors do play

1088-532: A twofold increase in psychiatric disorders. Higher parental depression and other family stressors predicted more problems among patients. In addition, sibling problems along with the burden of illness on the family as a whole led to more psychological strain on the patients and their families. A growing body of evidence supports that prevention is effective in reducing the effect of chronic conditions; in particular, early detection results in less severe outcomes. Clinical preventive services include screening for

1156-452: A year to non-communicable diseases. In the United States approximately 40% of adults have at least two chronic conditions. Living with two or more chronic conditions is referred to as multimorbidity . Chronic conditions have often been used to describe the various health related states of the human body such as syndromes, physical impairments, disabilities as well as diseases. Epidemiologists have found interest in chronic conditions due to

1224-504: Is 77% higher among non-Hispanic blacks, and American Indians and Alaska Natives are 60% more likely to be obese than non-Hispanic whites. Some of this prevalence has been suggested to be in part from environmental racism . Flint, Michigan, for example, had high levels of lead poisoning in their drinkable water after waste was dumped into low-value housing areas. There are also higher rates of asthma in children who live in lower income areas due to an abundance of pollutants being released on

1292-437: Is a large aspect often overlooked by doctors. And chronic illness therapists are available for support to help with the mental toll of chronic illness a it is often underestimated in society. Adults with chronic illness that restrict their daily life present with more depression and lower self-esteem than healthy adults and adults with non-restricting chronic illness. The emotional influence of chronic illness also has an effect on

1360-440: Is an international legally binding agreement for the control of persistent organic pollutants. Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTR) are systems to collect and disseminate information on environmental releases and transfers of toxic chemicals from industrial and other facilities. The European Pollutant Emission Register is a type of PRTR providing access to information on the annual emissions of industrial facilities in

1428-513: Is continually synthesizing new chemicals, the regulation of which requires evaluation of the potential danger for human health and the environment . Risk assessment is nowadays considered essential for making these decisions on a scientifically sound basis. Measures or defined limits include: Pollutants can cross international borders and therefore international regulations are needed for their control. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants , which entered into force in 2004,

SECTION 20

#1732873648723

1496-622: Is diverse and the epidemiology of some chronic diseases can change in response to new treatments. In the treatment of HIV, the success of anti-retroviral therapies means that many patients will experience this infection as a chronic disease that for many will span several decades of their chronic life. Some epidemiology of chronic disease can apply to multiple diagnosis. Obesity and body fat distribution for example contribute and are risk factors for many chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart, and kidney disease. Other epidemiological factors, such as social, socioeconomic, and environment do not have

1564-542: Is lifelong because it ends in death is a terminal illness . It is possible and not unexpected for an illness to change in definition from terminal to chronic. Diabetes and HIV for example were once terminal yet are now considered chronic due to the availability of insulin for diabetics and daily drug treatment for individuals with HIV which allow these individuals to live while managing symptoms. In medicine , chronic conditions are distinguished from those that are acute . An acute condition typically affects one portion of

1632-434: Is the development of combined antiviral therapies that led to remarkable improvement in survival rates and quality of life of HIV -infected patients. In addition to direct costs in health care, chronic diseases are a significant burden to the economy, through limitations in daily activities, loss in productivity and loss of days of work. A particular concern is the rising rates of overweight and obesity in all segments of

1700-1006: Is to gather epidemiological data on various chronic diseases across the United States and demonstrate how this knowledge can be valuable in addressing chronic disease. In the United States, as of 2004 nearly one in two Americans (133 million) has at least one chronic medical condition, with most subjects (58%) between the ages of 18 and 64. The number is projected to increase by more than one percent per year by 2030, resulting in an estimated chronically ill population of 171 million. The most common chronic conditions are high blood pressure , arthritis , respiratory diseases like emphysema , and high cholesterol . Based on data from 2014 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS), about 60% of adult Americans were estimated to have one chronic illness, with about 40% having more than one; this rate appears to be mostly unchanged from 2008. MEPS data from 1998 showed 45% of adult Americans had at least one chronic illness, and 21% had more than one. According to research by

