The Gewehr 88 (commonly called the Model 1888 commission rifle ) was a late 19th-century German bolt-action rifle , adopted in 1888.
126-463: The Mosin–Nagant is a five-shot, bolt-action , internal magazine –fed military rifle . Known officially as the 3-line rifle M1891 and informally in Russia and the former Soviet Union as Mosin's rifle ( Russian : винтовка Мосина , ISO 9 : vintovka Mosina ), it is primarily found chambered for its original 7.62×54mmR cartridge . Developed from 1882 to 1891, it was used by the armed forces of
252-460: A "cock on open" system. Although this bolt system has been rarely used in commercial sporting rifles (the Vostok brand target rifles being the most recognized) and has never been exported outside of Russia, although large numbers of military surplus Mosin–Nagant rifles have been sporterized for use as hunting rifles in the following years since the end of World War II. The Swing was developed in 1970 in
378-466: A Gewehr 88 slug their bore and chamber as there are four different possible bores and grooves and chamber dimensioning combinations found on the Gewehr 88 rifle. High performance and hence high pressure or military ammunition designated for machine gun use cannot be fired safely in a Gewehr 88 commission rifle. Although the packet loading system proved to be a design shortcoming, it is not uncommon to encounter
504-465: A Gewehr 88 today which still retains it. Some of them were modified to use the stripper clips used with the Gewehr 98 by milling a slot into the left side of the action and adding stripper clip guides on the top of the receiver. Through this slot projects a bar which retains the cartridges in place against the magazine spring's pressure. The hole in the bottom of the rifle is often covered with a small piece of sheet metal. Unlike many rifles designed later,
630-546: A bolt-action shotgun, albeit one designed to be attached to an M16 rifle or M4 carbine using an underbarrel mount (although with the standalone kit, the MASS can become a standalone weapon). Mossberg 12-gauge bolt-action shotguns were briefly popular in Australia after the 1997 changes to firearms laws , but the shotguns themselves were awkward to operate and had only a three-round magazine, thus offering no practical or real advantages over
756-511: A boxed SA, as well as many other parts produced in those countries and barrels produced in Finland, Switzerland, Austria, Belgium and Germany. The Finns also manufactured two-piece "finger splice" stocks for their Mosin–Nagant rifles. In addition, the rifle was distributed as aid to Republican anti- Franco forces in the Spanish Civil War . Spanish Civil War Mosins can be readily identified by
882-410: A conventional double-barreled shotgun. Some pistols use a bolt-action system, although this is uncommon, and such examples are typically specialized hunting and target handguns. Most of the bolt-action designs use a rotating bolt (or "turn pull") design, which involves the shooter doing an upward "rotating" movement of the handle to unlock the bolt from the breech and cock the firing pin , followed by
1008-488: A different bolt handle, which resembled those found on commercial sporting rifles. Some early models had flaws due to rushed ammunition production. This was used in 1892 by the then notorious anti-Semitic agitator Hermann Ahlwardt , member of the German Reichstag , to spread an anti-semitic conspiracy theory . Many of the Gewehr 88-rifles were produced by the armament manufacturer Loewe & Company , whose chairman
1134-599: A falling-off in finish of the rifles. The wartime Mosins are easily identified by the presence of tool marks and rough finishing that never would have passed the inspectors in peacetime. However, despite a lack of both aesthetic focus and uniformity, the basic functionality of the Mosins was unimpaired. In addition, in 1938 a carbine version of the Mosin–Nagant, the M38, was issued. It used the same cartridge and action as other Mosins, but
1260-469: A firing mechanism without a hammer , but there are some hammer-fired models, such as the Merkel Helix. Firearms using a hammer usually have a comparably longer lock time than hammerless mechanisms. In the sport of biathlon , because shooting speed is an important performance factor and semi-automatic guns are illegal for race use, straight pull actions are quite common and are used almost exclusively in
1386-580: A gravity-operated tubular magazine in the stock. Another more well-known bolt-action repeating rifle was the Vetterli rifle of 1867 and the first bolt-action repeating rifle to use centerfire cartridges was the weapon designed by the Viennese gunsmith Ferdinand Fruwirth in 1871. Ultimately, the military turned to bolt-action rifles using a box magazine ; the first of its kind was the M1885 Remington–Lee , but
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#17330850790591512-783: A large number of original Gewehr 88 rifles. During the following 50 years, the rifle and its Hanyang 88 copy were used in the Xinhai Revolution , the Chinese Civil War and the War of Resistance against Japan and proved more than adequate against the Japanese Arisaka Type 38 rifle , though the latter was newer by 30 years. The last time they saw action in Chinese service was during the Korean War , where some of them were captured and taken to
1638-599: A limited degree. Unlike many German service rifles before and after, it was not developed by Mauser but the arms commission, and Mauser was one of the few major arms manufacturers in Germany that did not produce Gewehr 88s. In 1886, fifteen years after their defeat by German forces in the Franco-Prussian War , the French Army introduced the new Lebel magazine rifle firing an 8 mm high-velocity projectile propelled by
1764-607: A metallic cartridge's powder charge – were invented in the 1860s as well, the Berdan and the Boxer systems. The United States purchased 900 Greene rifles (an under hammer, percussion capped, single-shot bolt-action that used paper cartridges and an ogival bore rifling system) in 1857, which saw service at the Battle of Antietam in 1862, during the American Civil War ; however, this weapon
1890-583: A rearward "pull" to open the breech, extract the spent cartridge case, then reverse the whole process to chamber the next cartridge and relock the breech. There are four major turn bolt-action designs: the Remington M-700 , possibly the single most numerous produced rifle in history which is now also used as basis for most custom competition rifle actions, along with the Mauser system, the Lee–Enfield system, and
2016-471: A rotating bolt design. Johann Nicholas von Dreyse 's rifle of 1838 was accepted into service by Prussia in 1841, which was in turn developed into the Prussian Model in 1849. The design was a single shot breech-loader and had the now familiar arm sticking out from the side of the bolt, to turn and open the chamber . The entire reloading sequence was a more complex procedure than later designs, however, as
