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111-413: The park extends across both terrestrial and aquatic areas of Golfo Triste. It covers 32,090 ha (79,300 acres). It contains an area of mangroves and numerous islets or cays , including Borracho, Muerto, Sombrero, Sal, Las Animas, and Peraza. White sand beaches on these cays include Mero, Paiclas, Los Juanes, Playuela, Tucupido, Azul and Boca Seca. The park's bays, mangroves, cays and islands sit in

222-462: A mourning dove and a bare-tailed woolly opossum in its stomach. In Florida, bass , tarpon and especially mullet , large crabs , snakes , mammals that habit the riparian and coastal regions of the Everglades , such as opossums and raccoons appeared to be the primary prey of American crocodiles. In Southern Florida, it was found that American Crocodiles rely on marine food sources 65% of

333-508: A 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) crocodile of its own species, a turtle shell and peccary hooves. It was noted that historically in Mexico that, among several local farmers, the capturing of livestock by American crocodiles has been a source of some conflict between humans and American crocodiles and large adults occasionally can become habitual predators of goats, dogs, pigs and cattle. In Quintana Roo, Mexico , most prey that could be determined

444-868: A Florida zoo escaped its cage and started a fight with a large male American alligator in a bordering pen, and was killed. Conversely, there is one confirmed case of an American crocodile preying on a sub-adult American alligator in the wild in Florida. American alligators and American crocodiles do not often come into conflict in the wild, due largely to habitat partitioning and largely separate distributions. There are several records of American crocodiles killing and eating spectacled caimans in South America. Areas with healthy American crocodile populations often hold only limited numbers of spectacled caimans, while conversely areas that formerly held American crocodiles but where they are now heavily depleted or are locally extinct show

555-555: A basis for the development of a bio-inspired method of desalination . Uptake of Na ions is desirable for halophytes to build up osmotic potential , absorb water and sustain turgor pressure . However, excess Na ions may work on toxic element. Therefore, halophytes try to adjust salinity delicately between growth and survival strategies. In this point of view, a novel sustainable desalination method can be derived from halophytes, which are in contact with saline water through their roots. Halophytes exclude salt through their roots, secrete

666-589: A complex salt filtration system and a complex root system to cope with saltwater immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the low-oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud, but are most likely to thrive in the upper half of the intertidal zone . The mangrove biome , often called the mangrove forest or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. Mangrove forests serve as vital habitats for

777-468: A critical food source for larger predators like birds, reptiles, and mammals within the ecosystem. Additionally, mangrove forests function as essential nurseries for many commercially important fish species, providing a sheltered environment rich in nutrients during their early life stages. The decomposition of leaves and organic matter in the water further enhances the nutrient content, supporting overall ecosystem productivity. In summary, mangrove forests play

888-434: A crucial and unbiased role in sustaining biodiversity and ecological balance within coastal food webs. Larger marine organisms benefit from the habitat as a nursery for their offspring. Lemon sharks depend on mangrove creeks to give birth to their pups. The ecosystem provides little competition and minimizes threats of predation to juvenile lemon sharks as they use the cover of mangroves to practice hunting before entering

999-534: A diverse array of aquatic species, offering a unique ecosystem that supports the intricate interplay of marine life and terrestrial vegetation. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (3 to 4% salinity), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 9% salinity). Beginning in 2010, remote sensing technologies and global data have been used to assess areas, conditions and deforestation rates of mangroves around

1110-568: A faster growth rate than alligators, and are much more tolerant of saltwater. Unlike other crocodiles, the American crocodile uses acoustic signals to communicate. Crocodile communication is centered on short-distance communications during courtship and hatching. Cleaning symbiosis involving fish and the American crocodile has been described. American crocodiles are apex predators , and any aquatic or terrestrial animal they encounter in freshwater , riparian and coastal saltwater habitats

1221-519: A favorite food of the green turtle. The park is inhabited by about 266 species of birds, as reported by the Cuare Wildlife Refuge. Because Morrocoy National Park and Wildlife Refuge Cuare are located in the same geographic area, it is inferred that the avifauna has a similar composition. Some notable bird species are the osprey ; vulnerable species such as American flamingo , tricolored heron and brown pelican ; species whose preferred habitat

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1332-452: A fundamental environmental index for future reference. Mangrove forests are one of the most carbon-rich biomes, accounting for 11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans. Viruses are thought to significantly influence local and global biogeochemical cycles , though as of 2019 little information was available about the community structure, genetic diversity and ecological roles of viruses in mangrove ecosystems. Viruses are

1443-465: A given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides

1554-622: A global annual deforestation rate estimated at 0.16%, and per-country rates as high as 0.70%. Degradation in quality of remaining mangroves is also an important concern. There is interest in mangrove restoration for several reasons. Mangroves support sustainable coastal and marine ecosystems. They protect nearby areas from tsunamis and extreme weather events. Mangrove forests are also effective at carbon sequestration and storage. The success of mangrove restoration may depend heavily on engagement with local stakeholders, and on careful assessment to ensure that growing conditions will be suitable for

