Adolfo Alejandro Nouel y Bobadilla (12 December 1862, Santo Domingo – 26 June 1937) was an archbishop , educator and interim president of the Dominican Republic .
188-685: Nouel was born to Carlos Rafael Nouel y Pierret , a Dominican diplomat, law teacher, journalist, and businessman of French descent, and Clemencia Antonia Bobadilla y Desmier D'Olbreuse (daughter of President Tomás Bobadilla y Briones , of full Spanish descent and the first ruler of the Dominican Republic, with his wife of French noble origin María Virginia Desmier D'Olbreuse y Allard, from the Desmier of Olbreuse dynasty) in Santo Domingo . Nouel
376-559: A Frenchman, appeared off the Haitian coast, taking prizes . On November 4, the squadron bombarded the Haitian village of Anse-à-Pitres and disembarked a landing party, seizing booty . The next day, the Dominican ships bombarded Les Cayes , captured a schooner and sank some small craft. Fagalde wanted to sail up the Windward Passage between Haiti and Cuba in search of more prizes. However,
564-474: A Haitian warship and bombarded two Haitian ports. In November 1855, Soulouque, having proclaimed himself Emperor Faustin I of a Haitian empire which he hoped to expand to include the Dominican Republic, invaded his neighbor again, this time with an army of 30,000 men marching in three columns. But again the Dominicans proved to be superior soldiers, defeating Soulouque's army, which vastly outnumbered them. In
752-465: A blockade of Dominican ports. Three columns of Haitian troops, totaling 30,000 men, were dispatched on the 10th: one toward Las Caobas under Hérard's command, another towards Neiba, and a third to Santiago and Puerto Plata. General Santana led his cowboys westward. Skirmishes followed, with Haitian forces winning most but suffering higher casualties. The Dominicans fought with stones, knives, machetes, lances, clubs, and rifles. After Santana's victory at
940-460: A certain social level, mostly linked to the lumber business. At the beginning of 1843, a rebellion broke out in the south of Haiti that led to the overthrow of Boyer and opened a situation of instability taken advantage of by the conspirators of the secret society La Trinitaria , led by Juan Pablo Duarte . At that time, under the La Reforma regime, Bobadilla fell into disgrace for the first time as
1128-434: A collaborator of the Haitian regime, although it can be assumed that this position was the product of the conviction that there was no other alternative. In subsequent years he issued virulent judgments about Haitian rule, which possibly reflected his true consideration and, therefore, led him to call for a breakup as soon as he saw it feasible. Its retrospective rejection was justified by cultural considerations that asserted
1316-558: A considerable part of the Santanistas is explained because they gave priority to their conflict with Buenaventura Báez. The enmity between Baecistas and Santanistas became so terrible that, with Santana gone, his followers could prefer anything as long as their inveterate enemy did not reign. Dominican War of Independence Dominican victory Separation of the Santo Domingo territory from Haiti The Dominican War of Independence ( Spanish : Guerra de Independencia Dominicana )
1504-447: A couple, for more than a decade, with María Virginia Desmier D'Olbreuse, daughter of French emigrants, twice widowed by French people. Bobadilla had his children with her out of wedlock, although he recognized them. It came to be in May 1832 that the couple legally formalized their marital situation, both civilly and ecclesiastically. He distinguished his wife with the delicacy of the mentality of
1692-586: A criminal, persecuted and punished if necessary. In those days, urged by the imperative to prepare resistance against the Haitians, Sánchez did not give importance to the differences in objectives that separated them from the conservatives. It is explained that on March 8 the Junta sent a document to the French consul in which it requested the protection of that country in the event that Haitian troops entered; The proposal included
1880-499: A despotic order. He regained Santana's trust, although he never restored it within his inner circle. Judged essential, in any case, the lawyer continued to perform relevant functions within the State, in addition to that of president of the Senate. He refrained to avoid having a conflict with the hatero general again, thereby resigning himself to being inserted into a tyranny. On the occasion of
2068-521: A few pieces, considering that President Charles Rivière-Herárd , during his visit to the eastern part of the island in 1843, "had taken care to empty the State warehouses"; this explains why, within a week of receiving it, the Central Governing Board sent to buy two thousand rifles from Curaçao , undoubtedly with part of the funds raised from the forced contribution fixed as a result of the total lack of public funds. The French representative
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#17328833957542256-411: A formidable threat to their preponderance, so that they felt obliged to forge alliances with all those who rejected the only one who then had the status of popular leader. To his surprise, the triumphant restaurateurs, far from arresting him or shooting him as a traitor, immediately asked him to provide his services to the Dominican Republic. History continued to repeat itself: Bobadilla was requested, as
2444-400: A matter of course, in recognition of his political skills, seen as necessary for the success of a government administration; and, as on previous occasions, he bowed to the demand, also as a natural thing and as an inevitable destiny. Since 1866, at the end of Báez's third government, politics was polarized between his followers, already known as reds, and those of the liberal side, coming from
2632-468: A mulatto who was seen as an ally promised his full support to the frontier governors, and thus he ceremonially entered the country with around 10,000 soldiers in February 1822, after most of the cities and towns proclaimed their allegiance to Boyer between November 1821 and January 1822. On February 9, 1822, Boyer formally entered the capital city, Santo Domingo, where he was received by Núñez who offered to him
2820-403: A musket had no effective range greater than 30 meters and 90 meters when used in lines and columns, as was customary at the time; with good training, a unit could fire 3 to 4 musket shots per minute, if logistics and conditions permitted. These references to the spatial effectiveness of firearms explain why the bladed weapon, while its use drove Haitians into disarray, was given a central place in
3008-500: A new campaign. However, on February 27, when he ordered his troops to march against the Dominicans, the Haitian army mutinied, resulting in his overthrow. The war had become highly unpopular in Haiti, therefore, Jean-Baptiste Riché , Pierrot's successor, was unable to organize another invasion. On March 9, 1849, Haiti's President Faustin Soulouque of Haiti led 10,000 troops in an invasion of
3196-444: A panorama allowed him to publicly state for the first time his position against the maintenance of independence. Duarte and other Trinitarios raised their protest immediately; A state of opinion was created that led to a coup d'état , the 18 Dominican Brumaire , on June 9, 1844, with the support of the people and troops of the city, through which the conservatives who had defended the French protection. Bobadilla had to hide and wait for
3384-458: A questionable substance of the Haitian people: The distinctive character of Haitians is vain, proud, little inclined to work, friends of leisure and dissolution, without morals, without customs, without Religion, inclined to theft, lying, drunkenness and all the vices they can. constitute the degradation of a people, and almost no civil and political virtue can be pointed out to them. Practiced in murdering, plundering and devastating, their ambition
3572-615: A range of 300-350 yards (274.32 m-320.04 m), could pass through 19 men or 7 feet of compacted earth (in Santiago two 2-pound cannons were used in Fort Libertad , 4-pound cannons in Fort Patria and 8-pound cannons in Fort Dios ); the shrapnel, widely used in the Dominican defense, according to the French manuals of the time, was to be used when the enemy was 250 yards (228.60 meters) away, while
3760-537: A result of being accused of being a collaborator of the deposed President Boyer. It cannot, however, be considered that he leaned towards Dominican independence out of resentment. In fact, knowing the environment of the time like no one else, he sensed that independence was going to occur and announced to his intimates that he had decided to accompany “the boys.” The greatest effect of his separation from public positions must have been to facilitate his participation in conspiratorial activities. Until then, Bobadilla appeared as
3948-412: A result of the "fog" generated by exchanges of musket and artillery fire. Smoke not only limited the vision of the battlefield for all contenders, but this feeling of disorientation caused optical and auditory illusions to be generated that deceived soldiers and officers alike. Finally, the noise generated not only by the shots of cannons and muskets but also by the snorting of horses, nearby bullets and
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#17328833957544136-480: A reward for his services, in his last government Santana had him appointed president of the Consulting Senate. As on previous occasions, Bobadilla began to actively intervene in the elucidation of the country's central problems, although without being a key piece of the power racket. He had already shown signs of dealing with issues such as promoting immigration, the functioning of the courts, the rationalization of
4324-464: A small population. John Hogan , an American diplomat who arrived in the country in 1845, reported that the population was 250,000. Navy Lieutenant David Dixon Porter , instructed to carry out an investigation with the purpose of seeing if the Dominican Republic could be recognized as an independent nation, he reported that the number of its inhabitants was 175,000 individuals. This quote is more precise than Hogan's, since unlike him, Porter investigated