2142-505: A separate bolthead that rotates with the bolt and the bearing lugs, in contrast to the Mauser system where the bolthead is a non-removable part of the bolt. The Mosin–Nagant is also unlike the Lee–Enfield system where the bolthead remains stationary and the bolt body itself rotates. The Mosin–Nagant bolt is a somewhat complicated affair, but is extremely rugged and durable; like the Mauser, it uses
2268-733: A shortage of rifles (however, it was used extensively by the Turkish Army even through the 1930s and 1940s). Many Gewehr 88 rifles stayed in active service in second-line units, reserves, and in armies allied with the Germans through and well past World War I. Most of the Gewehr 88s seen in the US are the ones that were given to the Turkish forces in World War I and have been modified from the original design. The Turks issued these and updated versions at least as late as
2394-430: A single lethal shot from a safe distance. Target shooters favour single-shot bolt actions for their simplicity of design, reliability, and accuracy. Bolt-action shotguns are considered a rarity among modern firearms but were formerly a commonly used action for .410 entry-level shotguns, as well as for low-cost 12- gauge shotguns. The M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System (MASS) is the most recent and advanced example of
2520-418: A single-base smokeless powder. In 1905, the 8 mm M/88 cartridge was replaced by the 7.92×57mm Mauser S Patrone (ball cartridge) which was loaded with a new 8.20 mm (.323 in) 9.9 g (154 gr) spitzer bullet and more powerful double-base smokeless powder, resulting in nearly 40% higher muzzle velocity and 30% more muzzle energy. The Gewehr 1888 is a further development of the receiver and bolt of
2646-529: A specific weapon's type of action. However, both straight pull and rotating bolt rifles are types of bolt-action rifles. Lever-action and pump-action weapons must still operate the bolt, but they are usually grouped separately from bolt-actions that are operated by a handle directly attached to a rotating bolt. Early bolt-action designs, such as the Dreyse needle gun and the Mauser Model 1871 , locked by dropping
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#17330850790592772-757: A trigger derived from the Finnish Mantari, the Swing was commercially successful, with the basic design reused in the Paramount, RPA Quadlock and Millenium rifles. The Vetterli rifle was the first bolt-action repeating rifle introduced by an army. It was used by the Swiss army from 1869 to circa 1890. Modified Vetterlis were also used by the Italian Army . Another notable design is the Norwegian Krag–Jørgensen , which
2898-619: Is only fair to call it the Russian 3-line rifle M1891 . The Tsar himself dashed the word "Russian" from this document with his own hand. The decision to pay off Nagant proved wise, as he remained the major contractor for the Russian Government, and the Nagant M1895 revolver was subsequently adopted by the Russian army as its main sidearm. However, in spite of the payment, Nagant attempted to use
3024-515: Is that it is usually loaded by hand, one round at a time, although a box-like device was made that could drop five rounds into the magazine, all at once via a stripper or en bloc clip. This made it slower to reload than other designs which used stripper or en bloc clips. Another historically important bolt-action system was the Gras system, used on the French Mle 1874 Gras rifle , Mle 1886 Lebel rifle (which
3150-413: Is the straight-pull mechanism, where no upward handle-turning is needed and the bolt unlocks automatically when the handle is pulled rearwards by the user's hand. The first bolt-action rifle was produced in 1824 by Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse , following work on breechloading rifles that dated to the 18th century. Von Dreyse would perfect his Nadelgewehr (Needle Rifle) by 1836, and it was adopted by
3276-487: Is the most common bolt-action system in the world, being in use in nearly all modern hunting rifles and the majority of military bolt-action rifles until the middle of the 20th century. The Mauser system is stronger than that of the Lee–Enfield system, due to two locking lugs just behind the bolt head, which make it better able to handle higher-pressure cartridges (i.e. magnum cartridges ). The 9.3×64mm Brenneke and 8×68mm S magnum rifle cartridge "families" were designed for
3402-545: The 1937 World Shooting Championships in Helsinki. M/28–30 model, serial number 60974, was also used by Simo Häyhä , a well-known Finnish sniper. M/28–30 was used as Civil Guards competition rifle before World War II, as was the case with Simo Häyhä's personal rifle. Therefore, rifles were built very well, with highest grade barrels available and carefully matched headspace. Häyhä's rifle was still at PKarPr (Northern Karelia Brigade) museum in 2002, then moved to an unknown place by
3528-636: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . After the Estonian War of Independence, Estonia had around 120,000 M/1891s in stock, later the Kaitseliit , the Estonian Defence League , received some Finnish M28/30 rifles, a few modernised variants were also made by the Estonian Armory; Most Finnish rifles were assembled by SAKO , Tikkakoski Oy, or VKT ( Valtion Kivääritehdas , State Rifle Factory, after
3654-516: The Biathlon World Cup . The first company to make the straight pull action for .22 caliber was J. G. Anschütz ; Peter Fortner junior designed the "Fortner Action", which was incorporated into the Anschütz 1827 Fortner . The Fortner action is specifically the straight-pull ball bearing lock action, which features spring-loaded ball bearings on the side of the bolt which lock into a groove inside
3780-537: The Boxer Rebellion (with the Gewehr 88s and the unlicensed Hanyang 88 copies also being used by the opposing Chinese troops), and served as a front line weapon for German troops during World War I until 1915 when the supply of Gewehr 98s increased. When Germany replaced the 88 with the Gewehr 98, many of the rifles were given to Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire during World War I because both states had
3906-771: The Czechoslovak Legions in Siberia to aid in their attempt to secure passage to France. Many of the New England Westinghouse and Remington Mosin–Nagants were sold to private citizens in the United States before World War II through the office of the Director of Civilian Marksmanship, the predecessor to the federal government's current Civilian Marksmanship Program . Large numbers of Mosin–Nagants were captured by German and Austro-Hungarian forces and saw service with
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4032-696: The East African Campaign . These rifles were also used by the German Volkssturm in 1944–1945. China also used this rifle extensively during the Qing dynasty and the Republican era. China first bought Gewehr 88 rifles for the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 and after that started production of the unlicensed Hanyang 88 copy. In the beginning of the 20th century China bought for a second time
