The Tanganekald people were or are an Aboriginal Australian people of South Australia , today classed as part of the Ngarrindjeri nation.
116-629: The clan name Milmenrura (also spelt Milmendura, Milmendjuri, or Milmendjeri) was often used in the early days of the colony of South Australia to mean the whole tribe, in particular in association with the Maria massacre , in which 25 or 26 shipwrecked survivors of the brig Maria were massacred by local people on the Coorong . The Tanganekald lay to the southeast of the Jarildekald (aka Yaralde) and occupied 750 square miles (1,900 km), predominantly about
232-602: A 2019 article about the Maria massacre : "The ancient identity and name of the Milmendjeri, one of the Tanganekald peoples, belong to the Coorong. They are ancient names that have become almost lost to living memory. Post-invasion, the peoples and territories of the Coorong have become known as Ngarrindjeri — this name is now privileged in native title claims over the lands and affairs of traditional First Nations nations such as Ramindjeri , Tanganekald, and Yaralde ." A distinction
348-581: A blueprint for development of British colonial policy. The defunct New Zealand Association reformed itself as the New Zealand Company in June 1838. By the end of the year they had purchased a ship, the Tory . Early in 1839 they discovered that although they now complied with the conditions the government had laid down for the old New Zealand Association, it was not prepared to honour its promises. Furthermore, it
464-476: A book about the colonisation of South Australia in 1835) was first approached by a group of emigrants, while the Colonial Office was considering Sir John Franklin . Franklin withdrew in favour of Napier, but Napier quarrelled with the emigrants and made two requests (for access to Treasury funds, and for troops to act as police) which were not met, and he resigned. Napier favoured Light as Governor; however,
580-451: A break from New Zealand affairs. It did not serve his purpose and he returned to London two months later in a semi-invalid state. During his convalescence he wrote his book A View of the Art of Colonization , in the form of letters between a "Statesman" and a "Colonist". By January 1846 Wakefield was back to his scheming. By now Gladstone was Colonial Secretary. Wakefield approached him early in
696-457: A crater near McGrath Flat homestead , concerns an aged woman, Prupe, and her sister Koromarange, both of the Marntandi clan. Growing sightless, Prupe had turned cannibal and had eaten almost all of the district's children, save one, her sister's granddaughter Koakaŋgi . To save her grandchild and stave off Prupe's intrusive foraging for her, Koromarange would bring her sister food. This only made
812-637: A detailed report on public lands, arguing that the better way to encourage settlement was to sell Crown lands at higher prices than had been the case up to then, which would attract immigrants with capital. This approach had been tried without much success in Upper Canada some years before. Wakefield's report on public lands became Appendix B to the Durham Report . No attempt was made to implement his policy proposals. Durham met extensively with local political leaders, but at one point, Wakefield met with one of
928-512: A fifteen-year-old girl in Britain, he enjoyed a lengthy career in colonial governments and colonial policy. Wakefield was born in London in 1796, the eldest son of Edward Wakefield (1774–1854), a distinguished surveyor and land agent, and Susanna Crush (1767–1816). His grandmother, Priscilla Wakefield (1751–1832), was a popular author for the young, and one of the introducers of savings banks. He
1044-536: A gentleman settler in New South Wales (completely fictitious), outlining his various ideas as a new theory of colonisation. He proposed an "Emigration Fund" payable by landlords' taxes and land sales, which would fund labour for the colonies. Gouger, an enthusiastic supporter, edited the letters and published them as a book, helping to distribute Wakefield's document. Wakefield saw the colonies as "extensions of an old society"; all classes would be represented among
1160-524: A huge public meeting at Exeter Hall in London on the 30 June 1834, to spread awareness about the proposal for the new province and emigration scheme, chaired by Wolryche-Whitmore. The meeting was attended by more than 2,500 people, including well-known philosophers and social reformers , and the speeches and discussions continued for seven hours. Afterwards the association received hundreds of enquiries from people interested in emigration. The Association lobbied
1276-618: A large number of enthusiastic members. Wakefield's ideas caused much debate in Parliament . After Charles Sturt discovered the River Murray in 1830, more interest in Wakefield's scheme followed. One key component of the Wakefield Scheme was that the land price should be set high enough to prevent land speculation . In 1831 a "Proposal to His Majesty's Government for founding a colony on
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#17330857158171392-464: A lot of interest. The National Colonization Society (also spelt National Colonisation Society ) was created in 1830 in order to advocate for the type of "systematic colonisation " set out in Letter from Sydney , based on three principles: careful selection of emigrants; the concentration of settlers; and the sale of land at a fixed, uniform, "sufficient price", to provide funding for new settlers. Wakefield
1508-559: A minimum price of five shillings per acre in the colony of New South Wales . After his Letter from Sydney in 1829, Wakefield's name became associated with other "scientific theories" of colonisation similar to his. People who accepted these ideas were usually on the side of the colonists, and were called "systematic colonizers," or (more commonly) "colonial reformers" and "radical imperialists," to highlight their Radical Whig political roots. After his release Wakefield briefly turned his attention to social questions at home, and produced