4512-421: A statesman endowed with the ability to perceive the content of problems and propose solutions in accordance with the circumstances. From that angle, he was probably the first political-intellectual figure of his time, with an outstanding capacity explained by his long performance in power. He was deeply involved in the Dominican environment and knew all the notable figures of his time; He was intimately familiar with
4700-528: A student of Archbishop Fernando Arturo de Meriño . He went to Italy where he studied in the Colegio Latin Pio for ten years. He excelled in this school as one of the brightest students. In 1883 he received a doctorate in philosophy and bachelor's degree in theology and canon law from the Gregorian University. In 1885, accompanied by Monsignor Meriño, he returned to Santo Domingo and received
4888-417: A summit was held in the house of the two cannons, owned by Manuel Joaquín del Monte, another conservative lawyer who until then collaborated with the Haitians. The intransigence of both parties prevented agreements and the movement retreated after the repression deployed by President Charles Rivière-Hérard in mid-1843. As a result, Duarte had to leave the country, and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez remained at
5076-447: Is dominant and they have never been able to establish a solid government, having let the elements they had to constitute a State under the laws of reason and justice, known as the law of nations, disappear; so they have not been able to progress; They have always been in decline: they are enemies of foreigners, they do not allow them to marry in the country, acquire real estate […]. With his commitment, Bobadilla gave considerable impetus to
5264-451: Is explained by their condition as a key piece for various tasks, the approach of a "tactical school" of the white weapon, which was erected in the pivot of the battles of independence, is questionable. The transfiguration of peasants who used machetes and lances as work tools into skilled masters of their performance as war props is contrasted with the four elements taken into account by the renowned British author John Keegan when determining
5452-414: Is impossible to understand that the Dominican army had a tactical school of edged weapons, whether machetes or lances, in front of an enemy armed with rifles and muskets. The first Dominican Government was thus faced with a serious dilemma: the lack of a quick response from France and the support for independence of "resolute, vigorous and enthusiastic men" but "barely armed." Hence, at the time of ordering
5640-499: Is perceived in the former Thirteen Colonies and in Haiti itself, when Northern Haiti, (formerly the Kingdom of Haiti under Henri Christophe ), integrated with Southern Haiti under the aegis of Boyer. Firearms marked the evolution of the process of National Independence even when it was still in its infancy. However, the firearms available for the defense of the nascent Dominican Republic were scarce and battered. The first clashes with
5828-527: Is referred to as the España Boba era. The Captaincy General of Santo Domingo had approximately 80,000 inhabitants, with the majority being European descendants and mulattos. For most of its history Santo Domingo had an economy based on mining and cattle ranching. The population in the Spanish colony was significantly lower than the French side of the island, which had a population of nearly one million slaves before
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6016-448: Is supported by the fact that the parents returned in 1810, that is, as soon as the return of Spanish sovereignty occurred and they judged that the dangerous conditions that kept them outside the land would not be repeated. It could be asserted that the tenacious decision not to abandon Dominican soil that he showed for the rest of his life, a key explanatory of his political behavior, was due to this unfortunate experience of youth. Despite
6204-465: The Separación Dominicana (5 guns), commanded by Juan Bautista Cambiaso , defeated a Haitian brigantine Pandora (4 guns) plus schooners Le signifie and La Mouche off the coast of Azua on April 15, sinking all three enemy ships and killing all the Haitian sailors without losing any of their own ships. As a result of these successive Haitian defeats, Hérard was ousted on May 3, leading to
6392-690: The Americas that began with the independence of the United States in 1776, continued with that of Haiti in 1804 and concluded with that of Panama in 1903. The project of the Independent State of Spanish Haiti barely lasted nine weeks. By the same time, eastern Hispaniola apsired to join Gran Colombia , in accordance with the thought of the Liberator Simón Bolívar of emancipating and uniting
6580-503: The Battle of Azua on March 19, he retreated, allowing Hérard's forces to occupy Azua. The Dominicans shifted their military operations to the Ocoa River and the valleys of Baní , where their cavalry and lancers could effectively operate. This hindered the Haitian advance beyond Azua. The Haitians sustained casualties in their attempts to advance through mountain passes and were repelled. In
6768-579: The Dominican Republic , he had a significant participation in the movement for Dominican independence . He is arguably the Dominican politician with the longest and most intense public life, serving in the most diverse scenarios: Under España Boba since 1810; in the "State" created by José Núñez de Cáceres in 1821; during the Haitian occupation almost until 1844; Then with the Trinitarios , even drafting
6956-466: The Dominican State on 1 March 1844; they established a cabinet called the " Central Gubernative Junta " and chose Bobadilla as president. He issued a decree that ensured that the new government will not act against the Haitians who reside in the territory and respect their properties. The content of the resolution is the following: Instructed that the news is circulated in the public that due to
7144-536: The Haitian Revolution . Santo Domingo was regionally divided with many rival and competing provincial leaders. During this period in time the Spanish crown wielded little to no influence in the colony. Some wealthy cattle ranchers had become rulers, and sought to bring control and order in the southeast of the colony where the "law of machete" ruled the land. On November 9, 1821 the former Captain general in charge of
7332-464: The Manifesto of January 16 , which stated the causes of the overthrow of Haitian rule and the policy that the Dominican Republic should follow. The sources agree that Bobadilla took part in the preparation of the text or he was its editor; The most credible thing is that he corrected and expanded it. After the initial fighting, liberal Trinitarians and conservative Frenchifieds begun the organisation of
7520-555: The Ozama Fortress in the capital Santo Domingo. The Haitian garrison was taken by surprise, apparently betrayed by one of its sentinels. Another group of insurgents, led by Mella, reached the Puerta de la Misericordia where he fired the legendary blunderbuss and Sánchez, at tip of Puerta del Conde , immediately raised the new Dominican flag, shouting the national slogan: Dios, Patria Y Libertad (God, Homeland and Freedom). The following day
7708-547: The Royal Audience of Santo Domingo . Consequently, he accepted Santana's decision to incorporate the country into Spain in March 1861, but he was not co-responsible for that step nor did he show enthusiasm for it. As Rufino Martínez highlights, following his cautious attitude of calculation, he considered that, once decided, the measure would be carried out and he was obliged to accept it because it coincided with his convictions about
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7896-462: The "Manifesto of January 16" which served as an act of independence in 1844. Later he occupied all the existing Ministries and Portfolios of the nascent republic, of which one of the measures included the abolition of slavery . Then an annexationist in 1861, but "without enthusiasm" according to historian Roberto Cassá ; to end up as a nationalist until his death, which occurred in the Haitian capital, Port-au-Prince , on December 21, 1871, when he
8084-457: The Dominican Republic to Spain in 1861. The annexation led to a guerrilla war between Dominican nationalists and Spanish forces beginning in 1863. This war resulted in 10,888 Spanish soldiers killed or wounded and another 30,000 dead from yellow fever . Spain spent over 33 million pesos on the war. This immense monetary cost, combined with the heavy human toll of the war, led Spain to finally withdraw its forces in 1865. The Dominicans who opposed
8272-461: The Dominican Republic was born without a shilling in its coffers. When studying the process of Dominican independence, which began to take shape by the 1820s, the influences of Pradt's work, and the pactist ideas of John Locke , in his Essays on Civil Government , and the Declaration of Independence of the United States become apparent. These struggles intertwined into the emancipation process of
8460-404: The Dominican Republic. The Haitians attacked the Dominican garrison at Las Matas. According to historian Robert L. Scheina, "The demoralized defenders offered almost no resistance and abandoned their weapons." The Haitian army continued their campaign against the Dominicans, capturing and burning the town of Azua. Dominican General (and presidential contender) Santana raised 800 soldiers and, with
8648-566: The Dominican State. On the one hand, as has been seen, his presence was almost irreplaceable as the figure with the greatest experience and capacity as a lawyer and jurist. At the same time, after 1846, he never achieved a level of power that would allow him to decisively influence the evolution of the political process. Rather, to the extent that he aspired to play a leading role, he suffered failures that led him to resign himself to performing subordinate functions and moving with extreme caution in
8836-424: The Dominican crews mutinied so Fagalde returned to the port of Santo Domingo. On November 8, Soulouque declared the Dominicans pirates, but possessing no naval force at that time he could do little else. Following a Haitian rejection of a Dominican peace proposal, Báez dispatched a second naval expedition against Haiti. On December 3, the squadron composed of the brigantines 27 de Febrero and General Santana and
