Programmable calculators are calculators that can automatically carry out a sequence of operations under control of a stored program . Most are Turing complete , and, as such, are theoretically general-purpose computers. However, their user interfaces and programming environments are specifically tailored to make performing small-scale numerical computations convenient, rather than general-purpose use.
88-418: The Monroe EPIC was a programmable calculator that came on the market in the 1960s. It consisted of a large desktop unit which attached to a floor-standing logic tower and was capable of being programmed to perform many computer-like functions. However, the only form of a branching instruction available was a hard-coded unconditional branch (GOTO) that always executed at program completion (the end of
176-475: A flatbed scanner to take ultra-high-resolution photographs or using an optical mouse as barcode reader . A solution or feat has "hack value" if it is done in a way that has finesse, cleverness or brilliance, which makes creativity an essential part of the meaning. For example, picking a difficult lock has hack value; smashing it does not. As another example, proving Fermat's Last Theorem by linking together most of modern mathematics has hack value; solving
264-473: A "hack" refers to a program that (sometimes illegally) modifies another program, often a video game, giving the user access to features otherwise inaccessible to them. As an example of this use, for Palm OS users (until the 4th iteration of this operating system ), a "hack" refers to an extension of the operating system which provides additional functionality. Term also refers to those people who cheat on video games using special software. This can also refer to
352-639: A clever way without causing any major damage. Some famous hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology were placing of a campus police cruiser on the roof of the Great Dome and converting the Great Dome into R2-D2 . Richard Stallman explains about hackers who program: What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could. They also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in
440-440: A combinatorial problem by exhaustively trying all possibilities does not. Hacking is not using process of elimination to find a solution; it's the process of finding a clever solution to a problem. While using hacker to refer to someone who enjoys playful cleverness is most often applied to computer programmers, it is sometimes used for people who apply the same attitude to other fields. For example, Richard Stallman describes
528-514: A computer and uploaded to the calculator which allow for writing and running "pseudo assembly" programs just as one would the Basic type ones. Other languages like Rexx, awk, Perl, and some Unix shells can also be implemented in this fashion on many calculators of this type. The GCC development suite is available for several models of Casio, HP, and TI calculators, meaning that C , C++ , Fortran 77 , and inline assembly language can be used to develop
616-561: A computer. RPL is a special Forth -like programming language used by Hewlett-Packard in its high range devices. The first device with RPL calculator was the HP-28C released in 1987. The language PPL was introduced with the HP Prime calculator and is much like Pascal . An assembler integrated into the TI 89 and related calculators was announced and released in 2014. Machine language programming
704-566: A critically large population and encouraged the spread of a conscious, common, and systematic ethos. Symptomatic of this evolution were an increasing adoption of common slang and a shared view of history, similar to the way in which other occupational groups have professionalized themselves, but without the formal credentialing process characteristic of most professional groups. Over time, the academic hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive, and better organized. The most important consciousness-raising moments have included
792-546: A different end, to get inside cultural systems on the net and make them do things they were never intended to do. A successful software and hardware hacker artist is Mark Lottor (mkl), who has created the 3-D light art projects entitled the Cubatron , and the Big Round Cubatron . This art is made using custom computer technology, with specially designed circuit boards and programming for microprocessor chips to manipulate
880-580: A fake police car atop the dome on MIT's Building 10, that was a hack in this sense, and the students involved were therefore hackers. Other types of hacking are reality hackers , wetware hackers ("hack your brain"), and media hackers ("hack your reputation"). In a similar vein, a "hack" may refer to a math hack, that is, a clever solution to a mathematical problem. All of these uses have spread beyond MIT. CSO Online defined ethical hacking as going into devices and computer systems belonging to an organization, with its explicit permissions, to assess and test
968-436: A hacker is a person who follows a spirit of playful cleverness and loves programming. It is found in an originally academic movement unrelated to computer security and most visibly associated with free software , open source and demoscene . It also has a hacker ethic , based on the idea that writing software and sharing the result on a voluntary basis is a good idea, and that information should be free, but that it's not up to