4158-557: The Mosin–Nagant system. All four differ in the way the bolt fits into the receiver, how the bolt rotates as it is being operated, the number of locking lugs holding the bolt in place as the gun is fired, and whether the action is cocked on the opening of the bolt (as in both the Mauser system and the Mosin Nagant system) or the closing of the bolt (as in the Lee–Enfield system). The vast majority of modern bolt-action rifles were made for
4284-569: The Prussian Army in 1841. While it saw limited service in the German Revolutions of 1848 , it was not fielded widely until the 1864 victory over Denmark . In 1850 a metallic centerfire bolt-action breechloader was patented by Béatus Beringer. In 1852 another metallic centerfire bolt-action breechloader was patented by Joseph Needham and improved upon in 1862 with another patent. Two different systems for primers –the mechanism to ignite
4410-691: The Russian Empire , the Soviet Union and various other states. It is one of the most mass-produced military bolt-action rifles in history, with over 37 million units produced since 1891. In spite of its age, it has been used in various conflicts around the world up to the present day. During the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) , Imperial Russian troops armed mostly with single-shot Berdan rifles suffered heavy casualties against Ottoman troops equipped with Winchester 1866 repeating rifles , particularly at
4536-871: The Silesian Uprisings , the Turkish War of Independence , the Polish–Soviet War , by the Ulster Volunteers and by Lithuanians in the Lithuanian Wars of Independence ). About 5,500 Gewehr and Karabiner 88s were delivered to the Lithuanian Army in 1919–1920 (granted by Germany and sold by France and the UK). Used by the paramilitary Rifle Union, the rest were kept in the storage and were re-barreled before World War II. Inter-war Germany used Gewehr 88 rifles only for
4662-632: The Soviet Afghan War of the 80s and the following civil wars of the late 1980s and 90s. Their use in Afghanistan continued on well into the 1990s and the early 21st century by Northern Alliance forces. Mosin–Nagant rifles are still found on modern battlefields around the world. Russia has issued the rifle to conscripts from both occupied regions of the Donbas, and to conscripted Russian civilians as part of Vladimir Putin's wider general mobilization during
4788-533: The firing pin had to be independently primed and activated, and the lever was used only to move the bolt. [REDACTED] Media related to Bolt action (firearms) at Wikimedia Commons Gewehr 1888 The invention of smokeless powder in the late 19th century immediately rendered all of the large-bore black powder rifles then in use obsolete. To keep pace with the French (who had adopted smokeless powder "small bore" ammunition for their Lebel Model 1886 rifle )
4914-853: The rate of fire of the gun. In 1993, the German Blaser company introduced the Blaser R93 , a new straight pull action where locking is achieved by a series of concentric "claws" that protrude/retract from the bolthead, a design that is referred to as Radialbundverschluss ("radial connection"). As of 2017 the Rifle Shooter magazine listed its successor Blaser R8 as one of the three most popular straight pull rifles together with Merkel Helix and Browning Maral. Some other notable modern straight pull rifles are made by Beretta , C.G. Haenel , Chapuis , Heym , Lynx , Rößler , Savage Arms , Strasser, and Steel Action. Most straight bolt rifles have
5040-424: The striker within the bolt (either on opening or closing of the bolt depending on the gun design) and engages it against the sear . When the bolt is returned to the forward position, a new cartridge (if available) is pushed out of the magazine and into the barrel chamber , and finally the breech is closed tight by rotating the handle down so the bolt head relocks on the receiver. A less common bolt-action type
5166-626: The 1890s. It was a superior replacement using the same ammunition with a stronger powder charge. However, this rifle soon had to be converted to fire the new Spitzer round that Germany adopted after the turn of the century. With these modifications the newer design remained in use until the end of World War II. The Gewehr 88 was also sometimes made into very elegant sporting rifles by gunsmiths in Germany. Examples of these usually show first-class workmanship and special features such as folding sights and altered bolt handles. Some Karabiner 88 carbines are known to have been produced in 7×57mm Mauser instead of
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5292-695: The 1930s. Gewehr 88/05 rifles were also used by Yugoslavia , Czechoslovakia (for example as modified guard shotgun), and Poland . Gewehr 88 rifles have been used widely during post World War I revolutions, uprisings and wars (on both sides of the Russian Civil War , the German Revolution of 1918–19 , the Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–20) , the Greater Poland Uprising (1918–19) ,
5418-758: The American .30-06 Springfield cartridge. With the fall of the Iron Curtain , a large quantity of Mosin–Nagants have found their way onto markets outside of Russia as collectibles and hunting rifles. Due to the large surplus created by the Soviet small arms industry during World War II and the tendency of the former Soviet Union to retain and store large quantities of old but well-preserved surplus (long after other nations' militaries divested themselves of similar vintage materials), these rifles (mostly M1891/30 rifles and M1944 carbines) are inexpensive compared to other surplus arms of
5544-450: The Austro-Hungarian company to be one of the manufacturers of Gewehr 88s, and Mannlicher together with Otto Schönauer derived from the Mauser-Schlegelmilch design a whole family of turn-bolt actions, the last of which was serially produced until 1970s. The commission rifle's bolt action design was a commission modified Mauser action. The barrel design and rifling were virtually copied from the French Lebel. The rifle has an odd appearance as
5670-448: The Berdan rifles then in use by the Russian army. The Mosin rifle was first tested in combat in 1893, during clashes between Russian and Afghan troops in the Pamirs. The Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) was the rifle's first major conflict. By the time the war broke out in 1904, approximately 3.8 million had been built, with over 1.5 million in the hands of the Russian cavalry and all of its reserves when hostilities commenced. Between
5796-401: The Finnish Army. Mosin–Nagants have been exported from Finland since the 1960s as its military modernized and decommissioned the rifles. Most of these have ended up as inexpensive surplus for Western nations. In the USSR surplus military carbines (without bayonet) were sold as civilian hunting weapons. Also, the Mosin–Nagant action has been used to produce a limited number of commercial rifles,
5922-493: The Germans adopted the Gewehr 88 using its own new Patrone 88 cartridge , which was also designed by the German Rifle Commission. The rifle was one of many weapons in the arms race between the Germanic states and France, and with Europe in general. There were also two carbine versions, the Karabiner 88 for mounted troops and the Gewehr 91 for artillery. Later models provided for loading with stripper clips (Gewehr 88/05s and Gewehr 88/14s) and went on to serve in World War I to