1665-464: A hierarchical, triple layered pore structure in the epidermis and most Na ions are filtered at the first sublayer of the outermost layer. The high blockage of Na ions is attributed to the high surface zeta potential of the first layer. The second layer, which is composed of macroporous structures , also facilitates Na ion filtration. The study provides insights into the mechanism underlying water filtration through halophyte roots and could serve as

1776-411: A higher concentration of white mangroves. Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in tropical coastal ecosystems. Knowing this, scientists seek to reconstruct the environment and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem over thousands of years using sediment cores. However, an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also gets deposited in

1887-480: A home (habitat) for a great variety of other species, including as many as 174 species of marine megafauna . Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of low environmental oxygen levels, high salinity , and frequent tidal flooding . Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within

1998-410: A key role in maintaining prey species along coastlines and within mangrove ecosystems. Mangrove forests can decay into peat deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as well as by the action of termites . It becomes peat in good geochemical , sedimentary, and tectonic conditions. The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of mangroves involved. In Puerto Rico ,

2109-407: A long history to survive against harsh environmental conditions. In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. Mangrove seeds are buoyant and are therefore suited to water dispersal. Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangroves (e.g. red mangrove ) are viviparous , meaning their seeds germinate while still attached to

2220-457: A mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal flooding and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as crabs preying on plant seedlings. Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it

2331-451: A quiet marine habitat for young organisms. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include algae , barnacles , oysters , sponges , and bryozoans , which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter-feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy bottoms as their home. Mangrove crabs eat the mangrove leaves, adding nutrients to the mangal mud for other bottom feeders. In at least some cases,

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2442-455: A recent analysis of Pacific Ocean Virome data identified niche-specialised AMGs that contribute to depth-stratified host adaptations. Given that microbes drive global biogeochemical cycles, and a large fraction of microbes is infected by viruses at any given time, viral-encoded AMGs must play important roles in global biogeochemistry and microbial metabolic evolution. Mangrove forests are the only woody halophytes that live in salt water along

2553-570: A repertoire of microbial taxa that contribute to important ecological functions in mangrove ecosystems. Like typical terrestrial plants, mangroves depend upon mutually beneficial interactions with microbial communities. In particular, microbes residing in developed roots could help mangroves transform nutrients into usable forms before plant assimilation. These microbes also provide mangroves phytohormones for suppressing phytopathogens or helping mangroves withstand heat and salinity. In turn, root-associated microbes receive carbon metabolites from

2664-516: A sinuous fashion, but they cannot sustain this speed. Adults have a uniform grayish-green coloration with white or yellow undersides, while juveniles have dark cross-banding on the tail and back. The American crocodile is sometimes confused with the Morelet's crocodile , a smaller species that is native to Mexico. New hatchlings are about 27 cm ( 10 + 1 ⁄ 2  in) in length and about 60 g (2 oz) in mass. The average adult in

2775-402: A week, simulating frequent tropical rainstorms. A 2016 study by Kim et al. investigated the biophysical characteristics of sea water filtration in the roots of the mangrove Rhizophora stylosa from a plant hydrodynamic point of view. R. stylosa can grow even in saline water and the salt level in its roots is regulated within a certain threshold value through filtration. The root possesses

2886-405: A year before arriving in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so that the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of more favorable conditions. The following listings, based on Tomlinson, 2016, give

2997-497: Is a shrub or tree that grows mainly in coastal saline or brackish water . Mangroves grow in an equatorial climate, typically along coastlines and tidal rivers. They have particular adaptations to take in extra oxygen and remove salt, allowing them to tolerate conditions that kill most plants. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse due to convergent evolution in several plant families. They occur worldwide in

3108-455: Is a highly fecund species. Average clutch size is 38 eggs, and fecundity is over 20% after 15 years old. The species has a high adult survival rate and a long life span. Like all true crocodilians, the American crocodile is a quadruped , with short, stocky legs; a long, powerful tail; and a scaly hide with rows of ossified scutes running down its back and tail. Individuals can be identified by using multiple dorsal scute patterns. Its snout

3219-705: Is already occurring. The fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal particles in the sediments have concentrated from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and organisms of the area. Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion , storm surge (especially during tropical cyclones ), and tsunamis . They limit high-energy wave erosion mainly during events such as storm surges and tsunamis. The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water so that its sediment

3330-721: Is also a diverse range of insects. From Caracas , one takes the Central Regional Highway past Guacara (approximately 140 km). A variant is taking the highway via Yagua to Puerto Cabello. In the Morón, one takes the highway Morón-Tucacas and, after traveling 40 km, one reaches the entrance to Morrocoy National Park. Morrocoy National Park has a wide range of landscapes. Beaches include Sombrero Cay, Playuela, Playuelita, Alemán Cay, Mayorquina, Pescadores Cay, Mero Beach, Punta Brava, Boca Paiclás, Boca Seca, Los Juanes, Bajo Caimán, Tucupido, Sal Cay and Borracho Cay. Three islets outside

3441-416: Is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. In this way, mangroves build their environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national biodiversity action plans . The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers

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3552-485: Is elongated and includes a strong pair of jaws . A 3.2-metre (10 ft 6 in), 164-kilogram (362 lb) specimen had a bite force of 4,355  N (979  lb f ). Its eyes have nictitating membranes for protection, along with lacrimal glands , which produce tears. The nostrils , eyes , and ears are situated on the top of its head, so the rest of the body can be concealed underwater for surprise attacks. Camouflage also helps it prey on food. The snout