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#17330937366511056-641: A more exciting way than anyone believed possible and show "Look how wonderful this is. I bet you didn't believe this could be done." Hackers from this subculture tend to emphatically differentiate themselves from whom they pejoratively call " crackers "; those who are generally referred to by media and members of the general public using the term "hacker", and whose primary focus—be it to malign or for malevolent purposes—lies in exploiting weaknesses in computer security. The Jargon File , an influential but not universally accepted compendium of hacker slang, defines hacker as "A person who enjoys exploring
1144-454: A notorious example) to expose or add functionality to a device that was unintended for use by end users by the company who created it. A number of techno musicians have modified 1980s-era Casio SK-1 sampling keyboards to create unusual sounds by doing circuit bending : connecting wires to different leads of the integrated circuit chips. The results of these DIY experiments range from opening up previously inaccessible features that were part of
1232-590: A number of types. The wide availability and low cost of personal computers including laptop computers , smartphones and tablets gradually made programmable calculators obsolete for most applications. Many mathematical software packages can be automated and customized through scripting languages and plug-ins in a manner similar to handheld programmable calculators. However, programmable calculators remain popular in secondary and tertiary education . Specific calculator models are often required for use in many mathematics courses. Their continued use in education
1320-408: A printer (the typewriters are also able to be connected to PCs for this purpose, and the interface tends to be a standard RS-232 and/or DIN plug), and in some cases to access the typewriter's floppy or micro floppy drives. Hacker (hobbyist) The hacker culture is a subculture of individuals who enjoy—often in collective effort—the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming
1408-519: A program on the computer side and then upload it to the calculator. Projects in development by third parties include on-board and/or computer-side converters, interpreters, code generators, macro assemblers, or compilers for Fortran , other Basic variants, awk , C , Cobol , Rexx , Perl , Python , Tcl , Pascal , Delphi , and operating system shells like DOS/Win95 batch, OS/2 batch, WinNT/2000 shell, Unix shells , and DCL . Many TI, Casio, Sharp, and HP models have Lua interpreters which are part of
1496-402: A project undertaken on bad self-advice; 3) an entropy booster; 4) to produce, or attempt to produce, a hack(3)", and "hacker" was defined as "one who hacks, or makes them". Much of TMRC's jargon was later imported into early computing culture, because the club started using a DEC PDP-1 and applied its local model railroad slang in this computing context. Initially incomprehensible to outsiders,
1584-605: A pulse, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, galvanic skin resistance, body temperature, and even EKG and EEG probes to a data logger which is then connected to the calculator and, then or later, a PC. The HP programmables and others have an IrDA interface which allows them to interface with the printers specially designed for the calculators, HP's main lines of laser printers, computers, other calculators, and other devices. Also commonly available from many companies are small printers made specifically for calculators which tend to use cash register tape paper, ports and cables for connecting
1672-673: A simple, inexpensive alternative to magnetic cards. Usually, an interface module, such as the Casio FA-1 , was used to connect the calculator to an ordinary cassette recorder, and digital data were encoded as frequency-shift keyed audio signals. Sharp and Hewlett-Packard also sold dedicated micro- or mini-cassette recorders that connected directly to the calculator. These set-ups, while being more practical and reliable, were also more expensive. As memory demands rose, it became more difficult to create true continuous memory and developers sought alternatives. With semi-continuous memory content
1760-500: A very simplified programming language, often based either on recording actual keystrokes or bytecode if the keystrokes were merged. Calculators supporting such programming were Turing-complete if they supported both conditional statements and indirect addressing of memory. Notable examples of Turing complete calculators were Casio FX-602P series , the HP-41 and the TI-59 . Keystroke programming
1848-441: Is always the understanding that a more skillful or technical logician could have produced successful modifications that would not be considered a "hack-job". The definition is similar to other, non-computer based uses of the term "hack-job". For instance, a professional modification of a production sports car into a racing machine would not be considered a hack-job, but a cobbled together backyard mechanic's result could be. Even though