6048-405: The Gewehr 1871 combined with a Mannlicher magazine. It has a receiver with a "split bridge" (i.e., the bolt passes through the receiver and locks in front of the rear bridge); a rotating bolt head; and the characteristic Mannlicher-style "packet loading" or "en-bloc" system in which cartridges are loaded into a steel carrier (an en bloc clip ) which is inserted into the magazine, where it holds
6174-446: The Gewehr 88 which was adopted for service in 1888. For this reason the Gewehr 88 is also known as the "commission rifle," or " Kommissionsgewehr ". The first step was to select a new cartridge. This began by adapting a Swiss design, resulting in the Patrone 88 or M/88 of 1888, an 8 mm rimless "necked" cartridge (bullet diameter 8.08 mm/.318 in) loaded with an 8.08 mm (.318 in) 14.6 g (226 gr) round-nose bullet propelled by
6300-422: The M10 and No 4 Mk IV rifles manufactured by Australian International Arms. Rifle Factory Ishapore of India manufactures a hunting and sporting rifle chambered in .315 which also employs the Lee Enfield action. The Mosin–Nagant action, created in 1891 and named after the designers Sergei Mosin and Léon Nagant , differs significantly from the Mauser and Lee–Enfield bolt-action designs. The Mosin–Nagant design has
6426-529: The Mauser M 98 bolt-action. A novel safety feature was the introduction of a third locking lug present at the rear of the bolt that normally did not lock the bolt, since it would introduce asymmetrical locking forces. The Mauser system features "cock on opening", meaning the upward rotation of the bolt when the rifle is opened cocks the action. A drawback of the Mauser M 98 system is that it cannot be cheaply mass-produced very easily. Many Mauser M 98-inspired derivatives feature technical alterations, such as omitting
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#17330850790596552-405: The Mosin–Nagant (Russia had not paid for the order at any time throughout the Great War). With Remington and Westinghouse on the precipice of bankruptcy from the Communists' decision, the remaining 280,000 rifles were purchased by the United States Army . American and British expeditionary forces of the North Russia Campaign were armed with these rifles and sent to Murmansk and Arkhangelsk in
6678-473: The Mosin–Nagant as a sniper rifle, with similar success with their own designs and captured Soviet rifles. For example, Simo Häyhä is credited with having killed 505 Soviet soldiers, many of whom fell victim to his Finnish M/28-30 derivative. Häyhä did not use a scope on his Mosin. In interviews Häyhä gave before his death, he said that the scope and mount designed by the Soviets required the shooter to expose himself too much and raise his head too high, increasing
6804-510: The Mosin–Nagant saw continued service throughout the Eastern bloc and the rest of the world for many decades to come. Mosin–Nagant rifles and carbines saw service on many fronts of the Cold War , from Korea and Vietnam to Afghanistan and along the Iron Curtain in Europe. They were kept not only as reserve stockpiles, but front-line infantry weapons as well. Finland was still producing the M39 Mosin–Nagant in small numbers as late as 1973. Virtually every country that received military aid from
6930-665: The Mosin–Nagant, all of them manufactured using the receivers of Russian-made, American-made, French-made or (later) Soviet-made rifles. Finland also utilized a number of captured M91 and M91/30 rifles with minimal modifications. As a result, the rifle was used on both sides of the Winter War and the Continuation War during World War II. Finnish Mosin–Nagants were produced by SAKO , Tikkakoski, and VKT, with some using barrels imported from Switzerland and Germany. In assembling M39 rifles, Finnish armorers reused "hex" receivers that dated back as far as 1891. Finnish rifles are characterized by Russian, French or American-made receivers stamped with
7056-403: The Russian army to meet or exceed European standards in rifle developments with "rifles of reduced caliber and cartridges with smokeless powder". The new weapons would entail "high velocities", exceeding 600 metres per second (2,000 ft/s) and would result in land battles both commencing and being capable of being fought at longer ranges, nearly two kilometers. The new Mosin rifles would replace
7182-403: The Soviet Union, China, and Eastern Europe during the Cold War used Mosin–Nagants at various times. Middle Eastern countries within the sphere of Soviet influence—Egypt, Syria , Iraq , Afghanistan and Palestinian fighters—have received them in addition to other more modern arms. Mosin–Nagants have also seen action in the hands of Soviet, Afghan and Mujahadeen forces in Afghanistan during
7308-418: The US as souvenirs. The rifle was adopted during a period of rapid development in firearms technology, and marked Germany's shift to a smokeless powder . This explains why its period as the primary German service rifle was just over a dozen years, but it remained in limited service for much longer. In 1898 a Mauser design was adopted, the Gewehr 98 , which was the culmination of a series of Mauser models in
7434-502: The United Kingdom as a purpose-built target rifle for use in NRA competition. Fullbore target rifle competitions historically used accurised examples of the prevailing service rifle, but it was felt these had reached the end of their development potential. The Swing bolt featured four lugs on the bolt head, at 45 degrees when closed - splitting the difference between the vertically locking Mauser and horizontally locking Enfield bolt designs. Supplied with Schultz & Larsen barrels and
7560-400: The United States in 1915. Remington produced 750,000 rifles before production was halted by the 1917 October Revolution . Deliveries to Russia had amounted to 469,951 rifles when the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended hostilities between the Central Powers and now Soviet-Russia. Henceforth, the new Bolshevik government of Vladimir Lenin cancelled payments to the American companies manufacturing
7686-516: The adoption of the final design in 1891 and the year 1910, several variants and modifications to the existing rifles were made. With the start of World War I , production was restricted to the M1891 dragoon and infantry models for the sake of simplicity. Due to the desperate shortage of arms and the shortcomings of a still-developing domestic industry , the Russian government ordered 1.5 million M1891 infantry rifles from Remington Arms and another 1.8 million from New England Westinghouse Company in
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#17330850790597812-483: The army capturing them in some rare cases (i.e.; Greece/Turks) or/and when they were re-barrelled. The markings found on Gew 88's are very extensive and therefore are a topic of their own. The maximum operating pressure for the Gewehr 88 commission rifle is less than that of any 8 mm Mauser rifle, as the makers of the Gewehr 88 did not fully understand the greater energy of smokeless powder compared to black powder. Shooters planning to use modern 8 mm ammunition in