3663-407: Is essential. Additionally, the intermittent flooding of sea water and resulting sharp transition of mangrove environments may result in substantially different genetic and functional diversity of bacterial and viral communities in mangrove soils compared with those of other systems. American crocodile The American crocodile ( Crocodylus acutus ) is a species of crocodilian found in

3774-566: Is longer and narrower than that of the American alligator , but broader on average than that of the Orinoco crocodile . American crocodiles are also paler and more grayish than the relatively dark-hued American alligator. This crocodile species normally crawls on its belly, but it can also "high walk". Larger specimens can charge up to nearly 16 km/h (10 mph). They can swim as fast as 32 km/h (20 mph) by moving their bodies and tails in

3885-864: Is potential prey. The snout of the American crocodile is broader than some specialized fish-eating crocodilians (e.g., gharials and freshwater crocodiles ), allowing it to supplement its diet with a wider variety of prey. In addition the snout gets even broader and bulkier as the animal matures, a sign for a shift in prey items. Prey species have ranged in size from the insects taken by young American crocodiles to full-grown cattle taken by large adults, and can include various birds , mammals , turtles , snakes , lizards , smaller crocodilians , echinoderms , insects, arachnids , crabs , other crustaceans , snails , other molluscs , frogs , fish , and occasionally carrion and fruits . In Haiti , hatchling and juvenile American crocodiles lived primarily off of fiddler crabs ( Uca ssp.), making up 33.8% and 62.3% of

3996-461: Is reported to be higher than in well-preserved mangroves Studies comparing mangroves in different conservation states show that bacterial composition in disturbed mangrove sediment alters its structure, leading to a functional equilibrium, where the dynamics of chemicals in mangrove soils lead to the remodeling of its microbial structure. Despite many research advancements in mangrove sediment bacterial metagenomics diversity in various conditions over

4107-492: Is stored in soil and sizable belowground pools of dead roots, aiding in the conservation and recycling of nutrients beneath forests. Although mangroves cover only 0.5% of the earth's coastal area, they account for 10–15% of the coastal sediment carbon storage and 10–11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans. The disproportionate contribution of mangroves to carbon sequestration is now perceived as an important means to counterbalance greenhouse gas emissions. Despite

4218-627: Is stored in the sediment and the carbon cycle continues. Mangroves are an important source of blue carbon . Globally, mangroves stored 4.19 Gt (9.2 × 10  lb) of carbon in 2012. Two percent of global mangrove carbon was lost between 2000 and 2012, equivalent to a maximum potential of 0.316996250 Gt (6.9885710 × 10  lb) of emissions of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere . Globally, mangroves have been shown to provide measurable economic protections to coastal communities affected by tropical storms. Plant microbiomes play crucial roles in

4329-519: Is the mangrove such as neotropic cormorant , snowy egret , scaled piculet , orange-winged amazon and scarlet ibis ; and species with restricted distribution such as the magnificent frigatebird . The mangroves of Morrocoy Bay act as bird sanctuaries, especially on the mangrove-covered island of Pájaros in the central area of the park. Morrocoy has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports significant populations of many bird species. Mammals include

4440-474: Is the most widespread of the four extant species of crocodiles from the Americas. They are saltwater-tolerant, and have thus been capable of colonizing a multitude of islands within the Caribbean, and on some coastal Pacific islands as well. They inhabit waters such as mangrove swamps, river mouths, fresh waters, and salt lakes, and can even be found at sea, hence their wide distribution throughout southern Florida,

4551-447: The American crocodile , all considered threatened . Fish breeding in the park include grouper , snapper , corvina, tarpon , snook , toadfish , school shark , sardines , mackerel , grunt , barracuda and the many species that inhabit the coral reefs . Shellfish species are the mangrove oyster, sea hares , quigua , spiny lobsters ( Panulirus argus and Panulirus guttatus ), blue and red crabs and other species. There

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4662-748: The Caribbean . They are also found in hypersaline lakes; one of the largest known populations inhabits Lago Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic . The American crocodile is one of the largest crocodile species. Males can reach lengths of more than 6.1 m (20 ft 0 in), weighing over 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). On average, mature males are more in the range of 2.9 to 4.1 m (9 ft 6 in to 13 ft 5 in) in length weighing up to about 400 kg (880 lb). As with other crocodile species, females are smaller, rarely exceeding 3.8 m (12 ft 6 in) in length even in

4773-590: The Florida Keys . A sizable population occurs near Homestead , at the Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station . Some individuals have been sighted in Palm Beach , Brevard , Pinellas and Sarasota counties. Their range in Florida is the only place in the world where alligators and crocodiles coexist . The current US population, estimated at 2,000 and growing, is a sign of return to

4884-564: The Malay language manggi-manggi The English usage may reflect a corruption via folk etymology of the words mangrow and grove . The word "mangrove" is used in at least three senses: According to Hogarth (2015), among the recognized mangrove species there are about 70 species in 20 genera from 16 families that constitute the "true mangroves" – species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats. Demonstrating convergent evolution , many of these species found similar solutions to