9024-584: The Dominican forces under the command of General José María Imbert and General Fernando Valerio defeated another Haitian army, which in its retreat committed numerous misdeeds, robberies and fires until reaching Haiti. The first naval battle was fought on April 15, 1844. The result of the battle was that the Dominicans sank three enemy ships, without losing a single one of their own. A second campaign, led by Jean-Louis Pierrot , began after intense border hostilities. In May 1845, President Santana, assisted by General Duvergé and General José Joaquín Puello , defeated
9212-537: The Dominican stronghold at Fort Cachimán. The Haitians were repulsed after a battle that lasted three and a half hours, in which the Dominicans only suffered seven casualties. But the arrival of Haitian reinforcements soon compelled the Dominicans to retreat back across the frontier. On August 6, Pierrot ordered his army to invade the Dominican Republic. A member of La Trinitaria, José María Serra, claimed that over 3,000 Haitian soldiers and less than 20 Dominican militias had been killed at this point. On September 17, 1845,
9400-415: The Dominicans defeated the Haitian vanguard near the frontier at Estrelleta where the Dominican "square" repulsed, with the use of bayonets, a Haitian cavalry charge. On September 27, 1845, Dominican General Francisco Antonio Salcedo defeated a Haitian army at the Battle of Beler , a frontier fortification. Salcedo was supported by Admiral Juan Bautista Cambiaso's squadron of three schooners, which blockaded
9588-421: The French consul Eustache Juchereau de Saint Denys , who served as confidential advisor to the nascent State. Although at the end of April, after the overthrow of Hérard, Haitian forces widthdrew from the nation, Bobadilla insisted that French protectorate be immediately obtained. To this end, he called a meeting of notables with the apparent purpose of reporting on the government's financial precariousness. Such
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#17328833957549776-542: The French, but Chancellor François Guizot , Minister of Foreign Affairs of France, did not want to arouse Great Britain 's susceptibility(14) and delayed the response of the acceptance of the protectorate agreed with his consul in Port-au-Prince . However, the development of events and the confidence in Gallic support led those involved to proclaim the separation on February 27, but with limited weapons. The use of rifles in
9964-567: The Haitian advance and was forced to accept the decision of the Congress of the Republic to call General Santana in the company of General Duvergé to confront the invading army. The two leading commanders, along with General Sánchez and General Mella, were ultimately successful in defeating Soulouque's forces, who were pushed back to Haiti after a few weeks of combat. Later that same year, Dominican naval forces bombarded, sacked and burned several villages on
10152-426: The Haitian garrison surrendered. As these Haitian troops withdrew to the west side of the island, they pillaged and burned. In retaliation, Dominican gunboats bombarded Haitian ports. In the days following the proclamation of independence, all Haitian officials left Santo Domingo. Mella headed the provisional governing junta of the new Dominican Republic. The provisional government quickly organized an army to defend
10340-470: The Haitian port of Cap-Haïtien . Among the dead were three Haitian generals. On October 28, other Haitian armies attacked the frontier fort "El Invencible" and were repulsed after five hours of hard fighting. In a significant naval action between the Hispaniolan rivals, a Dominican squadron captured 3 small Haitian warships and 149 seamen off Puerto Plata on December 21. On January 1, 1846, Pierrot announced
10528-555: The Haitian troops at Estrelleta and Beller, capturing the Haitian squadron in Puerto Plata that had bombarded that town, causing extensive damage. The Haitians were pushed back to Haiti across the Dajabón River . Several years later, in 1849, Faustin Soulouque led perhaps the deadliest campaign against the Dominican Republic at the head of an army of 18,000 soldiers, who overwhelmed the Dominican forces, forcing them to retreat. Along
10716-409: The Haitians, although they ended in victories, took place in extremely disadvantageous conditions from the point of view of the quantity and suitability of the weapons used, which, however, were handled beneficially. Despite their limited numerical presence, rifles and knives supported the Dominican defense. Independence was achieved both with shooting and with machetes. Firearms marked the evolution of
10904-661: The Latin American countries and also the tendency towards union in Central America , as shown in the days preceding December 1, 1821, when the old Central American Provinces were linked into a confederation , except Guatemala , which was integrated, (until 1823), into the First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide , and El Salvador , which wanted to march alone outside the Hispano-American framework. This trend
11092-614: The Provincial Council, which served for less than two years, while the Constitution of 1812 remained in force. In 1817 he acquired a notary office, which allowed him to consolidate himself in the legal profession. Finally, he obtained the positions of councilor and trustee of the Santo Domingo City Council in 1820. During that time he considered himself a Spanish citizen, but such identity did not prevent him from accepting
11280-539: The Restoration, who held the Interior and Police portfolio. As was required, Bobadilla agreed to collaborate with the new rulers, but he did not do so out of simple opportunism, but above all because the conflicts that pitted Santana's former supporters against Buenaventura Báez had not disappeared. Since 1866, at the end of Báez's third government, politics was polarized between his followers, already known as reds, and those of
11468-415: The Santiago government chaired by José Desiderio Valverde . He was appointed senator of Santo Domingo and expressed his satisfaction with the order of things. History continued to repeat itself: Bobadilla was willing to adapt to the existing situation, while those who controlled it were forced to rely on his services, whether in recognition of his capacity or to prevent him from joining the enemy side. But, in
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#173288339575411656-425: The Spanish occupation suffered 4,000 dead, while the pro-Spanish militia under Santana suffered 10,000 casualties during the course of the conflict. The Dominican Restoration War forced Haiti to realize that the goal of conquering the Dominican Republic was unattainable, and it finally recognized its independence in 1867. However, since the border situation was not defined after the conflict, Haiti continued to occupy
11844-503: The Supreme Court of Justice, from 3 June 1851, until 17 January 1853; afterwards, from 1853 until 1859, period of the governments of Rule Mota, Desiderio Valverde, Buenaventura Báez and Pedro Santana , he held important offices. He was the president of the Senate of the Dominican Republic in 1854. During the re-annexation era to Spain (1861–1865), Bobadilla was designated Magistrate of
12032-550: The Trinidadians, since he lacked faith in the possibility of the country achieving a defined status as an independent State. This conclusion was the product of the common sense that his experience provided him. For him it was inevitable that a power would take charge of Dominican affairs through annexation. The difference in positions between Bobadilla and the Trinitarios did not prevent them from trying to reach an agreement, for which
12220-461: The Trinitarios met clandestinely at the home of Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, and agreed on the plans and date of the uprising, which was an uprising of a revolutionary nature that took control of the walled city of Santo Domingo. From there, the rebel emissaries were dispatched to the various regions of the country, with the clear purpose of making known the decisions made at the meeting. On February 27, 1844, some 100 Dominicans, lead by Sánchez, took
12408-511: The United States would halt its plans to expand its control in the Caribbean until some years after the conclusion of the American Civil War . The U.S officially recognized Dominican Republic in 1866. Dominican forces were able to defeat another Haitian invasion in 1859, but the country was in ruins economically and the constant threat of renewed Haitian invasion led Pedro Santana to annex
12596-576: The Western Part who make known to the Board their determination to join our cause will be enabled to take an oath of fidelity before the municipal mayor, first obtaining an order to do so from this Board." Another assurance was that slavery would forever be abolished in the Dominican state. This would be issued in the following decree: Slavery has disappeared forever from the territory of the Dominican Republic, and that whoever spread this news will be considered
12784-475: The appointment of first officer of the State Treasury granted to him by José Núñez de Cáceres , president of the Independent State of Spanish Haiti , a product of the overthrow of Spanish domination . Although he was 35 years old, he was not yet a figure of the first order, despite enjoying the confidence of successive Spanish governors as well as Núñez de Cáceres. In accordance with the situation created by
12972-411: The artillery and infantry pieces of Dominican forces was limited and that therefore the fighting was at short distances: a muzzle-loading, unrifled, twelve-pound gunpowder cannon, standard piece of the time and called Napoleon for obvious reasons, in optimal conditions could reach 600-700 yards (548.64 m-640.08 meters), penetrate 36 human beings or 8 feet of compacted earth, while a six-pounder would have
13160-404: The artillery corps would be trained in the handling of both the cannon and the rifle and would have a rifle and a sabre as weapons; the infantry corps would be trained in the handling of the rifle and would have the same weapons, while the cavalry corps would be equipped with sabres, pistols and lances (Art. 28). Although the members of all the corps carried sabres as complementary weapons - which
13348-472: The battles, by indicating that the national victories were due, above all, to their steels. For General Radamés Hungría Morell, flintlock rifles and carbines were those that "made possible (...) the maintenance of our independence." In support of this consideration, it is worth citing the letter of an officer sent to the editors of El Dominicano, after the triumph in Santomé on December 22, 1855, in which he refers to