7938-471: The barrel specifications from 7.9/8.1 mm to 7.9/8.2 mm hoping to improve accuracy and Gewehr 88 rifles made from that date on had different bores. The 8.08 mm (.318 in) bullet diameter however remained unchanged. After 1895 most Gewehr 1888 rifles were regrooved. In 1903, the Germany Army adopted a new service cartridge that fired lighter bullets measuring 8.20 mm (.323 in) in diameter. From then on, many Gewehr 88 rifles were rechambered to fire
8064-419: The barrel was shortened by 21.6 cm (8.5 in) to bring the weapon down to an overall length of 101.6 cm (40.0 in), with the forearm shortened in proportion. The idea was to issue the M38 to troops such as combat engineers , signal corps, and artillerymen, who could conceivably need to defend themselves from sudden enemy advances, but whose primary duties lay behind the front lines. Significantly,
8190-533: The bloody Siege of Pleven . This showed Russian commanders the need to modernize the general infantry weapon of the army. Various weapons were acquired and tested by GAU of the Ministry of War of the Russian Empire , and in 1889 the Lebel Model 1886 rifle was obtained through semi-official channels from France. It was supplied together with a model of the cartridge and bullet but without primer or smokeless powder . Those problems were solved by Russian scientists and engineers (the smokeless powder, for instance,
8316-472: The bolt ahead of the lugs may flex on firing which, although a safety advantage with repeated firing over time, this may lead to a stretched receiver and excessive headspacing, which if perceived as a problem can be remedied by changing the removable bolt head to a larger sized one (the Lee–Enfield bolt manufacture involved a mass production method where at final assembly the bolt body was fitted with one of three standard size bolt heads for correct headspace ). In
8442-462: The bolt cocks the action. This enables a shooter to keep eyes on sights and targets uninterrupted when cycling the bolt. The ability of the bolt to flex between the lugs and chamber, which also keeps the shooter safer in case of a catastrophic chamber overpressure failure. The disadvantage of the rearward-located bolt lugs is that a larger part of the receiver, between chamber and lugs, must be made stronger and heavier to resist stretching forces. Also,
8568-409: The bolt handle or bolt guide rib into a notch in the receiver , this method is still used in .22 rimfire rifles. The most common locking method is a rotating bolt with two lugs on the bolt head, which was used by the Lebel Model 1886 rifle , Model 1888 Commission Rifle , Mauser M 98 , Mosin–Nagant and most bolt-action rifles. The Lee–Enfield has a lug and guide rib, which lock on the rear end of
8694-407: The bolt in addition to the linear motions to perform chambering and primary extraction . The bolt locking of a straight pull action is achieved differently without needing manual inputs, therefore the entire operating cycle needs the shooter to perform only two movements (pull back and push forward), instead of four movements (rotate up, pull back, push forward, and rotate down), this greatly increases
8820-432: The bolt in place. The operation can be done via a rotating bolt , a lever, cam action, a locking piece, or a number of systems. Straight pull designs have seen a great deal of use, though manual turn bolt designs are what is most commonly thought of in reference to a bolt-action design due to the type ubiquity. As a result, the bolt-action term is often reserved for more modern types of rotating bolt designs when talking about
8946-409: The bolt into the receiver. The bolt knob is the part of the bolt handle that the user grips when loading and reloading the firearm and thereby acts as a cocking handle . On many older firearms, the bolt knob is welded to the bolt handle, and as such becoming an integral part of the bolt handle itself. On many newer firearms, the bolt knob is instead threaded onto the handle, allowing the user to change
9072-420: The bolt's housing. With the new design came a new dry fire method; instead of the bolt being turned up slightly, the action is locked back to catch the firing pin. The action was later used in the centre-fire Heym SR 30 . Typically, the bolt consists of a tube of metal inside of which the firing mechanism is housed, and which has at the front or rear of the tube several metal knobs, or "lugs", which serve to lock
9198-529: The bolt, but not enough to prevent interchangeability with the earlier Model 1891 and the so-called "Cossack dragoon" rifles. Finland was a Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire until 1917, so Finns had long used the Mosin–Nagant in service with the Imperial military. The rifle was used in the short Finnish Civil War and adopted as the service rifle of the new republic's army. Finland produced several variants of
9324-590: The bolt-action of Mosin's design was ordered into production under the name of 3-line rifle M1891 ( трёхлинейная винтовка образца 1891 года ). The colloquial name "Mosin-Nagant" used in the West is persistent but erroneous, as established in Nagant's legal dispute . Like the Gewehr 98 , the 1891 Mosin uses two front-locking lugs to lock up the action. However, the Mosin's lugs lock in
9450-425: The cartridges in alignment over a spring. As shots are fired the clip remains in place until the last round is chambered, at which point it drops through a hole in the bottom of the rifle. This system was used in almost all Mannlicher designs and derivatives, and while it allows for speedy reloading, it also creates an entry point for dirt. To settle a patent infringement claim by Steyr-Mannlicher , Germany contracted
9576-420: The chances of being spotted by the enemy. In addition, scopes tended to reflect sunlight when moved side to side, which gave away a sniper's position. In 1935–1936, the 91/30 was again modified, this time to lower production time. The "hex" receiver was changed to a round receiver. When war with Germany broke out, the need to produce Mosin–Nagants in vast quantities led to a further simplification of machining and
9702-473: The commercial market post-war, numbering in the tens of millions by Remington in the unique, and most accurate Model 700, two of the others use the Mauser system, with other designs such as the Lee–Enfield system and the Mosin Nagant system, of only limited usage. The Mauser bolt-action system is based on 19th-century Mauser bolt-action rifle designs and was finalized in the Gewehr 98 designed by Paul Mauser . It
9828-414: The decision was made to rename the existing commission and call it Commission for creation of the small-bore rifle ( Комиссия для выработки образца малокалиберного ружья ), and to put on paper the final requirements for such a rifle. The inventors obliged by delivering their final designs. Head of the commission, General Chagin, ordered subsequent tests held under the commission's supervision, after which