4995-511: The Neotropics . It is the most widespread of the four extant species of crocodiles from the Americas, with populations present from South Florida , the Caribbean islands of Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and the coasts of Mexico to as far south as Peru , Ecuador , Colombia , and Venezuela . The habitat of the American crocodile consists largely of coastal areas. It is also found in river systems , but tends to prefer salinity , resulting in

5106-547: The Oligocene / Miocene boundary. American crocodile populations in Florida, Jamaica and Hispaniola (in the Dominican Republic) differ in gene frequencies. Below is a cladogram based on a 2018 tip dating study by Lee & Yates simultaneously using morphological , molecular ( DNA sequencing ), and stratigraphic ( fossil age) data, as revised by the 2021 Hekkala et al. paleogenomics study using DNA extracted from

5217-480: The bulk soil outside the rhizosphere . Furthermore, it was noted that the root episphere, rather than the rhizosphere, was primarily responsible for controlling the entry of specific microbial populations into the root, resulting in the selective enrichment of Proteobacteria in the endosphere. These findings provide new insights into the niche differentiation of root-associated microbial communities, Nevertheless, amplicon-based community profiling may not provide

5328-480: The dolphins and whales that use the park as a refuge. Land mammals are found mainly in the Chichiriviche Hill area, including brocket and white-tailed deer , anteaters , crab-eating foxes , howler monkeys , three-toed sloths , opossums , pacas , agoutis and peccaries . Marine reptiles include various turtle species such as green , hawksbill , leatherback and olive ridley sea turtles as well as

5439-420: The red , white , and black mangroves occupy different ecological niches and have slightly different chemical compositions, so the carbon content varies between the species, as well between the different tissues of the plant (e.g., leaf matter versus roots). In Puerto Rico, there is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations, which are dominated by red mangroves, to farther inland with

5550-633: The tropics and subtropics and even some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove area within 5° of the equator . Mangrove plant families first appeared during the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene epochs and became widely distributed in part due to the movement of tectonic plates . The oldest known fossils of mangrove palm date to 75 million years ago. Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, shrubs and ferns also called halophytes , and are adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. They contain

5661-527: The American crocodile was poorly understood. However, the discovery of the Miocene species Crocodylus checchiai indicates that it, the Orinoco crocodile ( Crocodylus intermedius ), Morelet's crocodile ( C. moreletii ), and the Cuban crocodile ( C. rhombifer ) all share an ancestor hailing from Africa. The newly discovered animal may also represent the base of the evolutionary radiation of these animals, representing

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5772-669: The Greater Antilles (excluding Puerto Rico and Isla de la Juventud , where they are replaced by the introduced spectacled caiman ), Martinique , southern Mexico (including the Yucatán Peninsula ), Central America , and the South American countries of Colombia , Peru , Venezuela (including on Margarita Island ), and Ecuador . The American crocodile is especially plentiful in Costa Rica. American crocodiles coexist with

5883-477: The North Island but become low scrub toward their southern limit. In both instances, the species is referred to as Avicennia marina var. australis , although genetic comparison is clearly needed. In Western Australia, A. marina extends as far south as Bunbury (33° 19'S). In the northern hemisphere, scrubby Avicennia gerrninans in Florida occurs as far north as St. Augustine on the east coast and Cedar Point on

5994-518: The accidental translocation of the animal outside of its normal range. The species is thus not considered indigenous to Trinidad. The American crocodile's saline tolerance may have allowed it to inhabit limited portions of the United States, particularly southern Florida. Contrary to popular misinformation, the presence of the American alligator is not the reason the American crocodile was unable to populate brackish waters north of Florida, but rather

6105-551: The accumulated salt through their aerial parts and sequester salt in senescent leaves and/or the bark. Mangroves are facultative halophytes and Bruguiera is known for its special ultrafiltration system that can filter approximately 90% of Na ions from the surrounding seawater through the roots. The species also exhibits a high rate of salt rejection. The water-filtering process in mangrove roots has received considerable attention for several decades. Morphological structures of plants and their functions have been evolved through

6216-440: The area of the park, Norte, Medio Cay, and Sur Cay, about 13 km (8 mi) from Tucacas, are in a Special Protection Area. Los Juanes is part of Morrocoy National Park, with access only by sea by private boat or small fishing boat. It has two islands ideal for snorkeling over coral reefs and among mangroves. [REDACTED] Media related to Parque Nacional Morrocoy at Wikimedia Commons Mangrove A mangrove

6327-517: The climate, as crocodiles are less tolerant of cold. Within the United States, the American crocodile's distribution is generally limited to the southern tip of Florida, though at least two have been found as far north as the Tampa Bay area . They are primarily found south of the latitude of Miami , in Everglades National Park , Florida Bay , Biscayne Bay , Dry Tortugas National Park and

6438-583: The commercial market. The widespread hunting did not cease until the 1970s: at one point in that decade, there were fewer than thirty total nests counted. As of 2020, further population seems to be expanding south to reclaim former habitat in the Florida Keys , where numbers are multiplying quickly, and old records indicate they once inhabited mangroves as far north as Tampa Bay. American crocodiles are more susceptible to cold weather than American alligators. American crocodiles do not have social groups, but occasionally they congregate for feeding and basking in