1768-610: Is to group them together according to more specific properties, such as organic, particulate, pharmaceutical, et cetera. The environment has some capacity to absorb many discharges without measurable harm, and this is called “ assimilative capacity (or absorptive capacity); a pollutant actually causes pollution when the assimilative capacity is exceeded. Pollutants, towards which the environment has low absorptive capacity are called stock pollutants . Examples include persistent organic pollutants like PCBs , non- biodegradable plastics and heavy metals . Stock pollutants accumulate in

1836-402: Is viewed and treated in society. Women's chronic health issues are often considered to be most worthy of treatment or most severe when the chronic condition interferes with a woman's fertility. Historically, there is less of a focus on a woman's chronic conditions when it interferes with other aspects of her life or well-being. Many women report feeling less than or even "half of a woman" due to

1904-621: The CDC , chronic disease is also especially a concern in the elderly population in America. Chronic diseases like stroke, heart disease, and cancer were among the leading causes of death among Americans aged 65 or older in 2002, accounting for 61% of all deaths among this subset of the population. It is estimated that at least 80% of older Americans are currently living with some form of a chronic condition, with 50% of this population having two or more chronic conditions. The two most common chronic conditions in

1972-702: The Clean Water Act , EPA promulgated national standards for municipal sewage treatment plants, also called publicly owned treatment works , in the Secondary Treatment Regulation. National standards for industrial dischargers are called Effluent guidelines (for existing sources) and New Source Performance Standards , and currently cover over 50 industrial categories. In addition, the Act requires states to publish water quality standards for individual water bodies to provide additional protection where

2040-581: The EU , the Gothenburg protocol is implemented through the National Emission Ceilings (NEC) directive. Of all the countries that ratified the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol, most are expected to meet their obligations. Progress towards reducing sulphur emissions was greater than the Protocol commitments due to a widespread European shift from coal to natural gas as an industrial fuel in the 1970s and 1980s. As

2108-514: The Expert Group on Techno-Economic Issues . Pollutant A pollutant may cause long- or short-term damage by changing the growth rate of plant or animal species, or by interfering with resources used by humans, human health or wellbeing, or property values. Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment in the long term. However, the degradation products of some pollutants are themselves polluting such as

Multi-effect Protocol - Misplaced Pages Continue

2176-846: The World Health Organization . In the Benelux , the Po -area, Russia and Ukraine , the health risks will remain higher than for the rest of Europe. The East European countries that did not ratify the Protocol are expected to suffer from increasing air pollution. Because of the great potential for low-cost emission reduction measures in this region, increased related policy efforts are underway for countries such as Russia and Ukraine. Abatement of emissions from shipping and ambitious climate policy measures , offers possibilities to reduce air pollution in EU countries at relatively low costs. Additional concerns include

2244-690: The CLRTAP. The Gothenburg Protocol entered into force on 17 May 2005. The following are the main provisions of the Protocol: Following the revision of the Gothenburg Protocol, to which the Parties agreed in May 2012, Annex 2 will now also contain reduction commitments, expressed as a percentage reduction compared to 2005 emission levels, that Parties should meet in 2020. Guidance documents adopted together with

2312-650: The European Commission signed this Convention in 1979 in Geneva. The convention came into force in 1983, and has now been ratified by 47 European countries, two North American countries ( Canada and the United States ) and Armenia . The CLRTAP now includes eight protocols that identify specific obligations to be taken by Parties. The Gothenburg Protocol was signed on 30 November 1999 in Gothenburg , Sweden , to support

2380-918: The Member States of the European Union , as well as Norway. Clean Air Act standards. Under the Clean Air Act , the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are developed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for six common air pollutants, also called "criteria pollutants": particulates ; smog and ground-level ozone ; carbon monoxide ; sulfur oxides ; nitrogen oxides ; and lead . The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants are additional emission standards that are set by EPA for toxic air pollutants. Clean Water Act standards. Under

2448-471: The Protocol had been ratified by 26 parties, which includes 25 states and the European Union . The Protocol is part of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution . The Convention is an international agreement to protect human health and the natural environment from air pollution by control and reduction of air pollution, including long-range transboundary air pollution. The geographic scope of