13536-597: The beginning of the 1800s, the colony of Santo Domingo , which had once been the headquarters of Spanish power in the New World centuries prior, was suffering an economic decline. Spain during this time was embroiled in the Peninsular War in Europe, and other various wars to maintain control of the Americas . With Spain's resources spread among its larger colonies, its Caribbean territories became relatively neglected. This period
13724-524: The beginning of the occupation, in July 1824, the Haitian Government had in fact ignored the legality of the system of common titles, the most widespread form of land ownership, by ordering that these extensions, in which multiple co-owners coexisted, be subdivided and individual titles were awarded to the co-owners. Boyer immediately renounced applying this provision because it could generate disturbances among
13912-421: The bitterness held by the Dominicans toward the Haitians suggests that during the fighting between them the loss of life and destruction of property were severe. This would be one of the main sources of tension in the Dominican Republic's relationship with Haiti , which still remains strained to this day. The creation of the Dominican Republic was an event that had a great impact on the Caribbean. At that time, it
14100-501: The blunderbuss shot of Matías Ramón Mella . However, the firearms available for the defense of the nascent Dominican Republic were scarce and in poor condition. The city's arsenal, "defended only by about sixty poorly armed and ill-disciplined soldiers," easily taken by the National Guard that same night and formally handed over to the authorities of the new State on February 29 in the presence of Saint Denys, must have contained only
14288-426: The case of the former, and from San Francisco de Macorís, Moca, La Vega and San José de Las Matas and from El Seibo, in the case of the latter, so their physical condition at the time of the confrontations must not have been satisfactory, in addition to the sure lack of knowledge of the terrain by a good part of the troops and officers of both sides. Marching from the plains of El Seibo to the dry forests of Azua and from
14476-475: The cause of the creation of the Dominican State in 1844, because many considered him as the prototype of the politician who was never wrong and reasoned that if he had oriented himself in that direction the event would end being produced. This prestige allowed him to establish conspiratorial ties with important figures in Santo Domingo and nearby towns. Bobadilla's objective differed completely from that held by
14664-441: The central highlands, where the cities of Hincha, Las Caobas, San Miguel de la Atalaya and San Rafael de la Angostura are located. This issue remained unresolved until 1936, when Dominican Republic ended up renouncing these territories to Haiti. No one has estimated the loss of lives and property incurred during the decades of fighting for independence by the Dominicans against Spain, France, Haiti, and then Spain again. To this day,
14852-432: The civil war of 1857, a new parenthesis was presented. Buenaventura Báez had returned to power in 1856 and Bobadilla tried not to come into conflict with the new order of things, despite his declared loyalty to Santana, who was arrested and deported. Until Báez's ascension, Bobadilla apparently tried unsuccessfully to get him to reconcile with Santana, perhaps thinking that this way he would not suffer reprisals. But as soon as
15040-480: The colonial administration, reserved to white Dominicans and Peninsulars ). Lugo Lovatón says that in Mayagüez he managed to get a job in a public notary's office, an occupation that provided him with the first rudiments of being a lawyer. But he did not receive a university education, not even after he returned to Santo Domingo. Hence, his intellectual and legal training was the product of self-taught activity. Given
15228-517: The colony, José Núñez de Cáceres , influenced by all the revolutions that were going on around him, finally decided to overthrow the Spanish government and declared independence from Spanish rule, this would usher in an Ephemeral Independence . A group of Dominican politicians and military officers in the frontier region had expressed interest in uniting the entire island, while they sought power with military support from Haitian officials against their enemies. Haiti's president, Jean-Pierre Boyer ,
15416-399: The constitution were in fact unknown by article 210, which enshrined the dictatorship of a single individual. From 1844 to 1847, Bobadilla occupied important offices inside the State, such as President of Chamber of Deputies of the Dominican Republic in 1847. In the performance of his duties, after independence in 1844, Bobadilla ceased to be a simple bureaucrat: he rose to the height of
15604-443: The constitution, a copy of the one existing in the United States. Santana refused to accept the presidency under such conditions and argued that he needed to have extraordinary prerogatives as the only means of confronting the Haitian threat. Bobadilla, advised by Saint Denys, suggested the introduction of article 210, which conferred full powers on Santana in the event that he himself declared a state of emergency. The entire articles of
15792-478: The cost of only 2 killed. The invaders captured two towns on the Plateau du Centre and established a bastion at Cachimán. Haitian President Jean-Louis Pierrot quickly mobilized his army and counterattacked on July 13, resulting in over 200 casualties on the Haitian side, while the Dominican forces were able to repulse the attack without suffering any casualties. On July 22, the Haitian forces launched another attack on
15980-461: The country into Spain in March 1861, but he was not co-responsible for that step nor did he show enthusiasm for it. As Rufino Martínez highlights, following his cautious attitude of calculation, he considered that, once decided, the measure would be carried out and he was obliged to accept it because it coincided with his convictions about the impossibility of the Dominican people forging a stable independent order. and fruitful. He served as Chairman of
16168-458: The country overthrew the Spanish crown in 1821 before unifying with Haiti a year later. The First Dominican Republic was proclaimed at the Puerta de la Misericordia after the blunderbluss shot by the patrician Matías Ramón Mella in the early morning of February 27, 1844 and by the raising of the tricolor flag at the Puerta del Conde by the patrician Francisco del Rosario Sánchez , both inspired by
16356-640: The country. The invasion of the Dominican Republic by American troops , surprised him while he was in Rome where he had traveled for health reasons. He returned to Santo Domingo in 1920 and wrote a letter to the American Ambassador protesting the American intervention. His literary work has not been published. Typed copies are kept by the Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo . He was in charge of editing
16544-459: The country. Months later he was appointed judge of the Royal Court, one of the few positions of true responsibility assigned by the new dominators to Dominicans. As a sign of trust, he received additional tasks, such as translating the codes from French and making them compatible with the reality of the country. He was confirmed in the profession of lawyer and received honorary distinctions, including
16732-474: The deaths of over 1,000 Haitians, with numerous others wounded and reported missing during their return to the capital. On January 27, 1856, some 8,000 Dominicans defeated 22,000 Haitians at the Battle of Sabana Larga near Dajabón after eight hours of fighting which came down to hand-to-hand combat. Thousands of dead or dying were abandoned on the battlefield. Upon Soulouque's arrival in Port-au-Prince with
16920-531: The decision to emigrate that his parents made to avoid the dangers of the Haitian troops must have been painful for him. The family took refuge in Puerto Rico , like many, just when it became clear that the Haitian independentists were on the verge of defeating the French, so the possibility of their crossing the old border loomed. The emigration experience must have marked him for the rest of his life, since his parents surely went through difficult times. This criterion
17108-464: The destinies of the country. Such consideration led him to maintain until the last minute the hope that accidents could occur that would end up tipping the balance in favor of Spain. The national triumph represented for him, in those days, the relapse into barbarism. He clung to the convictions of the lawyer attached to power to the last consequences, especially when his certainties about the desirable regime under direct foreign tutelage were at stake. Spain
17296-455: The division of powers. Santana objected to the change and pushed for the December constitutional review, which returned a rigid autocratic spirit. From now on, the constitution of December 1854 was considered the prototype of the authoritarian order, as it extreme the all-embracing powers of the president. Ten years later, Bobadilla returned to play the role of November 1844, as standard bearer of
17484-402: The eastern part of the island before the Haitian constituent assembly agreed on the guidelines of a protectorate that included the supply by France of “everything that was necessary to establish and consolidate” the future Dominican government, particularly “arms, ammunition for war and for muzzle loading” (…) in sufficient quantity to arm the active part of the population that will be called under
17672-638: The eastern part of the island to start a movement against the Haitian government was a negative condition recognized since 1843: when on November 15 of that year Vicente Celestino Duarte and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez wrote to Duarte, then in Caracas, they demanded, "even at the cost of a star in the sky," two thousand, one thousand or five hundred rifles; four thousand cartridges; 2 ½ or 3 quintals of gunpowder and “500 lances or as many as you can get.” Just one month later, Consul André-Nicolas Levasseur , French diplomatic representative in Haiti, and representatives of