9954-455: The design of the interrupter after it was covered by the secrecy status given in Russia of that time to military inventions and therefore violated Russian law. Taking into consideration that Nagant was one of the few producers not engaged by competitive governments and generally eager to cooperate and share experience and technology, the Commission paid him a sum of 200,000 Russian rubles, equal to
10080-413: The design's inherent potential for superior accuracy and precision , as well as ruggedness and reliability compared to self-loading designs. Most bolt-action firearms use a rotating bolt operation, where the handle must first be rotated upward to unlock the bolt from the receiver , then pulled back to open the breech and allowing any spent cartridge case to be extracted and ejected. This also cocks
10206-401: The ejection/loading port in front of a split rear receiver ring, also serving a similar function to Mauser's "third" or "safety" lug. The rifling of the Mosin barrel is right turning (clockwise looking down the rifle) 4-groove with a twist of 1:9.5" or 1:10". The 5-round fixed metallic magazine can either be loaded by inserting the cartridges individually, or more often in military service, by
10332-407: The entire 'floating' barrel is encased in a sheet metal tube for protection, but with the tube removed the rifle looks rather modern. This tube was intended to increase accuracy by preventing the barrel from directly contacting the stock , but in practice it increased the risk of rusting by providing a space for water to be trapped if the rifle was exposed to harsh conditions. The Karabiner 88 utilized
10458-471: The evaluators were split in their assessment. The main disadvantages of Nagant's rifle were a more complicated mechanism and a long and tiresome procedure of disassembling (which required special instruments—it was necessary to unscrew two fasteners). Mosin's rifle was mainly criticized for its lower quality of manufacture and materials, due to "artisan pre-production" of his 300 rifles. The commission initially voted 14 to 10 to approve Mosin's rifle. At this point
10584-451: The existing bolt handle. These are often made of either rubber or plastic. Most bolt-action firearms are fed by an internal magazine loaded by hand, by en bloc , or by stripper clips , though a number of designs have had a detachable magazine or independent magazine, or even no magazine at all, thus requiring that each round be independently loaded. Generally, the magazine capacity is limited to between two and ten rounds, as it can permit
10710-414: The faster rate of fire that all semi-automatic rifle alternatives allow. There are, however, many semi-automatic rifle designs used especially in the designated marksman role. Today, bolt-action rifles are chiefly used as hunting and target rifles. These rifles can be used to hunt anything from vermin to deer and to large game , especially big game caught on a safari , as they are adequate to deliver
10836-473: The first to be generally adopted was the British 1888 Lee–Metford . World War I marked the height of the bolt-action rifle's use, with all of the nations in that war fielding troops armed with various bolt-action designs. During the buildup prior to World War II , the military bolt-action rifle began to be superseded by semi-automatic rifles and later fully automatic rifles , though bolt-action rifles remained
10962-563: The front sight of the M38 was positioned in such a way that the Model 91/30's cruciform bayonet could not be mounted to the muzzle even if a soldier obtained one. An increase in urban combat led directly to the development of the Model M44 Mosin. In essence, the M44 is an M38 with a slightly modified forearm and with a permanently mounted cruciform bayonet that folds to the right when it is not needed. It
11088-419: The horizontal position, whereas the Mauser locks vertically. The Mosin bolt body is multi-piece whereas the Mauser is one piece. The Mosin uses interchangeable bolt heads like the Lee–Enfield . Unlike the Mauser, which uses a controlled feed bolt head in which the cartridge base snaps up under the fixed extractor as the cartridge is fed from the magazine, the Mosin has a push feed recessed bolt head in which
11214-507: The interrupter, although he borrowed it from Mosin's design initially. Mosin could not apply for a patent since he was an officer of the Russian army, and the design of the rifle was owned by the Government and had the status of a military secret. A scandal was about to burst out, with Nagant threatening he would not participate in trials held in Russia ever again and some officials proposing to expel Nagant from any further trials, as he borrowed
11340-682: The late 19th century all the way through both World Wars , bolt-action rifles were the standard infantry service weapons for most of the world's military forces, with the exception of the United States Armed Forces , who used the M1 Garand Semi-automatic rifle . In modern military and law enforcement after the Second World War, bolt-action firearms have been largely replaced by semi-automatic and selective-fire firearms, and have remained only as sniper rifles due to
11466-490: The late summer of 1918 to prevent the large quantities of munitions delivered for Tsarist forces from being captured by the Central Powers. Remaining rifles were used for the training of U.S. Army troops. Some were used to equip U.S. National Guard , SATC , and ROTC units. Designated "U.S. Rifle, 7.62mm, Model of 1916", these are among the rarest of American service arms. In 1917, 50,000 rifles were sent via Vladivostok to
11592-461: The magazine to be flush with the bottom of the rifle, reduce the weight, or prevent mud and dirt from entering. A number of bolt-actions have a tube magazine , such as along the length of the barrel. In weapons other than large rifles, such as pistols and cannons , there were some manually operated breech-loading weapons. However, the Dreyse Needle fire rifle was the first breech loader to use
11718-560: The metallic cartridge bolt-action Gras rifle in 1874. European armies continued to develop bolt-action rifles through the latter half of the 19th century, first adopting tubular magazines as on the Kropatschek rifle and the Lebel rifle . The first bolt-action repeating rifle was patented in Britain in 1855 by an unidentified inventor through the patent agent Auguste Edouard Loradoux Bellford using
11844-539: The militia. Gewehr 88 rifles were also used in the Spanish Civil War by both sides. At the beginning of World War II some Gewehr 88 rifles were still in use, by second line units or paramilitary organizations (or partisans ) in Poland and Yugoslavia. Some of the ex- UVF rifles were used by Home Guard in the United Kingdom in 1940. Ethiopean rifles (some ex- UVF rifles also found their way there) also saw action during
11970-585: The most famous are the Vostok brand target rifles exported in Europe in the 1960s and 1970s chambered in the standard 7.62×54mmR round and in 6.5×54mmR, a necked-down version of the original cartridge designed for long range target shooting. Rifles in 6.5×54mmR use a necked-down 7.62×54mmR cartridge and were the standard rifle of the USSR's Olympic biathlon team until the International Olympic Committee revised