1624-671: A new Governor ( George Gawler ) appointed, who would also act as Resident Commissioner. The procedure for the founding of the South Australian province was unclear to the Board of Commissioners, so Letters Patent , specifically Letters Patent under the Great Seal of the United Kingdom erecting and establishing the Province of South Australia and fixing the boundaries thereof , were presented to
1740-894: A new project was under way, the New Zealand Association . In 1837 the Colonial Office gave the New Zealand Association a charter to promote settlement in New Zealand. However, they attached conditions that were unacceptable to the members of the Association. After considerable discussion, interest in the project waned. Wakefield was undoubtedly one of the most influential voices in the Association, but he discovered another interest, Canada. In 1837, there were rebellions in both Lower Canada and Upper Canada . The colonial governments in both provinces had been able to suppress
1856-629: A pamphlet, "A View of Sir Charles Metcalfe's Government of Canada", and an article "Sir Charles Metcalfe in Canada", which appeared in Fisher's Colonial Magazine in July 1844. That was the end of his involvement with Canadian affairs, apart from being paid about £20,000 by the Association for his work in Canada. Wakefield returned to England in early 1844 to find the New Zealand Company under serious attack from
1972-693: A pierced skull as a water-dish, causing Prupe to lose time ladling in the water, while Koromarange contrived a snare nearby, and fled with the child. On discovering the deception, Prupe rushed forth, only to be trapped in the snare, and, kicking some live coals as she lashed out, was incinerated. The intensity of the fire caused a crater to be formed on the spot where she camped. Thus, Koromarange and her grandchild Koakaŋgi managed to get back to their beach camp. According to Tindale, various names were applied to this group: Tindale 1974 Notable people of Tanganekald heritage include: Colony of South Australia British colonisation of South Australia describes
2088-666: A riding accident in September 1841 before any decision was made. Wakefield returned to Canada in January 1842 to lobby the new governor, Sir Charles Bagot , and stayed for almost a year. Although there was strong opposition in the Assembly to the canal proposal, a major loan guarantee from the British government ensured that funds could be obtained. In June 1842 the Executive Council approved
2204-638: A source within Governor Bagot's office: in one letter to the Colonial Gazette , he correctly predicted that Bagot would appoint LaFontaine to the Executive Council within a month, a significant political advance for French-Canadians, and a major shift in imperial policy. It reached the point that rumours circulated that Wakefield himself was behind Bagot's policy, a claim denied by Bagot, who stated that he had only met Wakefield two or three times. At
2320-651: A target for sealers based in the British colonies of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land . In 1826, The Australian estimated that Kangaroo Island had a population of around 200 people, who in addition to sealing also traded in salt and wallaby and kangaroo skins. However, following the decline of the sealing industry, the island's population had dwindled significantly by 1836. Several farms were established at Three Well Rivers , with poultry and pigs being reared and barley, wheat and vegetables under cultivation. Many residents lived with Aboriginal women – either from mainland South Australia or Aboriginal Tasmanians from
2436-581: A tract on the Punishment of Death (1831), with a graphic picture of the condemned sermon in Newgate, and another on the rural districts, with an equally powerful exhibition of the degraded condition of the agricultural labourer. He soon, however, became entirely engrossed with colonial affairs. In 1831, having impressed John Stuart Mill , Robert Torrens and other leading economists with the value of his ideas, Wakefield became involved in various schemes to promote
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#17330857158172552-630: A wealthy merchant and former British Cabinet minister, who had substantial business interests in British North America. (Ellice's son, also named Edward Ellice , had been Durham's private secretary. While in Lower Canada, he and his wife, Katherine Ellice , had been taken prisoner by Patriotes at the seigneury during the Battle of Beauharnois in November 1838.) In addition to the proposed settlements,
2668-503: A work primarily intended to develop his own colonial theory, which is done in the appendix entitled "The Art of Colonization." The body of the work contains many new ideas, some of them reaching apparently extreme conclusions. It contains the distinct proposal that the transport of letters should be wholly free, and the prediction that, under given circumstances, the Americans would raise "cheaper corn than has ever yet been raised". Soon,
2784-464: Is to found a Colony, under Royal Charter , and without convict labour, at or near Spencer Gulf , on the south coast of Australia, a tract of country far removed from the existing Penal Settlements... ...The South Australian Association consists of three classes of members, First, Persons who propose to settle in the Colony. Secondly, Persons willing to aid the Association without taking a responsible part in
2900-532: The Buffalo on 28 December. The foundation of South Australia is usually considered to be Governor Hindmarsh's Proclamation of South Australia at Glenelg on 28 December 1836. Colonel Light was given two months to locate the most advantageous location for the main colony. He was required to find a site with a harbour , arable land , fresh water , ready internal and external communications , building materials and drainage . Light rejected potential locations for
3016-568: The Church of England . This plan matured to become the Canterbury Settlement. The first ship sailed from England in December 1849 with Godley in command of the expedition. Jerningham Wakefield also sailed with them, his health and finances ruined by his dissipated lifestyle in London. The first immigrant ships bound for Canterbury sailed from Plymouth in September 1850, and others followed. In