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#17330937366511936-583: Is exciting and meaningful. Activities of playful cleverness can be said to have "hack value" and therefore the term "hacks" came about, with early examples including pranks at MIT done by students to demonstrate their technical aptitude and cleverness. The hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)'s Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) and MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory . Hacking originally involved entering restricted areas in
2024-469: Is still used in mid-range calculators like the HP 35s and HP-12C . BASIC is a widespread programming language commonly adapted to desktop computers and pocket computers. The most common languages now used in high range calculators are proprietary BASIC -style dialects as used by Casio ( Casio BASIC or BasicLike) and TI ( TI-BASIC ) . These BASIC dialects are optimised for calculator use, combining
2112-445: Is the availability of some form of persistent memory. Without persistent memory, programs have to be re-entered whenever power is lost, making the device cumbersome. Persistent memory can be internal or on a separate device. Some programmable calculators employ both schemes. Magnetic card readers were among the first persistent memory options available. The entered programs are stored on magnetic strips. Those were easy to transport, and
2200-417: Is the process of software engines running real-world cyber threats to assess the survivability of a company's digital structure. Ethical hackers play the role of cyber attackers by executing assessments, penetration tests, and modeling tactics, techniques, and procedures used by threat-actors. This careful examination provides an organization with the identification of weaknesses in its security systems, enabling
2288-432: Is user-created freeware or even open source , though commercial software, particularly for educational and science/engineering markets, is also available. Programmable calculators have major websites with information, documentation, message boards, tools for download, and other things useful for this pursuit; the main sites for each manufacturer's calculators are run by third parties with varying degrees of collaboration from
2376-433: Is usually justified by the strictly controllable functionality available. For instance, the calculators do not typically have direct Internet access and so cannot be used for illegal assistance in exams. The remaining programmable calculator manufacturers devote much effort to encourage the continued use of these calculators in high school mathematics. Programmable calculators allow the user to write and store programs in
2464-430: Is worth doing or is interesting. This is something that hackers often feel intuitively about a problem or solution. An aspect of hack value is performing feats for the sake of showing that they can be done, even if others think it is difficult. Using things in a unique way outside their intended purpose is often perceived as having hack value. Examples are using a dot matrix impact printer to produce musical notes, using
2552-488: The HP-50g , its then top-of-the-line calculator model. Programs and toolkits to allow on-board assembly-like programming (often Intel 80x86 even if the actual processor in the calculator is something completely different like a Zilog or Motorola chip) are in the beta stage in at least two implementations—the native Basic variant can be enhanced by user-defined functions and procedures as well as assembly and C modules developed on
2640-476: The LED lights. Don Hopkins is a software hacker artist well known for his artistic cellular automata. This art, created by a cellular automata computer program, generates objects which randomly bump into each other and in turn create more objects and designs, similar to a lava lamp, except that the parts change color and form through interaction. Hopkins Says: Cellular automata are simple rules that are applied to
2728-554: The University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. They evolved in parallel, and largely unconsciously, until the Internet , where a legendary PDP-10 machine at MIT, called AI, that was running ITS , provided an early meeting point of the hacker community. This and other developments such as the rise of the free software movement and community drew together
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2816-701: The jailbreaking of iPhones . Hacker artists create art by hacking on technology as an artistic medium . This has extended the definition of the term and what it means to be a hacker. Such artists may work with graphics , computer hardware , sculpture , music and other audio , animation , video , software , simulations , mathematics , reactive sensory systems, text, poetry , literature , or any combination thereof. Dartmouth College musician Larry Polansky states: Technology and art are inextricably related. Many musicians, video artists, graphic artists, and even poets who work with technology—whether designing it or using it—consider themselves to be part of
2904-479: The 'hacker community.' Computer artists, like non-art hackers, often find themselves on society's fringes, developing strange, innovative uses of existing technology. There is an empathetic relationship between those, for example, who design experimental music software and hackers who write communications freeware . Another description is offered by Jenny Marketou: Hacker artists operate as culture hackers who manipulate existing techno- semiotic structures towards