2516-702: The Protocol includes Europe, North America and countries of Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia ( EECCA ). On May 4, 2012, at a meeting at the United Nations Office at Geneva , the Parties to the Gothenburg Protocol agreed on a substantial number of revisions, most important are the inclusion of commitments of the Parties to further reduce their emissions until 2020. These amendments now need to be ratified by Parties in order to make them binding. Because pollutants can be carried many hundreds of kilometres by winds , pollutants emitted in one country may be deposited in other countries. Deposition of pollutants in

2584-429: The Protocol provide a range of abatement techniques and economic instruments for the reduction of emissions. Among the specific emission sources, the Protocol establishes NO x emission limits for large stationary engines. Emission limits for new stationary sources should be enforced within one year after the date of entry into force of the Protocol for the party in question. The details of the Protocol are identified in

2652-1082: The U.S. population. Obesity itself is a medical condition and not a disease, but it constitutes a major risk factor for developing chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, stroke, cardiovascular disease and cancers. Obesity results in significant health care spending and indirect costs, as illustrated by a recent study from the Texas comptroller reporting that obesity alone cost Texas businesses an extra $ 9.5 billion in 2009, including more than $ 4 billion for health care, $ 5 billion for lost productivity and absenteeism, and $ 321 million for disability. There have been recent links between social factors and prevalence as well as outcome of chronic conditions. The connection between loneliness, overall health, and chronic conditions has recently been highlighted. Some studies have shown that loneliness has detrimental health effects similar to that of smoking and obesity. One study found that feelings of isolation are associated with higher self reporting of health as poor, and feelings of loneliness increased

2720-546: The area that is damaged by a pollutant. Local pollutants cause damage near the emission source. Regional pollutants cause damage further from the emission source. The vertical zone refers to whether the damage is ground-level or atmospheric. Surface pollutants cause damage by accumulating near the Earth's surface. Global pollutants cause damage by concentrating on the [atmosphere]. Measures of pollutant concentration are used to determine risk assessment in public health . Industry

2788-471: The body and responds to treatment. A chronic condition, on the other hand, usually affects multiple areas of the body, is not fully responsive to treatment, and persists for an extended period of time. Chronic conditions may have periods of remission or relapse where the disease temporarily goes away, or subsequently reappears. Periods of remission and relapse are commonly discussed when referring to substance abuse disorders which some consider to fall under

Multi-effect Protocol - Misplaced Pages Continue

2856-449: The category of chronic condition. Chronic conditions are often associated with non-communicable diseases which are distinguished by their non-infectious causes. Some chronic conditions though, are caused by transmissible infections such as HIV/AIDS. 63% of all deaths worldwide are from chronic conditions. Chronic diseases constitute a major cause of mortality , and the World Health Organization (WHO) attributes 38 million deaths

2924-604: The chronic illness being a source of stress for the individual. A study of loneliness in adults over age 65 found that low levels of loneliness as well as high levels of familial support were associated with better outcomes of multiple chronic conditions such as hypertension and diabetes. There are some recent movements in the medical sphere to address these connections when treating patients with chronic illness. The biopsychosocial approach for example, developed in 2006 focuses on patients "patient's personality, family, culture, and health dynamics." Physicians are leaning more towards

2992-566: The elderly are high blood pressure and arthritis, with diabetes, coronary heart disease, and cancer also being reported among the elder population. In examining the statistics of chronic disease among the living elderly, it is also important to make note of the statistics pertaining to fatalities as a result of chronic disease. Heart disease is the leading cause of death from chronic disease for adults older than 65, followed by cancer, stroke, diabetes, chronic lower respiratory diseases, influenza and pneumonia, and, finally, Alzheimer's disease. Though

3060-500: The environment has low absorptive capacity, fund pollutants are those for which the environment has a moderate absorptive capacity. Fund pollutants do not cause damage to the environment unless the emission rate exceeds the receiving environment's absorptive capacity (e.g. carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants and oceans). Fund pollutants are not destroyed, but rather converted into less harmful substances, or diluted/dispersed to non-harmful concentrations. Many pollutants are within