6549-422: The continental rivers can range from 2.9 to 4 m (9 ft 6 in to 13 ft 1 in) long and weigh up to 382 kg (842 lb) in males, while females can range from 2.5 to 3 m (8 ft 2 in to 9 ft 10 in) and weigh up to 173 kg (381 lb), the lower total length representing their average size at sexual maturity, the upper representing the expected upper size limit for

6660-421: The daytime. While basking, they will leave their mouths wide open that exposes blood vessels in the mouth to cooler and warmer air, which helps regulate body temperature. While an American alligator can survive in water temperatures of 7.2 °C (45.0 °F) and below for some time, an American crocodile in that environment would lose consciousness and drown due to hypothermia. American crocodiles, however, have

6771-456: The diet by weight, respectively. Elsewhere, aquatic insects and their larvae and snails are near the top of the food list for American crocodiles at this very early age. Immature and subadult American crocodiles, per a study in Mexico , have a more diverse diet that can include insects, fish, frogs, small turtles, birds and small mammals. One specimen of 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) had a catfish,

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6882-474: The eastern slopes of the Chichiriviche hills, the xerophytic vegetation of the cactus family can be seen. Red , black , white and buttonwood mangroves are the dominant vegetation and landscape of the park and form a unit that preserves the ecologically fragile balance of the coastline in an area of about 4,500 ha. Among the underwater marine growth is a wide variety of algae as well as seagrass ,

6993-509: The ecological importance of mangrove ecosystem, knowledge on mangrove biodiversity is notably limited. Previous reports mainly investigated the biodiversity of mangrove fauna, flora and bacterial communities. Particularly, little information is available about viral communities and their roles in mangrove soil ecosystems. In view of the importance of viruses in structuring and regulating host communities and mediating element biogeochemical cycles, exploring viral communities in mangrove ecosystems

7104-531: The end of the 19th century, hunting them for their leather became a cottage industry in South Florida, and beginning in 1910, habitat destruction commenced on a massive scale, with the construction of a railroad designed to connect the mainland with the Keys. Crocodile hunters, who migrated to the upper Florida Keys before and after the railroad’s construction, slaughtered almost every crocodile in northeast Florida Bay for

7215-411: The export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs. Mangrove forests contribute significantly to coastal ecosystems by fostering complex and diverse food webs . The intricate root systems of mangroves create a habitat conducive to the proliferation of microorganisms, crustaceans, and small fish, forming the foundational tiers of the food chain. This abundance of organisms serves as

7326-944: The extinct Voay . Voay † Crocodylus anthropophagus † Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni † Crocodylus palaeindicus † Crocodylus Tirari Desert † Crocodylus johnstoni Freshwater crocodile [REDACTED] Crocodylus novaeguineae New Guinea crocodile Crocodylus mindorensis Philippine crocodile Crocodylus porosus Saltwater crocodile [REDACTED] Crocodylus siamensis Siamese crocodile [REDACTED] Crocodylus palustris Mugger crocodile [REDACTED] Crocodylus checchiai † Crocodylus falconensis † Crocodylus suchus West African crocodile Crocodylus niloticus Nile crocodile [REDACTED] Crocodylus moreletii Morelet's crocodile Crocodylus rhombifer Cuban crocodile [REDACTED] Crocodylus intermedius Orinoco crocodile Crocodylus acutus American crocodile [REDACTED] The American crocodile

7437-568: The food web of the ocean. Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, and India host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans. The mangrove food chain extends beyond the marine ecosystem. Coastal bird species inhabit the tidal ecosystems feeding off small marine organisms and wetland insects. Common bird families found in mangroves around the world are egrets , kingfishers , herons , and hornbills , among many others dependent on ecological range. Bird predation plays

7548-405: The functional characteristics of root-associated microbial communities in plant growth and biogeochemical cycling. Unraveling functional patterns across the four root compartments holds a great potential for understanding functional mechanisms responsible for mediating root–microbe interactions in support of enhancing mangrove ecosystem functioning. The diversity of bacteria in disturbed mangroves

7659-405: The head of Biscayne Bay , Hornaday and his companions searched for it and reported: In a few hours, we got sight of him, out on the bank in a saw-grass wallow. He was a monster for size—a perfect whale of a saurian, gray in color—and by all the powers, he was a genuine crocodile! Crocodylus floridanus is now considered an invalid junior synonym of C. acutus . Until 2020, the evolution of

7770-402: The health and productivity of mangroves. Many researchers have successfully applied knowledge acquired about plant microbiomes to produce specific inocula for crop protection. Such inocula can stimulate plant growth by releasing phytohormones and enhancing uptake of some mineral nutrients (particularly phosphorus and nitrogen). However, most of the plant microbiome studies have focused on

7881-626: The importance of root-associated bacteria and fungi for mangrove growth and health. Recent studies have investigated the detailed structure of root-associated microbial communities at a continuous fine-scale in other plants, where a microhabitat was divided into four root compartments: endosphere, episphere, rhizosphere, and nonrhizosphere or bulk soil . Moreover, the microbial communities in each compartment have been reported to have unique characteristics. Root exudates selectively enrich adapted microbial populations; however, these exudates were found to exert only marginal impacts on microbes in