2992-654: The Bazaar and many other essays, maintainer of the Jargon File (which was previously maintained by Guy L. Steele, Jr. ). Within the computer programmer subculture of hackers, the term hacker is also used for a programmer who reaches a goal by employing a series of modifications to extend existing code or resources. In this sense, it can have a negative connotation of using inelegant kludges to accomplish programming tasks that are quick, but ugly, inelegant, difficult to extend, hard to maintain and inefficient. This derogatory form of
3080-683: The Homebrew Club's days, but the interests and values of both communities somewhat diverged. Today, the hobbyists focus on commercial computer and video games , software cracking and exceptional computer programming ( demo scene ). Also of interest to some members of this group is the modification of computer hardware and other electronic devices, see modding . Electronics hobbyists working on machines other than computers also fall into this category. This includes people who do simple modifications to graphing calculators , video game consoles , electronic musical keyboards or other device (see CueCat for
3168-526: The Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general public's usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers , calling them "crackers" instead. This includes both "good" crackers (" white hat hackers "), who use their computer security-related skills and knowledge to learn more about how systems and networks work and to help to discover and fix security holes, as well as those more "evil" crackers (" black hat hackers "), who use
3256-552: The Late Middle English words hackere, hakker, or hakkere - one who cuts wood, woodchopper, or woodcutter. Although the idea of "hacking", in the modern sense, existed long before the modern term "hacker"—with the most notable example of Lightning Ellsworth , it was not a word that the first programmers used to describe themselves. In fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds. "But from about 1945 onward (and especially during
3344-478: The PC side and uploaded as source code, or compiled on the PC side and uploaded as with Flash and some C/C++ implementations. In addition to computer-side language packages such as tigcc, hpgcc, and others, the PC link software available for TI, HP, Casio, and Sharp calculators contain program editors; there are also SDKs, emulators, and other tools for use on the computer side, and other manufacturer and third-party tools like
3432-619: The TI++ editor. Programs, data, and so forth can also be exchanged among similar machines via the same ports on the calculator used for PC connectivity. On-board programming tools which use non-native language implementations include the On-Board C Compiler for fx series Casio calculators and the TI-83 BBC Basic port. One possibility arising from the above is writing interpreters, compilers, and translator programs for additional languages for programming
3520-511: The advantages of BASIC and keystroke programming. They have little in common with mainstream BASIC. The version for the Ti-89 and subsequent is more fully featured, including the full set of string and character manipulation functions and statements in standard Basic. A complete port of BBC Basic to the TI-83 subfamily of calculators is now available. It is installed via a cable or IrDA connection with
3608-524: The business's very existence. Furthermore, the act of ethical hacking also molds the larger hacker culture. Hacking skills, traditionally associated with breaking the law, have changed dramatically with the emergence of ethical hacking. Ethical hacking helped legitimize hacking skills which can now be talked about publicly. This shift challenges the stereotypical perception of hackers as criminals, allowing for greater emphasis on their positive contributions to cybersecurity. Ethical hacking has drastically changed
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3696-399: The calculator in order to solve difficult problems or automate an elaborate procedure. Programming capability appears most commonly (although not exclusively) in graphing calculators , as the larger screen allows multiple lines of source code to be viewed simultaneously (i.e., without having to scroll to the next/previous display line). Originally, calculator programming had to be done in
3784-442: The calculator's own command language, but as calculator hackers discovered ways to bypass the main interface of the calculators and write assembly language programs, calculator companies (particularly Texas Instruments ) began to support native-mode programming on their calculator hardware, first revealing the hooks used to enable such code to operate, and later explicitly building in facilities to handle such programs directly from
3872-544: The calculators to a computer and/or another calculator, cassette recorders for recording programs and data, overhead projector displays, and connectors for auxiliary display devices. The earlier programmable calculators, as well as the pocket computers mentioned above, also had such things as video interfaces for televisions and composite monitors, 2½ inch mini floppy disc drives, bar-code readers, and standard RS-232 connectivity which provided for other such things as modems, external hard drives and more. The printer selection for