17860-462: The eastern region, and together with his nephews and the help of maids, they turned lead plates used in the linings of ships, which were in their father's warehouse, into bullets. The very act of initiation of emancipation, the signal given on the night of February 27, 1844 in Santo Domingo was announced by a "discharge of musketry fired into the air," according to the French consul Eustache de Juchereau de Saint Denys , which has gone down in history as
18048-410: The effect of smoke on the battlefield in that era of black powder. It is worth noting that its impact was so great that the colorful uniforms that characterized warfare in the 19th century were intended primarily to allow commanders to have an idea of the disposition of their troops over the smoke; even so, it was common for a commanding officer to lose momentary vision of the battlefield and his troops as
18236-469: The entry of the Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer at the beginning of 1822, and determined not to abandon the country under any circumstances, Bobadilla decided to adopt the republican principles that in theory governed the Haitian State. He was among the few Dominicans who held positions continuously in the Haitian administration and showed effectiveness in collecting the allegations of the dominators in
18424-443: The evolution of events. A month later Santana entered the city, staged a countercoup and proceeded to reorganize the Junta, expelling the Trinitarios and banishing them “forever.” The conservatives triumphed through this militaristic act and the leadership fell to Pedro Santana, so Bobadilla was no longer the leading figure on this side. In any case, he decided without hesitation to collaborate with Santana so that he could concentrate
18612-474: The experiential context, which began in his childhood in Neiba, Bobadilla's occupations and his ability did not prevent him from feeling like a man of the people. Being a dignitary, he led a simple life, delighting in the typical Dominican pleasures, such as cockfights, horseback riding or dancing in the endless fandangos. He was noted as an unrepentant womanizer, despite his stern character. His personal economic support
18800-564: The flags of independence.” In the "Demonstration of the peoples of the eastern part of the island formerly Hispaniola or Santo Domingo, on the causes of their separation from the Haitian Republic," of January 16, 1844, in a veiled allusion to the so-called Levasseur Plan, it was specified that, in addition to their own resources, "those that could be provided to us in such a case by foreigners" would be used, if necessary. The foreigners who would provide these resources would be none other than
18988-487: The greatest possible share of powers, in what he saw as a guarantee to maintain order in circumstances that he considered delicate. Bobadilla, certainly, aspired to a traditional institutionalized order, in which there was not a dictator, but the power of the ruling elite. But, immediately, he deemed it necessary to join the militarist reaction that ended in the establishment of the Santana dictatorship. For several months Bobadilla
19176-494: The head of the Trinitarios, maintaining the position that the objective It could not be other than absolute independence. Although Bobadilla did not give up placing his hopes on the establishment of a protectorate of France, at one point he realized that it would not be feasible to overthrow Haitian rule without counting on the young liberals, the most active sector of those days. In the second half of 1843, he established ties with another leader, Matías Ramón Mella , who insisted on
19364-562: The heavy taxation that was imposed on their side. The country was hit with a severe economic crisis after having been forced to pay a huge indemnity to France. A debt was accrued by Haiti in order to pay for their own independence from the European nation; this would give rise to many anti-Haitian plots. In 1838, Juan Pablo Duarte , an educated nationalist , founded a resistance movement called La Trinitaria ("The Trinity") along with Ramón Matías Mella and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez . It
19552-520: The help of several gunboats , routed the Haitian invaders at the Battle of Las Carreras on April 21–22. The battle opened with a cannon barrage and devolved into hand-to-hand combat. In November 1849, Dominican President Buenaventura Báez launched a naval offensive against Haiti to forestall the threat of another invasion. A Dominican squadron composed of the brigantine 27 de Febrero and schooner Constitución and commanded by Captain Charles J. Fagalde,
19740-438: The ideals of their leader, Juan Pablo Duarte , ending the 22 years of Haitian rule . In response, Charles Rivière-Hérard issued the first Haitian campaign against the Dominicans. Thanks to the efforts of Generals Pedro Santana and Antonio Duvergé , the Haitian column that attacked Azua was successfully defeated. However, Hérard, in his retreat, burned the town of Azua, executing all the prisoners he had taken. In Santiago ,
19928-403: The impossibility of the Dominican people forging a stable independent order and fruitful. During the annexation to Spain, the “universal minister” was confirmed ipso facto in high positions in the state apparatus. A few days after the event occurred, he was appointed member of a commission in charge of resolving the monetary issue, which constituted one of the most serious problems that afflicted
20116-482: The independence of Haiti, massive portions of the remaining French population were murdered. France would lose the rest of the island forever in 1809. After this, the eastern portion of the island gradually prepared itself for an eventual separation from Spain. Early attempts of independence by the Dominicans were suppressed by the Spanish, as they regained the eastern side of the island under the Treaty of Paris in 1814. At
20304-475: The insurgents as bandits, and reduced their leaders to the status of predators, murderers and rioters incapable of political action. When the unstoppable advance of the rebels became evident, for the first time the old man expressed a pessimistic stance about the future of the country. It was not only that everything had been left in ruins, but that he could not conceive of the possibility that these rustic guerrilla leaders, in his crudely illiterate eyes, could govern
20492-503: The insurrection broke out in Santiago against the Báez government, on July 7, 1857, in protest of the government's financial management in the purchase of tobacco, Bobadilla was imprisoned on the pretext of complicity in the murder of a relative of Baez. He refused to release him for fear that he would join the besiegers of the city, so he spent about a year in the Ozama Fortress . When Báez capitulated, Bobadilla received various commissions from
20680-471: The judicial apparatus, in addition to directing a public educational establishment and teaching civil law classes at the San Buenaventura school. Equipped with extraordinary vigor, in addition to these functions he found time to practice the profession of lawyer and dedicate himself to the mahogany cutting business. He thus combined the exercise of high functions with independent personal support. But, as
20868-496: The keys of the Palace. Boyer rejected the offer, while saying: "I have not come into this city as a conqueror but by the will of its inhabitants". The island was thus united from "Cape Tiburon to Cape Samana in possession of one government." Eventually, the Haitian government became extremely unpopular throughout the country. The Dominican population grew increasingly impatient with Haiti's poor management and perceived incompetence, and
21056-484: The keys to the functioning of the State and penetrated the hidden secrets of the popular soul. In any case, his experience in holding positions as a lawyer, cultural gifts and professional expertise allowed him to be the highest level expositor of the country's problems during the period known as the First Republic , between 1844 and 1861. Despite such prominence, Bobadilla began to have an ambiguous relationship within
21244-407: The lance." Other authors, however, see the machete as the basis for the patriotic war. Historian Adriano Miguel Tejada maintains that "the Dominican armies (...) without weapons, without supplies, and only with a sharpened machete and the will to triumph, kept the tricolor flag waving on the border." Historian José Miguel Soto Jiménez, on the other hand, despite recognizing that the machete, "within
21432-399: The liberal current. This behavior of a considerable part of the Santanistas is explained because they gave priority to their conflict with Buenaventura Báez. The enmity between Baecistas and Santanistas became so terrible that, with Santana gone, his followers could prefer anything as long as their inveterate enemy did not reign. Bobadilla was perhaps the main architect of this symbiosis between
21620-460: The liberal side, coming from the main generals of the Restoration, who shortly after became known as blues. Although many conservatives who had been followers of Santana took sides in favor of Báez, at the time it was concluded that, as a political tendency, Santanism had experienced a metamorphosis in the conditions created after the departure of the Spaniards and that, To stay in power, he had joined
21808-424: The logic of war, is not and has never been a master weapon, a fundamental or determining tactical element," points out that in our history it stands as "the primary graphic sign of Dominicanness," the "symbol of our defense as a nation," as its companion was "overwhelming and predominant in five centuries of history marked by social turmoil and armed violence." For this author, the machete was "the primary weapon of
21996-487: The low value of the land was evident. Consequently, until the end of his life Bobadilla had to maintain an arduous struggle to obtain the means of subsistence. This precariousness helps explain the clinging to high positions in the state apparatus. When he had to go into exile in 1847, he made it a condition that he be provided with means of transportation and a small initial help, since he lacked money to support himself abroad. When Santana returned to power in 1853, Bobadilla
22184-518: The loyalty of two Dominican-manned Haitian regiments. In 1843, the revolution made a breakthrough: they worked with a liberal Haitian party that overthrew President Jean-Pierre Boyer . However, the Trinitarios ' work in the overthrow gained the attention of Boyer's replacement, Charles Rivière-Hérard . Rivière-Hérard imprisoned some Trinitarios and forced Duarte to leave the island. While gone, Duarte searched for support in Colombia and Venezuela , but