7992-725: The largest living crocodilians in the Neotropical realm . It is estimated that specimens of C.acutus measuring 3 m (9 ft 10 in) in TL would weigh around 100 kg (220 lb), specimens measuring 4 m (13 ft 1 in) in TL would weigh around 270 kg (600 lb), and specimens measuring 6.25 m (20 ft 6 in) in TL would weigh around 1,100 kg (2,400 lb). However, body mass can be fairly variable in mature adults. A large male specimen from Costa Rica measuring 4.83 m (15 ft 10 in) in total length weighed about 538 kg (1,186 lb). On

8103-480: The largest-bodied population. Like any other large crocodilian, the American crocodile is potentially dangerous to humans, but it tends not to be as aggressive as some other species. American crocodiles coexist with the American alligator in Florida, and with the smaller spectacled caiman within Central America and South America. The IUCN lists the American crocodile as vulnerable . The American crocodile

8214-492: The limited fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapor during photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. A captive red mangrove grows only if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times

8325-460: The limits of distribution, the formation is represented by scrubby, usually monotypic Avicennia -dominated vegetation, as at Westonport Bay and Corner Inlet, Victoria, Australia. The latter locality is the highest latitude (38° 45'S) at which mangroves occur naturally. The mangroves in New Zealand, which extend as far south as 37°, are of the same type; they start as low forest in the northern part of

8436-472: The major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater. At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and reduced moisture before being then cooled and flooded by

8547-522: The mangrove species in each listed plant genus and family. Mangrove environments in the Eastern Hemisphere harbor six times as many species of trees and shrubs as do mangroves in the New World. Genetic divergence of mangrove lineages from terrestrial relatives, in combination with fossil evidence, suggests mangrove diversity is limited by evolutionary transition into the stressful marine environment, and

8658-457: The missing link between crocodiles in Africa and the Americas. The genus Crocodylus likely originated in Africa and radiated outward toward Southeast Asia and the Americas, although an Australia/Asia origin has also been considered. Phylogenetic evidence supports Crocodylus diverging from its closest recent relative, the extinct Voay of Madagascar , around 25 million years ago, near

8769-403: The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and economically important crop plants, such as rice , barley , wheat , maize and soybean . There is less information on the microbiomes of tree species. Plant microbiomes are determined by plant-related factors (e.g., genotype , organ, species, and health status) and environmental factors (e.g., land use, climate, and nutrient availability). Two of

8880-488: The most abundant biological entities on earth, present in virtually all ecosystems. By lysing their hosts, that is, by rupturing their cell membranes, viruses control host abundance and affect the structure of host communities. Viruses also influence their host diversity and evolution through horizontal gene transfer , selection for resistance and manipulation of bacterial metabolisms . Importantly, marine viruses affect local and global biogeochemical cycles through

8991-421: The northernmost portion of their range. There were suspicions as early as 1829 by Rafinesque that there were more than just alligators in the state, but confirmation could not be acquired until 1869, when a specimen could be brought back for examination. Records show they were plentiful in areas like Key Largo , Miami Beach , and wherever there were the appropriate mangroves for nesting and foraging. However, at

9102-546: The number of mangrove lineages has increased steadily over the Tertiary with little global extinction. Mangroves are a type of tropical vegetation with some outliers established in subtropical latitudes, notably in South Florida and southern Japan, as well as South Africa, New Zealand and Victoria (Australia). These outliers result either from unbroken coastlines and island chains or from reliable supplies of propagules floating on warm ocean currents from rich mangrove regions. "At

9213-1103: The other hand, another specimen measuring 3.95 m (13 ft 0 in) in total length was found to have weighed 500 kg (1,100 lb) An individual named "Papillon" was considered to be one of the largest American crocodiles in captivity. It measured 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in) in length, weighed 500 kg (1,100 lb), and was estimated to be more than 80 years old when he died. The largest recorded female measured 4.4 m (14 ft 5 in) in length and weighed 450 kg (1,000 lb). Exceptionally large specimens may arguably exceed 5 m (16 ft 5 in), possibly reaching or exceeding 6.1 m (20 ft 0 in), but such specimens are unverified and possibly dubious although some are arguably supported by size projections from skull lengths. These exceptionally large crocodiles are estimated to range between 6 and 7 m (19 ft 8 in and 23 ft 0 in) in length and weigh between 900 and 1,300 kg (2,000 and 2,900 lb), though these are mere estimations and not verified. The American crocodile

9324-473: The parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. Aegialitis , Avicennia and Aegiceras ), or out through the fruit (e.g. Rhizophora , Ceriops , Bruguiera and Nypa ) to form a propagule (a ready-to-go seedling) which can produce its own food via photosynthesis . The mature propagule then drops into the water, which can transport it great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over

9435-429: The past few years, bridging the research gap and expanding our knowledge towards the relationship between microbes mainly constituted of bacteria and its nutrient cycles in the mangrove sediment and direct and indirect impacts on mangrove growth and stand-structures as coastal barriers and other ecological service providers. Thus, based on studies by Lai et al.'s systematic review, here they suggest sampling improvements and