3960-547: The chip design to producing the strange, dis-harmonic digital tones that became part of the techno music style. Companies take different attitudes towards such practices, ranging from open acceptance (such as Texas Instruments for its graphing calculators and Lego for its Lego Mindstorms robotics gear) to outright hostility (such as Microsoft 's attempts to lock out Xbox hackers or the DRM routines on Blu-ray Disc players designed to sabotage compromised players. ) In this context,
4048-400: The commoditization of computer and networking technology, and has, in turn, accelerated that process. In 1975, hackerdom was scattered across several different families of operating systems and disparate networks; today it is largely a Unix and TCP/IP phenomenon, and is concentrated around various operating systems based on free software and open-source software development. Many of
4136-488: The companies themselves: namely HPCalc.org, TICalc.org, and CasioCalc.org, (qqv.) with the SharpCalc.org domain being recently purchased by an organization which indicated intent to produce a site similar to the other three, plus information on Sharp pocket computers. The companies themselves also have sites such as TIEducation.com with information and tools for the machines. In the early days, most programmable calculators used
4224-581: The composition of the first Jargon File in 1973, the promulgation of the GNU Manifesto in 1985, and the publication of Eric Raymond 's The Cathedral and the Bazaar in 1997. Correlated with this has been the gradual recognition of a set of shared culture heroes, including: Bill Joy , Donald Knuth , Dennis Ritchie , Alan Kay , Ken Thompson , Richard M. Stallman , Linus Torvalds , Larry Wall , and Guido van Rossum . The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly been driven by
4312-651: The consciousness of the programmer subculture of hackers include Richard Stallman , the founder of the free software movement and the GNU project , president of the Free Software Foundation and author of the famous Emacs text editor as well as the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) , and Eric S. Raymond , one of the founders of the Open Source Initiative and writer of the famous text The Cathedral and
4400-438: The creation of the first ENIAC computer) some programmers realized that their expertise in computer software and technology had evolved not just into a profession, but into a passion" (46). There was a growing awareness of a style of programming different from the cut and dried methods employed at first, but it was not until the 1960s that the term "hackers" began to be used to describe proficient computer programmers. Therefore,
4488-422: The creative attitude of software hackers in fields other than computing. This includes even activities that predate computer hacking, for example reality hackers or urban spelunkers (exploring undocumented or unauthorized areas in buildings). One specific example is clever pranks traditionally perpetrated by MIT students, with the perpetrator being called hacker. For example, when MIT students surreptitiously put
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#17330937366514576-408: The culture is less tolerant of unmaintainable solutions, even when intended to be temporary, and describing someone as a "hacker" might imply that they lack professionalism. In this sense, the term has no real positive connotations, except for the idea that the hacker is capable of doing modifications that allow a system to work in the short term, and so has some sort of marketable skills. However, there
4664-510: The default configuration or can be optionally added. Some calculators run a subset of Fortran 77 called Mini-Fortran; the compiler is on the calculator so connecting to a PC to put programs onto the machine is not needed. The OnCalc C Compiler for the Casio fx-9860 series is now available. The Sharp PC G850V pocket computer has an onboard C compiler in addition to an assembler and a Basic interpreter. One important feature of programmable calculators
4752-470: The desired cultural revolution within the realm of the hacking fraternity. Ethical hacking, on its part through focusing on the constructive application of hacking skills, has become an integral activity in the collective effort towards fortification of cybersecurity and redefining hackers' image in the public eye. In yet another context, a hacker is a computer hobbyist who pushes the limits of software or hardware. The home computer hacking subculture relates to
4840-463: The details of programmable systems and stretching their capabilities, as opposed to most users, who prefer to learn only the minimum necessary." The Request for Comments (RFC) 1392, the Internet Users' Glossary, amplifies this meaning as "A person who delights in having an intimate understanding of the internal workings of a system, computers and computer networks in particular." As documented in
4928-437: The early 1990s, most of these flexible handheld units belong to the class of graphing calculators . Before the mass-manufacture of inexpensive dot-matrix LCDs , however, programmable calculators usually featured a one-line numeric or alphanumeric display. The Big Four manufacturers of programmable calculators are Casio , Hewlett-Packard , Sharp , and Texas Instruments . All of the above have also made pocket computers in