3128-498: The environment over time. The damage they cause increases as more pollutant is emitted, and persists as the pollutant accumulates. Stock pollutants can create a burden for the future generations , bypassing on the damage that persists well after the benefits received from incurring that damage, have been forgotten. Scientists have officially deemed that the planetary boundaries safe chemical pollutant levels (novel entities) have been surpassed. In contrast to stock pollutants, for which

3196-404: The existence of the disease or predisposition to its development, counseling and immunizations against infectious agents. Despite their effectiveness, the utilization of preventive services is typically lower than for regular medical services. In contrast to their apparent cost in time and money, the benefits of preventive services are not directly perceived by patient because their effects are on

3264-449: The fact they contribute to disease, disability, and diminished physical and/or mental capacity. For example, high blood pressure or hypertension is considered to be not only a chronic condition itself but also correlated with diseases such as heart attack or stroke . Additionally, some socioeconomic factors may be considered as a chronic condition as they lead to disability in daily life. An important one that public health officials in

3332-432: The following notable groups: Light pollution is the impact that anthropogenic light has on the visibility of the night sky. It also encompasses ecological light pollution which describes the effect of artificial light on individual organisms and on the structure of ecosystems as a whole. Pollutants can also be defined by their zones of influence, both horizontally and vertically. The horizontal zone refers to

3400-564: The four major types as: Other examples of chronic diseases and health conditions include: While risk factors vary with age and gender, many of the common chronic diseases in the US are caused by dietary, lifestyle and metabolic risk factors. Therefore, these conditions might be prevented by behavioral changes , such as quitting smoking, adopting a healthy diet, and increasing physical activity. Social determinants are important risk factors for chronic diseases. Social factors , e.g., socioeconomic status, education level, and race/ethnicity, are

3468-607: The general public. Within the medical-industrial complex , chronic illnesses can impact the relationship between pharmaceutical companies and people with chronic conditions. Life-saving drugs, or life-extending drugs, can be inflated for a profit . There is little regulation on the cost of chronic illness drugs, which suggests that abusing the lack of a drug cap can create a large market for drug revenue. Likewise, certain chronic conditions can last throughout one's lifetime and create pathways for pharmaceutical companies to take advantage of this. Gender influences how chronic disease

SECTION 50

#1732873648723

3536-510: The impact of risk factors on the individual's development and functioning. People with chronic conditions pay more out-of-pocket; a study found that Americans spent $ 2,243 more on average. The financial burden can increase medication non-adherence. In some countries, laws protect patients with chronic conditions from excessive financial responsibility; for example, as of 2008 France limited copayments for those with chronic conditions, and Germany limits cost sharing to 1% of income versus 2% for

3604-535: The intellectual and educational development of the individual. For example, people living with type 1 diabetes endure a lifetime of monotonous and rigorous health care management usually involving daily blood glucose monitoring, insulin injections, and constant self-care. This type of constant attention that is required by type 1 diabetes and other chronic illness can result in psychological maladjustment. There have been several theories, namely one called diabetes resilience theory, that posit that protective processes buffer

3672-399: The likelihood of mental health disorders in individuals. The connection between chronic illness and loneliness is established, yet oftentimes ignored in treatment. One study for example found that a greater number of chronic illnesses per individual were associated with feelings of loneliness. Some of the possible reasons for this listed are an inability to maintain independence as well as

3740-580: The long term or might be greater for society as a whole than at the individual level. Therefore, public health programs are important in educating the public, and promoting healthy lifestyles and awareness about chronic diseases. While those programs can benefit from funding at different levels (state, federal, private) their implementation is mostly in charge of local agencies and community-based organizations. Studies have shown that public health programs are effective in reducing mortality rates associated to cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancer, but

3808-452: The national standards are insufficient. RCRA standards. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulates the management, transport and disposal of municipal solid waste , hazardous waste and underground storage tanks . Chronic (medicine) A chronic condition (also known as chronic disease or chronic illness ) is a health condition or disease that is persistent or otherwise long-lasting in its effects or