22372-415: The main generals of the Restoration, who shortly after became known as blues. Although many conservatives who had been followers of Santana took sides in favor of Báez, at the time it was concluded that, as a political tendency, Santanaism had experienced a metamorphosis in the conditions created after the departure of the Spaniards and that, To stay in power, he had joined the liberal current. This behavior of
22560-414: The march towards Santiago and Azua, but it is clear that, at least on the Dominican side, they lived off the land, largely by buying or "requisitioning" whatever provisions they could find, which, together with wild cattle, could sustain part of an army, but not all of the soldiers, so it is not difficult to deduce that there were deficiencies in the food supply on both sides. Thirdly, it is worth highlighting
22748-478: The midst of the whirlwind of conflicting interests. In reality, this situation was universal among politicians and officials, since the weakness of the nascent State tended to concentrate powers in the figure of the Executive, who regulated the assignment of positions and perks. Bobadilla, who had conceived Article 210, was one of the first victims of this key resource of the autocratic Santana regime, although at no time
22936-478: The name of the principles of freedom and equality. In particular he gained the esteem of President Boyer himself, as well as the governor of the Department of Santo Domingo, Jérôme-Maximilien Borgella . At the beginning of his services to the new dominators, a month after Boyer returned to Port-au-Prince in 1822, he appointed Bobadilla as a member of a commission to make proposals regarding education. Months later he
23124-422: The need for an alliance of all those opposed to Haitian rule. Finally, Sánchez accepted this position and entered into negotiations with Bobadilla. Once the coup was planned on February 27 by a secret committee of Trinitarios, its members, led by Sánchez, decided to make an agreement with Bobadilla and other conservatives on the basis of recognizing that a fully independent State was going to be founded. Sánchez wrote
23312-442: The north, heavily outnumbered Dominican troops, under the command of General José María Imbert , defeated Haitian troops led by General Jean-Louis Pierrot at the Battle of Santiago on March 30, thanks to a warning of the pending attack by an Englishman, Stanley Theodore Heneken. The Haitian column abandoned the field of battle the following day, and during its retreat was harassed, resulting in additional casualties. Meanwhile, in
23500-512: The official notes of the plenipotentiary of the King of Spain and those of the Republic of Haiti on the claim and possession of the Eastern part . In this text, it is based on the assumption that Spanish domination was characterized by the exercise of cruelties that led to the extinction of the only people vested with the right of possession, the indigenous people. In accordance with liberal principles, for him
23688-447: The old Santanista conservatives and the new restorative liberals, despite the fact that both parties had waged a two-year war. But the nature of the current society encouraged unexpected alliances, which ended up being seen naturally. It didn't matter that thousands had died and that the ashes of the fields were still smoking; Only the imperatives of the struggle for power counted. For the restaurateurs it became clear that Báez constituted
23876-408: The order of the elements with which a new attack by Faustin Soulouque would be responded to: "If it is true that the barbarian emperor Soulouque is nearby, he will try to return for his honor, something that we all desire in order to dispute who will get hold of that braggart sooner. He has said that he is coming to free us, and from whom and why? This was explained to him with the rifle, the sabre and
24064-444: The orders of sergeants and officers (on both sides, since the distance at which you fought allowed you to hear your enemy), must have been a real madness for someone who was not accustomed to it. To this picture must be added the screams of the wounded and dying on both sides, which could chill the blood of any mortal. Only discipline could prevent the collapse of a line of fire before such a Dantesque spectacle. Under these conditions, it
24252-475: The owners of herds and other portions of the population who, in one way or another, achieved their livelihood protected by that system. But, urged by the fiscal deficit, in 1840 Boyer ordered the payment of a tax of 25 pesos for every thousand feet of mahogany cut, a way of ignoring the validity of the property titles, which generated heated protests. Bobadilla and Delmonte managed to have the measure annulled, which increased their prestige, mainly among individuals of
24440-605: The parish archives. However, in the many years after its independence, the country was still small in population. Mariano Torrente, a Spanish visitor in 1852, estimated the number of inhabitants at 150,000, and in 1860, the Spanish consul in Santo Domingo, Mariano Deal, considered the population to be 186,700 people. The new nation was, in essence, poor in an economic sense. Despite the impressive natural resources, they had not been exploited and energized to generate wealth. Teodoro Stanley Heneken , an Englishman, informed Henry John Temple , Minister of Foreign Affairs of Great Britain, that
24628-612: The parish in La Vega. In this city he initiated the building of a church the Town designated as "adopted son". In 1903, he was elected deputy of the Province of La Vega . He traveled to Rome , in this year and was designated by Cardinal Merry de Val as Archbishop of Metymma and successor of Monsignor Merino whom he succeeded in the Archdiocese of Santo Domingo after his death on August 20, 1906. He
24816-458: The plains and mountain ranges of Cibao to the semi-arid lands of Santiago, surely also entailed a significant decrease in the capabilities of the soldiers. Modern studies tell us that the average man needs two weeks to adjust to a sudden change in altitude and/or temperature before his effectiveness as a fighter can be restored. Secondly, little is known about the Creole and Haitian quartermasters during
25004-444: The political change that has just taken place, the individuals of the Western Part who lived in it must leave this city, and those of French origin born in the former Spanish Part makes it known: “That according to established principles, the current Government is not in the intention of expelling any of those who are included in the previous category; that on the contrary, their persons and properties will be respected and that those from
25192-429: The political order should originate in the will of the community, which is why he considered that the Dominican people had expressed their will to join Haiti. He went so far as to declare Boyer an “angel of peace” for having instituted a just regime that ended slavery and oppression. In the same way, Bobadilla tried to do everything possible to represent the interests of his social environment. While remaining faithful to
25380-461: The popular imagination. The same anonymous author of the letter published in 1855 in El Dominicano says: "Our cowardly and villainous enemies have wanted war and devastation, and they will have war and devastation, cruel as never before. Later, peace will come, when the machete has had its effect." According to the Executive decree on the organization of the army, dated July 15, 1845, the members of
25568-554: The probable difficulty in which his parents survived while they lived abroad, Bobadilla must have achieved certain training that put him in a position to hold a position in the government apparatus as soon as he returned, at less than 25 years old. (When he reached the age of majority in force at that time, which was 25 years of age, Bobadilla obtained his certification of Blood Purity , as all of both his paternal grandparents and maternal great-grandparents had been born in Europe, this certificate allowed him access to high public offices of
25756-524: The process of National Independence even when it was still in its infancy: an excited Manuel María Frómeta, while Juan Evangelista Jiménez read out loud the manifesto of September 1843 in Santo Cerro, offered his children as cartridges. By February 1844, Juan Pablo Duarte 's sisters manufactured cartridges, some of which were distributed by his brother Vicente Celestino Duarte in Los Llanos and other towns in
25944-483: The proposal of a title of nobility. When the Dominican Restoration War broke out, he remained unwavering in his support for Spanish domination, which can be inferred from his correspondence with people he trusted, with whom he had no need to pretend. In these letters he shows satisfaction with the successes that the Spanish troops sometimes achieved against the Dominican patriots. Bobadilla simply described
26132-440: The rebels decided to take action anyway with the leadership of Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, Ramón Matías Mella, and Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle-rancher from El Seibo who commanded a private army of peons who worked on his estates. In January 1844, the manifesto of independence was published in several Dominican cities, which stated the reasons why the Dominican population could no longer remain united with Haiti. A month later,
26320-498: The remaining remnants of his army, he faced vehement curses from women who had lost their sons, brothers, and husbands in the war. Nevertheless, he succeeded in securing for Haiti possession of Lascahobas and Hinche . As war ravanged throughout the island, the Dominican Republic had successfully disrupted annexation attempts from France and Great Britain, both of which eventually gave up on these plans and had officially recognized Dominican independence in 1850. A brief scuffle with
26508-488: The return of Church lands was demanded, and which was attributed to the priest José M. Bobadilla, brother of the cabinet member. Shortly afterwards, without the prior consent of Santana, Bobadilla was appointed member of the Tribunate, the name given to the lower house of Congress. Initially the dictator accepted the appointment, considering it advisable not to enter into an open dispute with his former mentor. In 1847 Bobadilla