12096-459: The new smokeless powder . This made Germany's rifle, the Mauser Model 1871 , obsolete due to its large and slow 11 mm round propelled by black powder . The practical result was that the French rifle had greater accuracy and range, and needed cleaning much less often, giving French troops a tactical advantage over the German Army. In response the German Army's Rifle Testing Commission developed
12222-461: The new 1903 pattern 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge becoming Gewehr 88 S rifles. This rechambering required more work as the 7.92×57mm Mauser chambering required a wider chamber throat to take the thicker brass of the new 1903 pattern cartridge. 7.92×57mm Mauser adapted rifles have the receiver marked with a large "S" rollmark. From 1905 the rifles were also converted to use the Gewehr 98 type stripper clip by adding stripper clip guides to
12348-835: The original bolt knob for an aftermarket one, either for aesthetical reasons, achieving better grip or similar. The type of threads used vary between firearms. European firearms often use either M6 1 or M8 1.25 threads, for example M6 is used on the SIG Sauer 200 STR , Blaser R93 , Blaser R8 , CZ 457 and Bergara rifles, while M8 is used on the Sako TRG and SIG Sauer 404 . Many American firearms instead use 1/4" 28 TPI (6.35 0.907 mm) or 5/16" 24 TPI (7.9375 1.058 mm) threads. Some other thread types are also used, for example, No. 10 32 TPI (4.826 0.794 mm) as used by Mausingfield. There also exists aftermarket slip-on bolt handle covers which are mounted without having to remove
12474-477: The original rifle, the most common being the M1891/30 (commonly referred to as "the 91/30" by shooters), which was a modernized design introduced in 1930. Some details were borrowed from Nagant's design. Despite the failure of Nagant's rifle, he filed a patent suit, claiming he was entitled to the sum the winner was to receive. It appeared that Nagant was the first to apply for the international patent protection over
12600-488: The premium that Mosin received as the winner. The rifle did not receive the name of Mosin, because of the personal decision taken by Tsar Alexander III , which was made based on the opinion of the Defence Minister Pyotr Vannovskiy : there are parts in this newly created design, invented by Colonel Rogovtzev, by Lt.-General Chagin's Commission, Captain Mosin and small-arms manufacturer Nagant, therefore it
12726-469: The primary weapon of most of the combatants for the duration of the war; and many American units, especially the USMC , used bolt-action M1903 Springfield rifles until sufficient numbers of M1 Garand rifles were made available. The bolt-action is still common today among many sniper rifles , as the design has the potential for superior accuracy, reliability, reduced weight, and the ability to control loading over
12852-535: The rear-echelon forces of both armies, and also with the Imperial German Navy . Many of these weapons were sold to Finland in the 1920s. During the Russian Civil War , infantry and dragoon versions were still in production, though in dramatically reduced numbers. The rifle was widely used by all belligerents in the civil war. In 1924, following the victory of the Red Army , a committee was established to modernize
12978-517: The rifle as a Judenflinte ("Jews' musket"). After these claims were found insupportable, Ahlwardt was sentenced to 4 months in prison for malicious falsehood . Part of the production run was exported to China (see lower) or Latin America (for example Brazil army use them in War of Canudos in 1896–1897). The commission rifle saw field service with Germany's colonial expansion, including in China during
13104-475: The rifle, which had by then been in service for over three decades. This effort led to the development of the Model 91/30 rifle, which was based on the design of the original dragoon version. The barrel length was shortened by 7 cm (2.8 in). The sight measurements were converted from arshins to meters; and the front sight blade was replaced by a hooded post front sight less susceptible to being knocked out of alignment. There were also minor modifications to
13230-431: The rules of the event to reduce the range to 50 meters and required all competitors to use rifles chambered in .22 LR. A number of the Model 1891s produced by New England Westinghouse and Remington were sold to private citizens in the United States by the U.S. government through the Director of Civilian Marksmanship Program in the interwar period. Many of these American-made Mosin–Nagants were rechambered by wholesalers to
13356-631: The same era. Bolt action Bolt-action is a type of manual firearm action that is operated by directly manipulating the bolt via a bolt handle , most commonly placed on the right-hand side of the firearm (as most users are right-handed ). The majority of bolt-action firearms are rifles , but there are also some variants of shotguns and handguns that are bolt-action. Bolt-action firearms are generally repeating firearms , but many single-shot designs are available particularly in shooting sports where single-shot firearms are mandated, such as most Olympic and ISSF rifle disciplines. From
13482-520: The situation for publicity, resulting in the name "Mosin–Nagant" appearing in the Western press. From a technical point of view the rifle that came to be called "Mosin–Nagant" is the design proposed by Mosin as further amended by Mosin with some details borrowed from Nagant's design. Only since 1924 the rifle was officially named "Mosin's rifle" in the USSR, although some variants were still known only by their year of origin. In 1889 Tsar Alexander III ordered
13608-473: The spring-loaded extractor snaps over the cartridge base as the bolt is finally closed similar to the Gewehr 1888 and M91 Carcano or modern sporting rifles like the Remington 700 . Like the Mauser, the Mosin uses a blade ejector mounted in the receiver. The Mosin bolt is removed by simply pulling it fully to the rear of the receiver and squeezing the trigger, while the Mauser has a bolt stop lever separate from
13734-580: The third locking lug and feature a "cock on closing" operation. The Lee–Enfield bolt-action system was introduced in 1889 with the Lee–Metford and later Lee–Enfield rifles (the bolt system is named after the designer James Paris Lee and the barrel rifling after the Royal Small Arms Factory in the London Borough of Enfield ), and is a "cock on closing" action in which the forward thrust of
13860-489: The third safety locking lug, to simplify production. The controlled-feed on the Mauser M 98 bolt-action system is simple, strong, safe, and well-thought-out design that has inspired other military and sporting rifle designs that became available during the 20th century, including the: Versions of the Mauser action designed prior to the Gewehr 98's introduction, such as that of the Swedish Mauser rifles and carbines, lack