5016-409: The efficacy of the organization's cybersecurity defenses. Generally, organizations engage the services of ethical hackers either through third-party cybersecurity firms or under contract. Their main job is to identify and fix security gaps before threat-actors find them and exploit them. This proactive approach to cybersecurity testing leads to significant cost savings for organizations. Ethical hacking
5104-438: The elaborate college pranks that...students would regularly devise" (Levy, 1984 p. 10). To be considered a 'hack' was an honor among like-minded peers as "to qualify as a hack, the feat must be imbued with innovation, style and technical virtuosity" (Levy, 1984 p. 10) The MIT Tech Model Railroad Club Dictionary defined hack in 1959 (not yet in a computer context) as "1) an article or project without constructive end; 2)
5192-1186: The fundamental characteristic that links all who identify themselves as hackers is that each is someone who enjoys "…the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming and circumventing limitations of programming systems and who tries to extend their capabilities" (47). With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word "hacker" and the subculture of "hackers" came from. Some common nicknames among this culture include "crackers", who are considered to be unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck, and "phreaks", which refers to skilled crackers and "warez d00dz" (crackers who acquire reproductions of copyrighted software). Hackers who are hired to test security are called "pentesters" or "tiger teams". Before communications between computers and computer users were as networked as they are now, there were multiple independent and parallel hacker subcultures, often unaware or only partially aware of each other's existence. All of these had certain important traits in common: These sorts of subcultures were commonly found at academic settings such as college campuses . The MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory ,
5280-417: The hacker may be the same person.) This usage is common in both programming, engineering and building. In programming, hacking in this sense appears to be tolerated and seen as a necessary compromise in many situations. Some argue that it should not be, due to this negative meaning; others argue that some kludges can, for all their ugliness and imperfection, still have "hack value". In non-software engineering,
5368-525: The hacker subculture". According to Eric S. Raymond , the Open Source and Free Software hacker subculture developed in the 1960s among 'academic hackers' working on early minicomputers in computer science environments in the United States. Hackers were influenced by and absorbed many ideas of key technological developments and the people associated with them. Most notable is the technical culture of
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#17330937366515456-522: The hacker to make it free by breaking into private computer systems. This hacker ethic was publicized and perhaps originated in Steven Levy 's Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (1984). It contains a codification of its principles. The programmer subculture of hackers disassociates from the mass media's pejorative use of the word 'hacker' referring to computer security, and usually prefer
5544-471: The hands-on imperative. Linus Torvalds , one of the leaders of the open source movement (known primarily for developing the Linux kernel ), has noted in the book The Hacker Ethic that these principles have evolved from the known Protestant ethics and incorporates the spirits of capitalism, as introduced in the early 20th century by Max Weber . Hack value is the notion used by hackers to express that something
5632-502: The hobbyist home computing of the late 1970s, beginning with the availability of MITS Altair . An influential organization was the Homebrew Computer Club . However, its roots go back further to amateur radio enthusiasts. The amateur radio slang referred to creatively tinkering to improve performance as "hacking" already in the 1950s. A large overlaps between hobbyist hackers and the programmer subculture hackers existed during
5720-746: The latest programmable calculators contain cellular modems as an additional channel of connectivity. The programmable calculators can in many cases, via these connections, be used with peripherals such as data loggers and interfaces for instruments like thermometers, pH meters, weather instruments of all kinds, light meters, audio probes and microphones, dynamometers, pressure gauges, voltmeters, ammeters, ohm meters, atmospheric electricity measurement apparatus, ion counters, Geiger counters and scintillometers, altimeters, scales, accelerometers, and many others. Some machines can be used with oscilloscopes and their peripherals as well. Others can be configured—for example, collecting bio-feedback data by connecting devices for
5808-420: The limitations of software systems or electronic hardware (mostly digital electronics ), to achieve novel and clever outcomes. The act of engaging in activities (such as programming or other media ) in a spirit of playfulness and exploration is termed hacking . However, the defining characteristic of a hacker is not the activities performed themselves (e.g. programming ), but how it is done and whether it