3876-407: The negative effects from the combustion of biomass and biodiesel on air quality/ In December 2007, efforts began to revise the Gothenburg Protocol. These revisions were concluded at a meeting of the Parties to the Protocol in Geneva in May 2012. The Parties agreed to include more stringent emission reduction commitments for 2020, including reduction targets for particulate matter (PM). Subsequently,

3944-454: The nursing of patients with chronic diseases, replacing a more holistic role for nursing with an emphasis on patients managing their own health conditions. Critics note that this is challenging if not impossible for patients with chronic disease in low-income communities where health care systems, and economic and social structures do not fully support this practice. A study in Ethiopia showcases

4012-580: The pressures that society puts on the importance of fertility and health when it comes to typically feminine ideals. These kinds of social barriers interfere with women's ability to perform various other activities in life and fully work toward their aspirations. Race is also implicated in chronic illness, although there may be many other factors involved. Racial minorities are 1.5-2 times more likely to have most chronic diseases than white individuals. Non-Hispanic blacks are 40% more likely to have high blood pressure that non-Hispanic whites, diagnosed diabetes

4080-445: The products DDE and DDD produced from the degradation of DDT . Pollution has widespread negative impacts on the environment. When analyzed from a planetary boundaries perspective, human society has released novel entities that well exceed safe levels. Pollutants can be categorized in a variety of different ways. For example, it is sometimes useful to distinguish between stock pollutants and fund pollutants . Another way

4148-477: The programmed must be carried out regularly, to ensure that new staff is educated in administering chronic disease care. The program shows that community-based care and education, primarily driven by nurses and health officers, works. It highlights the importance of nurses following up with individuals in the community, and allowing nurses flexibility in meeting their patients' needs and educating them for self-care in their homes. The epidemiology of chronic disease

SECTION 60

#1732873648723

4216-419: The rates of chronic disease differ by race for those living with chronic illness, the statistics for leading causes of death among elderly are nearly identical across racial/ethnic groups. Chronic illnesses cause about 70% of deaths in the US and in 2002 chronic conditions (heart disease, cancers, stroke, chronic respiratory diseases, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, mental illness and kidney diseases) were six of

4284-469: The results are somewhat heterogeneous depending on the type of condition and the type of programs involved. For example, results from different approaches in cancer prevention and screening depended highly on the type of cancer. The rising number of patient with chronic diseases has renewed the interest in prevention and its potential role in helping control costs. In 2008, the Trust for America's Health produced

4352-537: The social science setting have begun highlighting is chronic poverty . Researchers, particularly those studying the United States, utilize the Chronic Condition Indicator (CCI) which maps ICD codes as "chronic" or "non-chronic". The list below includes these chronic conditions and diseases: In 2015 the World Health Organization produced a report on non-communicable diseases, citing

4420-455: The technical annexes were also amended to update them with improved emission limit values. The protocol now also includes, as the first international agreement between countries, measures addressing short-lived climate forcers, such as black carbon . The work to revise the Protocol was coordinated by the Working Group on Strategies and Review and supported by varies technical groups, such as

4488-564: The top ten causes of mortality in the general US population. Chronic diseases are a major factor in the continuous growth of medical care spending. In 2002, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services stated that the health care for chronic diseases cost the most among all health problems in the U.S. Healthy People 2010 reported that more than 75% of the $ 2 trillion spent annually in U.S. medical care are due to chronic conditions; spending are even higher in proportion for Medicare beneficiaries (aged 65 years and older). Furthermore, in 2017 it

4556-461: Was estimated that 90% of the $ 3.3 billion spent on healthcare in the United States was due to the treatment of chronic diseases and conditions. Spending growth is driven in part by the greater prevalence of chronic illnesses and the longer life expectancy of the population. Also, improvement in treatments has significantly extended the lifespans of patients with chronic diseases but results in additional costs over long period of time. A striking success

4624-425: Was for the 50% of the population who have one or more common chronic medical conditions (CDC, 2014). There are several psychosocial risk and resistance factors among children with chronic illness and their family members. Adults with chronic illness were significantly more likely to report life dissatisfaction than those without chronic illness. Compared to their healthy peers, children with chronic illness have about

#722277