13986-528: The top rear of the receiver and altering the magazine becoming Gewehr 88/05 rifles. After the start of World War 1, some of the remaining Gewehr 88 S rifles were modified to the Gewehr 88/14 standard, which was generally similar to Gewehr 88/05 but with cruder workmanship. Some 88's were sold to various nations or armed groups, or captured in combat and therefore a wide variety of markings can be found such as Bulgarian stars, English proofs, Turkish crescents and symbols, Polish eagles etc. Gew 88's were re-serialized by
14112-454: The trigger. Like the Mauser, the bolt lift arc on the Mosin–Nagant is 90 degrees, versus 60 degrees on the Lee–Enfield. The Mauser bolt handle is at the rear of the bolt body and locks behind the solid rear receiver ring. The Mosin bolt handle is similar to the Mannlicher : it is attached to a protrusion on the middle of the bolt body, which serves as a bolt guide, and it locks protruding out of
14238-445: The use of 5-round stripper clips . The 3-line rifle, Model 1891 , its original official designation, was adopted by the Russian military in 1891. Production began in 1892 at the ordnance factories of Tula Arsenal , Izhevsk Arsenal and at Sestroryetsk Arsenal. An order for 500,000 rifles was placed with the French arms factory, Manufacture Nationale d'Armes de Châtellerault . There have been several refinements and variations of
14364-559: The usual M/88 or the 7.92×57mm Mauser chambering. These were likely intended for sale in South America, where use of the 7×57mm cartridge was widespread. All known 7×57mm Karabiner 88s were produced by Haenel. At the time of adoption, the M/88 "Patrone 7.9 mm" was loaded with a 14.6 g (226 gr) round nose bullet that measured 8.08 mm (.318 in) in diameter. In 1894/95 the German Army changed
14490-623: The wars part of Valtion Metallitehtaat (Valmet) , State Metalworks). The Finnish cartridge 7.62×53mmR is a slightly modified variation of the Russian 7.62×54mmR , and is considered interchangeable with 54R. However, the older version of the Finnish military cartridge was loaded with the S-type bullet that had nominal diameter of .308. In 1936 the Finnish Army fielded a new standard service cartridge intended for both machine guns and rifles. This new cartridge
14616-482: The wire sling hangers inserted in the slots in the forearm and buttstock meant to take the Russian "dog collars" for Russian-style slings, so the rifles could accept Western European–style rifle slings. At the beginning of the war, the Mosin–Nagant 91/30 was the standard-issue weapon of Soviet troops. Millions were produced in World War II for use by the largest mobilized army in history. The Mosin–Nagant Model 1891/30
14742-406: The years leading up to World War II, the Lee–Enfield bolt system was used in numerous commercial sporting and hunting rifles manufactured by such firms in the United Kingdom as BSA, LSA, and Parker–Hale, as well as by SAF Lithgow in Australia. Vast numbers of ex-military SMLE Mk III rifles were sporterised post WWII to create cheap, effective hunting rifles, and the Lee–Enfield bolt system is used in
14868-521: Was Jewish entrepreneur Isidor Loewe [de] . Isidor Loewe also held a controlling interest in the Waffenfabrik Mauser. According to Ahlwardt's claims, Loewe would either deliberately supply the German army with insufficient rifles, or, along with other Jews, secretly exchange rifles with flawed ones after they had passed the reliability tests. Ahlwardt accused Loewe of being a spy for France, and denounced
14994-719: Was also improved by adding coil spring to minimize very long pre-travel. Following M/39 does not have this improvement. The magazine was also modified to prevent jamming. Magazines were stamped with "HV" ( häiriövapaa , lit. ' jam free ' ) letters in right side of rifle. Later M/39 uses identical design, but without the "HV" stamp. M/28–30 also have metal sleeve in fore-end of handguard, to reduce barrel harmonics change and to make barrel-stock contact more constant between shots and/or during environmental changes such as moisture and temperature. Later M/39 does not have this upgrade. In addition to its military usage, approximately 440 M/28–30 rifles were manufactured by SAKO for use in
15120-643: Was an improvement on the Model 91/30, particularly for urban warfare; but few M44s saw combat on the Eastern Front. By the end of the war, approximately 19.8 million Mosin–Nagant rifles had been produced. In the years after World War II, the Soviet Union ceased production of all Mosin–Nagants and withdrew them from service in favor of the SKS series carbines and eventually the AK series rifles. Despite its increasing obsolescence,
15246-594: Was loaded with a new bullet designed in 1934–the D-166, which had a nominal diameter of .310. The new service rifle m/39 was designed from the start around the D-166, thus it had nominal barrel diameter of .310. Handloaded cartridges for Finnish rifles should however use a 0.308-inch (7.8 mm) bullet for use with other Finnish Mosin–Nagant variants instead of the 0.310-inch (7.9 mm) one which gives best results in M/39, Soviet and most of other Mosin–Nagant rifles. The trigger
15372-533: Was modified and adapted as a sniper rifle from 1932 onwards, first with mounts and scopes from Germany then with domestic designs ( PE , PEM) from 1931; from 1942 it was issued with 3.5-power PU fixed focus scopes . It served quite prominently in the brutal urban battles on the Eastern Front , such as the Battle of Stalingrad , which made heroes of such snipers as Vasily Zaitsev , Lyudmila Pavlichenko , Ivan Sidorenko , and Roza Shanina . Finland also employed
15498-592: Was produced by Dmitri Mendeleev himself). In 1889, three rifles were submitted for evaluation: Captain Sergei Ivanovich Mosin of the imperial army submitted his "3-line" caliber (.30 cal, 7.62 mm ) rifle; Belgian designer Léon Nagant submitted a "3.5-line" (.35 caliber, 9 mm) design; and a Captain Zinoviev submitted another "3-line" design (1 " line " = 1 ⁄ 10 in or 2.54 mm, thus 3 lines = 7.62 mm). When trials concluded in 1891,
15624-462: Was the first to introduce ammunition loaded with nitrocellulose-based smokeless powder ), and the Berthier series of rifles. Straight-pull bolt-actions differ from conventional turn-pull bolt-action mechanisms in that the bolt can be cycled back and forward without rotating the handle and thus only a linear motion is required, as opposed to a traditional bolt-action, where the user has to axially rotate
15750-574: Was ultimately considered too complicated for issue to soldiers and was supplanted by the Springfield Model 1861 , a conventional muzzle loading rifle. During the American Civil War, the bolt-action Palmer carbine was patented in 1863, and by 1865, 1000 were purchased for use as cavalry weapons. The French Army adopted its first bolt-action rifle, the Chassepot rifle , in 1866 and followed with
15876-521: Was used by Norway, Denmark, and briefly the United States. It is unusual among bolt-action rifles in that is loaded through a gate on the right side of the receiver, and thus can be reloaded without opening the bolt. The Norwegian and Danish versions of the Krag have two locking lugs, while the American version has only one. In all versions, the bolt handle itself serves as an emergency locking lug. The Krag's major disadvantage compared to other bolt-action designs
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