5896-464: The machines; BBC Basic has already been ported to the TI-83 and -84 series and other onboard languages and programming tools discussed by many include Fortran, awk, Pascal, Rexx, Perl, Common Lisp, Python, tcl, and various Unix shells. Commonly available programs for calculators include everything from math / science related problem solvers to video games , as well as so-called demos . Much of this code
5984-908: The need for a personal computer. An early example of a PC connection is the Casio FX-603P in conjunction with the Casio FA-6 interface. In this set-up, transfer was done in plain text so the program and data could be stored and edited with a standard text editor . Throughout the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, programmable calculators stood in competition with pocket computers , with high-end calculators sharing many similarities. For example, both devices types were programmable in unstructured BASIC and with few exceptions featured QWERTY keyboards. However, there were also some differences: Companies often had both device types in their product portfolio. Casio, for example, sold some BASIC-programmable calculators as part of their "fx-" calculator series (the "FX"
6072-474: The noun " hack " derives from the everyday English sense "to cut or shape by or as if by crude or ruthless strokes" [Merriam-Webster] and is even used among users of the positive sense of "hacker" who produces "cool" or "neat" hacks. In other words, to "hack" at an original creation, as if with an axe, is to force-fit it into being usable for a task not intended by the original creator, and a "hacker" would be someone who does this habitually. (The original creator and
6160-681: The operation stack ) to return to the starting instruction of the program (looped back to the beginning of operation stack). This made the creation of conditional branching logic , such as IF-THEN-ELSE, impossible. This electronics-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Programmable calculator The first programmable calculators such as the IBM CPC used punched cards or other media for program storage. Hand-held electronic calculators store programs on magnetic strips, removable read-only memory cartridges, flash memory, or in battery-backed read/write memory. Since
6248-424: The organization to employ necessary measures towards fortifying its defense. Cyber-attacks can have significant financial implications for a company. In such cases, the organizations could have been saved from these gigantic financial losses by identifying and fixing the vulnerabilities discovered by an ethical hacker. Moreover, for smaller organizations, the impact can be even more dramatic as it can potentially save
6336-512: The outcome of a race of the two machines could not be assumed, a quick inspection would instantly reveal the difference in the level of professionalism of the designers. The adjective associated with hacker is "hackish" (see the Jargon file ). In a very universal sense, hacker also means someone who makes things work beyond perceived limits in a clever way in general, without necessarily referring to computers, especially at MIT. That is, people who apply
6424-610: The past, especially Casio and Sharp. Many calculators of this type are monochrome LCD, some are four-color (red or orange, green, blue, and black), or, in the case of some machines at the top of the line as of January 2022 color similar to monitors displaying 16 or 32-bit graphics. As they are used for graphing functions, the screens of these machines are pixel-addressable . Some have a touch screen, buzzers or other sound producers, internal clocks, modems or other connectivity devices including IrDA transceivers, several types of ports for peripherals like printers, and ports for memory cards of
6512-576: The pioneers of the ARPANET , starting in 1969. The PDP-10 AI machine at MIT, running the ITS operating system and connected to the ARPANET, provided an early hacker meeting point. After 1980 the subculture coalesced with the culture of Unix . Since the mid-1990s, it has been largely coincident with what is now called the free software and open source movement . Many programmers have been labeled "great hackers", but
6600-482: The pocket computers was a bit wider as well, including thermal, impact, dot matrix, daisy wheel, 4-colour pen, printers of the type used in simpler printing calculators. Some calculators and pocket computers had external 3½ and 5¼ inch floppy drives, cables for connecting two cassette recorders, cradles containing a printer and/or cassette recorder into which the machine slid, and so on. It is also possible to connect some machines to certain electric typewriters for use as
6688-453: The public perception of hackers. Rather than viewing persons with hacker skills as perpetrators of cybercrime, they can be viewed as part of the solution in fighting against cybercrime. The ethical hacker with knowledge and expertise stands as guardian to the digital assets, working beforehand alongside organizations to build up a more secure online landscape. Ethical hacking is not only a proactive defense for organizations but also brings about