26696-412: The rulers, he gained prestige among the population as a competent lawyer, the quintessentially experienced one, who managed to mitigate the rigors of foreign power. In 1840, on the occasion of the announcement of the implementation of the abolition of the common land system, Bobadilla, together with José Joaquín del Monte, moved to the Haitian capital in order to advocate for the repeal of the provision. At
26884-602: The sacred order of priesthood in the Cathedral of Santo Domingo. In 1888 he became the parish priest of San Juan . In 1890, he became parish priest of the Cathedral of Santo Domingo and vice-chancellor of the Conciliar Seminary of Santo Tomas de Aquino. In this seminary he taught Philosophy , Latin and Theology . Later he became parish priest of Santa Barbara, Santa Cruz in el Seibo, San Juan de la Maguana and finally of
27072-421: The same way, when things changed he showed a conjurer's ability to join the group of winners. In accordance with this procedure, Bobadilla immediately sympathized with Santana when he disowned the government of Santiago and the liberal constitution of Moca. Once again, the lawyer's rhetorical skills and legal capacity were put at the service of despotism and he wrote a memorial justifying Santana's coup d'état. In
27260-548: The schooners Constitución and Las Mercedes and commanded by Juan Alejandro Acosta , bombarded and burned the town of Petit Rivière. The Dominicans also captured Dame-Marie on the west coast of Haiti, which they plundered and set on fire. In 1851, a truce was mediated by the United Kingdom , France , and the United States . By late 1854, the Hispaniolan nations were at war again. In November, 2 Dominican ships captured
27448-472: The soldiers who forged the Republic on the battlefields," which sowed in the Haitian conscience "a kind of respect for the Dominican people," the "ritual" and the backbone of the regular military organization of the First Dominican Republic; in short, in his opinion, "Independence was achieved with pure clean machetes." To the advantage of this position, it cannot be overlooked that the range of
27636-479: The south, 4,500 Dominicans led by José María Cabral defeated 12,000 Haitian troops on December 22, 1855, at the Battle of Santomé . The Haitians lost 695 men, including General Antoine Pierrot . On the same day another force of 400 Dominicans defeated 6,000 Haitian troops at the Battle of Cambronal . The Dominicans achieved a subsequent victory over a Haitian contingent of 6,000 soldiers in Ouanaminthe , resulting in
27824-416: The south, the Haitian column at Azua, unable to advance and suffering constant casualties, also retreated to Port-au-Prince. As the Haitians retreated, they laid waste to the land. The Dominicans' effective use of artillery fire on the field of battle enabled them to defeat the Haitians with minimal casualties. At sea, the Dominican schooners Maria Chica (3 guns), commanded by Juan Bautista Maggiolo, and
28012-407: The southern and western coasts of Haiti. In 1855, some few years after foreign intervention, Soulouque, who declared himself emperor, invaded the Dominican Republic again with 30,000 soldiers divided into three columns, spreading terror and burning everything in their path. By January 1856, Haitian forces were decisively defeated and forced back across the border by José María Cabral 's forces, ending
28200-434: The staged battles and the insistent need for their presence in the Dominican cantons make it clear that bladed weapons were not the only ones that determined the Dominican triumph and that the glorification of the machete by certain authors is more in keeping with its condition as an indispensable instrument of the rural masses, key protagonists of the war and as such indirectly exalted in the reports and communications about
28388-580: The state apparatus. Thanks to the experience gained in Puerto Rico, in 1811 he held the position of public notary, which he held until the entry of the Haitians in 1822. Shortly after, he was appointed chief notary of the Archbishopric of the Diocese of Santo Domingo , a role expanded not long after with the position of secretary of said organization. As if that were not enough, in 1813 he was appointed secretary of
28576-412: The state of a troop before and during a battle in the 19th century, namely, fatigue, hunger, smoke and sound. Virgilio Méndez Amaro, a scholar of the military history of the Dominican Republic, calls this to attention: First of all, the march of the Haitian and Dominican armies to the battlefields of Santiago and Azua, for example, was carried out in days without pause —its components came from Haiti, in
28764-412: The successful uprising and crush the counteroffensive of the reactionary troops sent from Port-au-Prince. On March 14, Duarte finally returned after recovering from his illness and was greeted in celebration. The population of the new republic stood at approximately 5,200 whites, 135,000 mulattoes, and 34,000 blacks. The war of independence had now begun. On March 7, 1844, Haiti's President Hérard ordered
28952-450: The tax system and the regulation of common lands. He developed the thesis that the condition of progress presupposed, first and foremost, differentiation from the Haitian legacy, a country of “infernal” politics. It meant opening up to foreign trade as a basic means of accessing the factors of prosperity that Dominicans lacked and that, by necessity, had to be found among foreigners. Consequently, he accepted Santana's decision to incorporate
29140-437: The temporary suspension of Haitian military operations. Santana's forces captured Santo Domingo on July 12 and proclaimed Santana as the ruler of the Dominican Republic. Consequently, the Trinitarios were ousted from power. A year later, on June 17, 1845, a small Dominican detachment from Las Matas , under the command of General Antonio Duvergé , invaded Haiti, capturing four enemy trenches and killing over 100 Haitian troops at
29328-556: The text he argued that the seat of government in Santiago altered a natural order, that the territorial division established by the Moca constitution would cause confrontations between the regions and that, overall, that constitution was biased by a mistaken attempt to innovate. He simply ratified his conservative worldview to legitimize the replacement of the constitution of December 1854. This did not prevent him from reiterating, undaunted, modern democratic principles, while recognizing that Santana
29516-482: The time came when he considered leaving the country, he preferred to stay and face any risk that might come from that group of robbers, arsonists and murderers that he claimed were the restaurateurs. He therefore declined the offer made to him by the Spanish to be confirmed in the position of oidor in Cuba or Puerto Rico. In the end, their attachment to the land prevailed, whether out of petty calculations of convenience, fear of
29704-435: The time, calling her La Madama, which alluded to her French origin. The relationship, however, continued to be stormy, and his wife ended up separating from him when she found out about one of his affairs; He had 5 children born out of wedlock: María del Carmen Leonor (b. 1823), María Vicenta (b. 1824), Gerardo (b. 1827), Carlos Tomás (b. 1830), José María (b. 1830); they had a daughter after their wedding: Clemencia Antonia (who
29892-550: The transfer of the Samaná peninsula, which was already beginning to be considered of strategic value. Between Bobadilla and Pedro Santana , designated head of the Southern Expeditionary Front, confidential ties were established aimed at obtaining the protection of France, since they agreed that the country did not have the military resources to confront the Haitian aggression. At the same time, Bobadilla established ties with
30080-425: The tribulations of his entire social environment. The situation of the inhabitants of the border areas became almost unsustainable, so most of them had to move to Azua , Baní or other places less exposed to incursions from the neighboring country. Although there is no detailed information about the first years of his life, it can be assured that he was formed in close association with the Dominican environment. Hence,
30268-578: The tyrant promoted a riot of “the people and the army” that broke into the session room and forced the tribune to request a license to go abroad, but not before giving a speech in which he praised himself as the true architect of the creation of the Dominican State. When he learned that some soldiers were threatening to kill him, he appeared at the House defiantly and armed with a revolver. In June 1847, Bobadilla had to go into exile, his lifelong bete noire, after his bitter youth experience in Puerto Rico . The exile
30456-504: The vicissitudes of emigration or out of rapport with the Dominican lifestyle. He collaborated with the Cabral regime and with the third period of Báez established at the end of 1865, which sought to gain the trust of everyone, especially the restaurateurs. However, shortly after, Báez's centralist tendency caused a break with Cabral, who announced an insurrection from Haiti, immediately supported by Pedro Antonio Pimentel , another leading man of
30644-449: The walled perimeter of the city; and his will states that, at the end of his life, he only had one house, part of which he attributed to his wife's contribution to the marriage. It is true that he owned enormous tracts of land in Baní , Azua , Neiba and San Juan , which totaled more than 1,000 pesos in community titles; and although the effective value of these titles exceeded the nominal value,
30832-436: The war. In the late 18th century, the island of Hispaniola had been divided into two European colonies: Saint-Domingue in the west, governed by France ; and Santo Domingo in the east, governed by Spain , occupying two-thirds of Hispaniola. By the 1790s, large-scale slave rebellions erupted in the western portion of the island, which led to the eventual removal of the French and the independence of Haiti in 1804. Following
31020-480: The way, Haitian forces committed many acts of horrors during their march to the capital. The terror inflicted by the invading Haitian army was such that the inhabitants of the ravaged cities had to take refuge in the city of Santo Domingo in the face of violence unleashed by the Haitian soldiers. Because of this situation, the Dominican President, Manuel Jimenes , found himself unsuccessful in his attempt to stop