9546-927: The plant via root exudates , thus close associations between the plant and microbes are established for their mutual benefits. The taxonomic class level shows that most Proteobacteria were reported to come from Gammaproteobacteria, followed by Deltaproteobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria. The diverse function and the phylogenic variation of Gammaproteobacteria, which consisted of orders such as Alteromonadales and Vibrionales, are found in marine and coastal regions and are high in abundance in mangrove sediments functioning as nutrient recyclers. Members of Deltaproteobacteria found in mangrove soil are mostly sulfur-related, consisting of Desulfobacterales , Desulfuromonadales , Desulfovibrionales , and Desulfarculales among others. Highly diverse microbial communities (mainly bacteria and fungi ) have been found to inhabit and function in mangrove roots. For example, diazotrophic bacteria in

9657-450: The plant was exposed. In a frequently cited concept that has become known as the "sacrificial leaf", salt which does accumulate in the shoot (sprout) then concentrates in old leaves, which the plant then sheds. However, recent research on the Red mangrove Rhizophora mangle suggests that the older, yellowing leaves have no more measurable salt content than the other, greener leaves. Because of

9768-549: The plant-related factors, plant species, and genotypes, have been shown to play significant roles in shaping rhizosphere and plant microbiomes, as tree genotypes and species are associated with specific microbial communities . Different plant organs also have specific microbial communities depending on plant-associated factors (plant genotype, available nutrients, and organ-specific physicochemical conditions) and environmental conditions (associated with aboveground and underground surfaces and disturbances). Mangrove roots harbour

9879-731: The release of substantial amounts of organic carbon and nutrients from hosts and assist microbes in driving biogeochemical cycles with auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs). It is presumed AMGs augment viral-infected host metabolism and facilitate the production of new viruses. AMGs have been extensively explored in marine cyanophages and include genes involved in photosynthesis, carbon turnover, phosphate uptake and stress response. Cultivation-independent metagenomic analysis of viral communities has identified additional AMGs that are involved in motility, central carbon metabolism, photosystem I, energy metabolism, iron–sulphur clusters, anti-oxidation and sulphur and nitrogen cycling. Interestingly,

9990-848: The respective sex in most known populations. Common weights of adult American crocodiles in Florida may range from 50 to 250 kg (110 to 550 lb) with corresponding lengths of 2.5 to 3.85 m (8 ft 2 in to 12 ft 8 in). With extensive conservation efforts underway, there appears to be an increase in the number of large American crocodiles in Florida, some of the largest reportedly exceeding 4 m (13 ft 1 in) in length. Eight adult American crocodiles from Costa Rica ranged in total length from 2.82 to 4.83 m (9 ft 3 in to 15 ft 10 in). Large adults of this species are capable of reaching 500–600 kg (1,100–1,300 lb) in weight, with individuals approaching 6 m (19 ft 8 in) exceeding 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) in weight, ranking it among

10101-453: The rest of the plant. One study found that roots of the Indian mangrove Avicennia officinalis exclude 90% to 95% of the salt in water taken up by the plant, depositing the excluded salt in the cortex of the root. An increase in the production of suberin and in the activity of a gene regulating cytochrome P450 were observed in correlation with an increase in the salinity of the water to which

10212-411: The sediment due to the tidal flushing of mangrove forests. Termites play an important role in the formation of peat from mangrove materials. They process fallen leaf litter , root systems and wood from mangroves into peat to build their nests, and stabilise the chemistry of this peat that represents approximately 2% of above ground carbon storage in mangroves. As the nests are buried over time this carbon

10323-515: The shadow of the Chichiriviche hills, with elevations up to around 250 m. At 285 m high, Chichiriviche Hill is the highest point in the park. It stands amid the surrounding coastal environment of Tertiary-period coral origin, belonging to the Capadare - Agua Linda limestone geological formation. The warm tropical climate is influenced by the north-east trade winds , with low rates of precipitation. Temperatures are relatively uniform throughout

10434-548: The smaller spectacled caiman within Central America. The only other crocodiles present within the American crocodile's range are the Morelet's crocodile , and the critically endangered Cuban and Orinoco crocodiles . In addition, an American/Cuban crocodile hybrid was recently discovered in the Cancún area of Mexico. The crocodile likely originated in the Zapata Swamp of Cuba (the only place where these wild hybrids exist, and where

10545-465: The soil like straws for breathing. These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to 30 cm (12 in), and in some species, over 3 m (9.8 ft). The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate transport within the plants. Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, little free oxygen is available. Anaerobic bacteria liberate nitrogen gas, soluble ferrum (iron), inorganic phosphates , sulfides , and methane , which make

10656-503: The soil much less nutritious. Pneumatophores ( aerial roots ) allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as iron, from the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them even when the roots are submerged during high tide. Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots that are highly suberised (impregnated with suberin ), acting as an ultrafiltration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from

10767-727: The species chosen. The International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem is celebrated every year on 26 July. Etymology of the English term mangrove can only be speculative and is disputed. The term may have come to English from the Portuguese mangue or the Spanish mangle . Further back, it may be traced to South America and Cariban and Arawakan languages such as Taíno . Other possibilities include

10878-451: The species congregating in brackish lakes , mangrove swamps, lagoons , cays , and small islands. Other crocodiles also have tolerance to saltwater due to salt glands underneath the tongue, but the American crocodile is the only species other than the saltwater crocodile to commonly live and thrive in saltwater. They can be found on beaches and small island formations without any freshwater source, such as many cays and islets across