6776-472: The reader/writer was compact in size. However, the reader/writer as well as the magnetic strips were quite expensive. The last and most notable devices to use magnetic strips were the HP-41C and TI-59 . Continuous memory does not lose its content when the calculator is switched off. With continuous memory the user can, for example, change batteries without losing the entered programs. Compact cassettes offered
6864-445: The same skills to author harmful software (such as viruses or trojans) and illegally infiltrate secure systems with the intention of doing harm to the system. The programmer subculture of hackers, in contrast to the cracker community, generally sees computer security-related activities as contrary to the ideals of the original and true meaning of the hacker term, that instead related to playful cleverness. The word "hacker" derives from
6952-483: The silent composition 4′33″ by John Cage and the 14th-century palindromic three-part piece "Ma Fin Est Mon Commencement" by Guillaume de Machaut as hacks. According to the Jargon File, the word hacker was used in a similar sense among radio amateurs in the 1950s, predating the software hacking community. The Boston Globe in 1984 defined "hackers" as "computer nuts". In their programmer subculture,
7040-598: The slang also became popular in MIT's computing environments beyond the club. Other examples of jargon imported from the club are 'losing' ("when a piece of equipment is not working") and 'munged' ("when a piece of equipment is ruined"). Others did not always view hackers with approval. MIT living groups in 1989 avoided advertising their sophisticated Project Athena workstations to prospective members because they wanted residents who were interested in people, not computers, with one fraternity member stating that "We were worried about
7128-448: The specifics of who that label applies to is a matter of opinion. Certainly major contributors to computer science such as Edsger Dijkstra and Donald Knuth , as well as the inventors of popular software such as Linus Torvalds ( Linux ), and Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie ( Unix and C programming language ) are likely to be included in any such list; see also List of programmers . People primarily known for their contributions to
7216-534: The support needs of homebrew programmers, and started to make assembly language libraries and documentation available for prospective developers. Software, particularly games, could now be nearly as fast and as graphical as their Game Boy counterparts, and TI, in particular, would later formalize assembly programming into support for packaged applications for future calculators such as the TI-83 Plus and TI-89 ; HP included some onboard support for assembler programming on
7304-478: The term 'cracker' for that meaning. Complaints about supposed mainstream misuse started as early as 1983, when media used "hacker" to refer to the computer criminals involved in The 414s case. In the programmer subculture of hackers, a computer hacker is a person who enjoys designing software and building programs with a sense for aesthetics and playful cleverness. The term hack in this sense can be traced back to "describe
7392-402: The user interface. Many programs written for calculators can be found on the internet . Users can download the programs to a personal computer , and then upload them to the calculator using a specialized link cable , infrared wireless link, or through a memory card. Sometimes these programs can also be run through emulators on the PC. Programming these machines can be done on the machine, on
7480-498: The values and tenets of the free and open source software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT and at the Homebrew Computer Club . The hacker ethics were chronicled by Steven Levy in Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution and in other texts in which Levy formulates and summarizes general hacker attitudes: Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in
7568-454: Was often discouraged on early calculator models; however, dedicated platform hackers discovered ways to bypass the built-in interpreters on some models and program the calculator directly in assembly language , a technique that was first discovered and utilized on the TI-85 due to a programming flaw in a mode-switching key. By the time the TI-83 came out, TI and HP had realized the need to address
7656-437: Was only preserved if specific battery-changing rules were observed. The most common rules were: Programs and data are transferred to a personal computer for storage. The transfer is done by the following connection methods (chronological order of appearance) RS-232 , IrDA and USB . This method has the advantage of being very cost-efficient and is usually faster than the cassette interface. These advantages are offset by
7744-418: Was printed in uppercase) and pocket computer the dedicated "pb-" series while Sharp marketed all BASIC-programmable devices as pocket computers. Some programmable calculators have one or more methods of connecting to a PC for the interchange of data, programs, and software. These methods include IrDA, other wireless, serial ports -including USB or RS-232 via.125 inch or other size audio plugs, etc. Some of
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