31208-439: The work of his father Historia Eclesiastica de la Arquidiocesis de Santo Domingo . He was in the middle of revising several documents from el Archivo de Indias when he died in 1937. Monseñor Nouel Province was named for Adolfo Nouel. Tom%C3%A1s Bobadilla Tomás Bobadilla y Briones (30 March 1785 – 21 December 1871) was a writer, intellectual and politician from the Dominican Republic . The first ruler of
31396-575: Was 3/4 French and 1/4 Spanish. His great-grandfather, Barthelemy Pierret Grinet, was a French gunnery sergeant who arrived to the island on 29 January 1802 in the fleet commanded by General Leclerc , Napoleon's brother-in-law. He began his studies in El Colegio El Estudio, of Santo Domingo, and afterward he studied at the Seminary of the Dominican Capital . Before going to study abroad, he was
31584-444: Was Santana's closest advisor, as a member of the Board and later as Secretary of Justice, Public Instruction and Foreign Relations. Since then, the core of power was located in the cabinet, made up of Bobadilla, Manuel Cabral, Ricardo Miura and Manuel Jiménes . Among them, Bobadilla was the key figure, the man of ability and experience, the incarnation of reason of State, the symbol of continuity so dear to conservatives. This function
31772-524: Was a war of independence that began when the Dominican Republic declared independence from the Republic of Haiti on February 27, 1844 and ended on January 24, 1856. Before the war, the island of Hispaniola had been united for 22 years when the newly independent nation, previously known as the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo , was unified with the Republic of Haiti in 1822. The criollo class within
31960-409: Was a “benign” dictator. He proclaimed that the constitution was perfectly democratic, despite having abolished the provincial deputations and other components of the liberal spirit that the two previous constitutions had. Santana's presence and the resulting authoritarian dose, according to Bobadilla, were necessary to confront Báez, whom he accused of being a reckless attacker of the state coffers. As
32148-461: Was able to directly verify the condition of the weapons of the troops that made up the city's garrison, since these were placed in his hands on the occasion of the transfer of command of the square to be returned to the Haitian soldiers "when they returned to their homes," just as the members of the Central Governing Board had accepted when accepting the bases of the capitulation proposed by the occupying authorities. The lack of sufficient weapons in
32336-454: Was about 85 years old. He was born in Neiba on 30 March 1785, son of Vicente Bobadilla Amaral, and Gregoria Justina Briones Pérez. He was born at a time when Santo Domingo was in a situation of incipient prosperity. But this phase ended with the border wars of the last decade of the 18th century and the cession of the country to France in 1795. From then on, the character's existence would accompany
32524-538: Was appointed member of the Conservative Council , the name then given to the upper house of the Legislative Branch. From this position he intervened in the constitutional debates, since he had to be part of the commission drafting the constitution of December 1854. In February of that year the congressmen had managed to approve a less authoritarian constitutional text, which eliminated article 210 and restored
32712-575: Was appointed president of the aforementioned body, a position from which he began to actively advocate for an effective separation of powers, which implied weakening Santana's powers and conferring true autonomy on the Legislative Branch. It was the exact opposite of what he had done in November 1844 with Article 210. He also questioned the reports of the Secretary of Finance, Ricardo Miura, which led Santana to demand his immediate dismissal. Bobadilla resisted, but
32900-410: Was appointed prosecutor of El Seibo. In 1830 he was confirmed as a lawyer, then called public defender, and the following year he received the appointment of notary public of Santo Domingo. His prestige in Haitian ruling circles increased with Spain's claim to sovereignty over Santo Domingo in 1830, through the mission of Felipe Dávila Fernández de Castro. Bobadilla wrote a booklet titled, Observations on
33088-408: Was common at the time, Bobadilla was not rich, but rather he achieved the necessary income to lead a comfortable life, in accordance with his social position and his public functions. He lived in the colonial town, had land, dressed elegantly, but lacked fortune. In his papers, published by historian Lugo Lovatón, it is observed that he had to make various transactions for the sale of stone houses within
33276-436: Was essential. Although discreetly, Bobadilla once again placed himself at the command of the person who had banished him and shortly afterward he was appointed fiscal attorney of the Supreme Court of Justice, the main function within the judicial apparatus. Buenaventura Báez, appointed president days later, confirmed him in office. As was already characteristic of him and would continue to be from now on, he held other positions in
33464-471: Was highlighted during the deliberations to promulgate the constitution in the second half of 1844. The majority of the deputies, meeting in San Cristóbal in order to stay away from the influence of Santana, although they had conservative criteria, wanted a constitution that included an order of division of powers that guaranteed a rule of law. All of these precepts, coming from liberal theory, were reflected in
33652-579: Was highlighted when he was forced to present his resignation in August 1848, being replaced by the Secretary of War, Manuel Jiménes, appointed in September 1848. As expected, Bobadilla immediately returned to the country, satisfied with the fall of Santana, and announced to the new president his willingness to support him. But soon, Jiménes was deposed by a combination of military leaders and congressmen led by Buenaventura Báez , who considered that Santana's presence
33840-583: Was his life in danger. From his preeminent position in the cabinet, Bobadilla advocated for an institutional framework that recognized the functions of the ministers, which included the ratification of the president's measures. Santana, on the contrary, sought to expand his dictatorial prerogatives, which led to a conflict between the two that led to Bobadilla's resignation from office in April 1846. The president had previously withdrawn his confidence in his powerful assistant. consequence of an anonymous pamphlet, in which
34028-581: Was inaugurated as provisional president of the Dominican Republic through a decree of the National Congress on November 30, 1912. His rise to office was due to the ongoing Civil War and the imperative that the presidential office be occupied by a neutral person, who inspired trust and respect, and could offer a stable peace. He resigned before the National Assembly, on April 13, 1913, after considering that he had achieved his purpose to bring peace to
34216-756: Was not considered if the new nation had the sufficient capacity to attain its emancipation. According to French clergyman Dominique Georges de Pradt , in his work The Colonies and the Current Revolution of America , (which was a model of political orientation for the independende fighters throughout Latin America in the 19th-century), he states that for a country to achieve its emancipation, it needed to bring together three conditions: increase in population, increase in wealth and increase in education. The Dominican Republic, however, did not meet these three conditions. It emerged as an unstable and impoverished nation with such
34404-426: Was so dramatic for him that on two occasions he sent letters to Santana, asking him to authorize him to return to the country, thereby implicitly proposing a reconciliation. At that moment the dictator did not deign to respond, probably because he still harbored resentment and feared that the presence of the “universal minister” could contribute to strengthening the intrigues of enemies and rivals. Santana's weak position
34592-464: Was so named because its original nine members had organized themselves into cells of three. The cells went on to recruit as separate organizations, maintaining strict secrecy, with little or no direct contact among themselves, in order to minimize the possibility of detection by the Haitian authorities. Many recruits quickly came to the group, but it was discovered and forced to change its name to La Filantrópica ("The Philanthropic"). The Trinitarios won
34780-469: Was the current power and considered it equipped to ensure a relationship that would provide the country with stability and progress; Furthermore, it was the original nation of the Dominican people, with a community of language, race and religion, the components of identity. Not even when he saw everything lost and that even his son Tomás joined the restorers, after the disaster of the Battle of La Canela , did his annexationist principles falter. And yet, when
34968-428: Was the mother of Adolfo Alejandro Nouel ). The rapid insertion into the Spanish government apparatus could have been due to the orientation of favoring those recently returned from emigration, as a way of rewarding loyalty to the king, compensating them for the hardships suffered and encouraging others to follow their example. Back in his native country, Bobadilla alternated the practice of law with holding positions in
35156-429: Was the result of the combination of administrative positions and mahogany cutting, an activity that connected him with the rural environment. In his correspondence we read that, until shortly before his death, he frequently traveled to the rugged locations of his mahogany cuts, north of Baní, to complete operations. His married life was an expression of deep Creoleism. The high positions did not prevent him from living as
35344-425: Was unsuccessful. Upon returning to Haiti, Hérard, a mulatto, faced a rebellion by blacks in Port-au-Prince . The two regiments of Dominicans were among those used by Hérard to suppress the uprising. In December 1843, the rebels told Duarte to return since they had to act quickly because they were afraid the Haitians had learned of their insurrection plans. When Duarte had not returned by February, because of illness,
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