10989-512: The swamps available, as well as brackish portions of rivers. American crocodiles have recently been sighted in Grand Cayman, leading experts to believe the species may be swimming from Cuba (which is home to a large American crocodile population) and slowly repopulating Grand Cayman. There have been reports of American crocodiles in Trinidad , however, those sightings are thought to have arisen due to

11100-435: The tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as several other key environmental factors—thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community. About 110 species are considered mangroves, in the sense of being trees that grow in such a saline swamp, though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus, Rhizophora . However,

11211-457: The time and rely on water gleaned from marine food 80% of the time. In Haiti, adults appeared to live largely off of various birds , including herons , storks , flamingos , pelicans , grebes , coots and moorhens , followed by concentrations of fish including Tilapia and Cichlasoma , at times being seen to capture turtles , dogs and goats . One 3 m (9 ft 10 in) adult from Honduras had stomach contents consisting of

11322-754: The tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), anaerobic soils, and intense sunlight. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangrove. The greatest biodiversity of mangroves occurs in Southeast Asia , particularly in the Indonesian archipelago . The red mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle ) survives in the most inundated areas, props itself above the water level with stilt or prop roots and then absorbs air through lenticels in its bark. The black mangrove ( Avicennia germinans ) lives on higher ground and develops many specialized root-like structures called pneumatophores , which stick up out of

11433-539: The two species are sympatric ), and swam to the Yucatán Peninsula . One of its largest documented populations (the largest in the Caribbean ) is in Lago Enriquillo, a hypersaline lake in the Dominican Republic. In Haiti , the only population known is in the brackish lake Etang Saumâtre , where the population is nearing extirpation due to overhunting and poaching. In Jamaica, the species inhabits most of

11544-569: The typical way for most crocodilians, ambushing terrestrial prey when it comes to edge of the water or is sitting in shallows and dragging it down to be drowned or attempting to ambush aquatic prey from near the surface of the water. Adult American crocodiles are apex predators; they have no natural predators. They are known predators of lemon sharks , and sharks avoid areas with American crocodiles. Usually, American alligators are dominant over and more behaviorally aggressive than American crocodiles. However, on one occasion, an American crocodile in

11655-579: The vicinity of mangrove roots could perform biological nitrogen fixation , which provides 40–60% of the total nitrogen required by mangroves; the soil attached to mangrove roots lacks oxygen but is rich in organic matter, providing an optimal microenvironment for sulfate-reducing bacteria and methanogens , ligninolytic , cellulolytic , and amylolytic fungi are prevalent in the mangrove root environment; rhizosphere fungi could help mangroves survive in waterlogged and nutrient-restricted environments. These studies have provided increasing evidence to support

11766-631: The west. There are records of A. germinans and Rhizophora mangle for Bermuda, presumably supplied by the Gulf Stream. In southern Japan, Kandelia obovata occurs to about 31 °N (Tagawa in Hosakawa et al., 1977, but initially referred to as K. candel )." Mangrove forests , also called mangrove swamps or mangals , are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas. Areas where mangroves occur include estuaries and marine shorelines. The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents

11877-403: The world's subtropical and tropical coastlines. Mangroves are one of the most productive and ecologically important ecosystems on earth. The rates of primary production of mangroves equal those of tropical humid evergreen forests and coral reefs. As a globally relevant component of the carbon cycle, mangroves sequester approximately 24 million metric tons of carbon each year. Most mangrove carbon

11988-537: The world. In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a new global baseline which estimates the total mangrove forest area of the world as of 2010 at 137,600 km (53,100 sq mi), spanning 118 countries and territories. A 2022 study on losses and gains of tidal wetlands estimates a 3,700 km (1,400 sq mi) net decrease in global mangrove extent from 1999 to 2019. Mangrove loss continues due to human activity, with

12099-710: The year between 27 and 35 °C. In cold weather, it can drop to between 23-26 °C. The rainiest period extends from August to December, particularly in November and December. The flora corresponds to the area of tropical dry forests. The vegetation is quite varied and is closely associated with geomorphological positions, the most important subsets being the coast , coastal lagoons , marshes , saline shoals , cays and shallow seabed. It ranges from evergreen plants, such as olives , to deciduous plants such as Bursera simaruba . Plants, such as glass grass, are adapted to high salinity soils . Continuing toward Mayorquina on

12210-474: Was described by Georges Cuvier in 1807, and became known as the "sharp-snout alligator". In 1822, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque postulated that the species was in fact a crocodile. The species was redescribed as Crocodylus floridanus by William Temple Hornaday in 1875, when Hornaday and C. E. Jackson were sent to Florida to collect alligator hides. Upon hearing of a "big old gator" in Arch Creek at

12321-482: Was fish for sub-adults and adults with sub-adults having a broader prey base than either younger or adult American crocodiles. In Costa Rica, American crocodiles have been recorded hunting and killing adult female olive ridley sea turtles ( Lepidochelys olivacea ) when they come to nest around beaches. Reportedly, these American crocodiles hunt primarily in the first few hours after nightfall, especially on moonless nights, although they will feed at any time. It hunts in

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