3132-548: The City of Adelaide Municipal Corporation was the first municipal authority in Australia. At its time of establishment, Adelaide's (and Australia's) first mayor, James Hurtle Fisher , was elected. However, the new corporation suffered financial woes, after several of its actions were unauthorised or reversed by the British government, leading to considerable debt and, so it wound up as insolvent in 1843. The office of Colonial Architect
3248-590: The Colonial Office . Administrative power was divided between a Governor , John Hindmarsh , who represented the Crown , and the Resident Commissioner, who reported to the Colonisation Commissioners and who was responsible for the survey and sale of land as well as for organising migration and funding. The first Resident Commissioner was James Hurtle Fisher . The Commissioner of Public Lands
3364-452: The Province of South Australia was established. Although initially, Wakefield was a driving force, as it came closer to fruition, he was allowed less and less influence, with ally-turned-rival Robert Gouger eventually controlling execution of the scheme. However, he did not lose interest in colonisation as a tool for social engineering . In 1833 he published anonymously England and America ,
3480-453: The Robe district's limestone coastal area . They could render themselves invisible at will, and were the object of particular horror for their piercing eyes, which could, at a mere glance, kill a person. They could only be observed by making swift slanting gazes. These people were said to have finally driven out of their habitats by the ancestral forefathers of the tribe, who managed to drive them into
3596-611: The Act, to control sales of land and the administration of revenue: thirteen Commissioners were based in London (at 6 Adelphi Terrace in 1840 ), with a Resident Commissioner appointed by the board and stationed in the colony. Those first appointed, on 5 May 1835, were Colonel Robert Torrens (Chairman), Rowland Hill (Secretary), G. Barnes (Treasurer), George Fife Angas , Edward Barnard, William Hutt , J. G. Shaw-Lefevre , William Alexander Mackinnon M.P. , Samuel Mills, Jacob Barrow Montefiore , Lt Col George Palmer , and John Wright, representing
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3712-519: The Beauharnois area for the Colonial Association. Metcalfe prorogued the Assembly after the passage of the motion. He found it difficult to assemble a new ministry, and did not recall the Assembly, instead dissolving it for a general election in 1844. Wakefield had returned to Britain after the 1843 session, and did not stand for re-election. In 1844, he wrote two pieces defending Metcalfe:
3828-565: The Beauharnois route, and construction began. As part of his lobbying, Wakefield positioned himself as a champion of French-Canadian interests, sending a series of letters to the Colonial Gazette in London, calling for greater French-Canadian involvement in the government of the province. He cultivated two significant Patriote leaders who had been imprisoned during the Rebellion, Denis-Benjamin Viger and Jean-Joseph Girouard . He also appeared to have
3944-504: The British government for years, taking part in numerous negotiations and submitting plans that underwent many modifications. Finally, after intervention by the Duke of Wellington , the bill drafted by the Association and presented by Wolryche-Whitmore was presented to Parliament , which passed the South Australia (Foundation) Act on 15 August 1834. The Act provided for the settlement as
4060-476: The Colonial Office. In the interval, the Times began publishing extracts from the report. It is not clear how the Times obtained the report, but it is generally accepted that Wakefield likely had a hand in it, to prevent the government from trying to bury the recommendation for responsible government. The report was formally laid before Parliament on 11 February 1839. Eventually this report, and its conclusions, became
4176-433: The Colonial Office. He threw himself into the campaign to save his project. In August 1844 he had a stroke , followed in later months by several other minor strokes, and he had to retire. There is also a possibility that his mental health was not too sound in the succeeding months. His son Jerningham returned from New Zealand about this time and cared for him. In August 1845 he went to France to recuperate and to give himself
4292-563: The New Year with a fairly radical plan that both the Government and the New Zealand Company should withdraw from New Zealand affairs and the colony should become self-governing. While it might have been a good idea, Wakefield wanted it accepted immediately, and became at first heated and then distressed when some months later, it was still being considered. In August 1846, he had another, potentially fatal stroke. His friend, Charles Buller , took up
4408-509: The New Zealand Company, Wakefield had also maintained his interest in Canadian affairs. He returned briefly in 1841, a year after the British government had brought the Union Act, 1840 into force. The government had only implemented part of Durham's recommendations. The act merged Lower Canada and Upper Canada into the new Province of Canada , but had not implemented responsible government. There
4524-546: The Province of Canada for a short time. He was best known for his colonisation scheme, sometimes referred to as the Wakefield scheme or the Wakefield system , which aimed to populate the new colony of South Australia with a workable combination of labourers, tradespeople, artisans and capital. The scheme was to be financed by the sale of land to the capitalists who would thereby support the other classes of emigrants. Despite being imprisoned for three years in 1827 for kidnapping
4640-559: The Province of South Australia, for the sale of lands, for funding of the venture, and for governance. The South Australia Act 1834 set out the governance of the new colony by a new body known as the South Australian Colonization Commission , also known as the Colonization Commissioners for South Australia (and variant spellings ), which would be based in London. However, the Act gave control of
4756-800: The Province of South Australia. The first migrant ship, the John Pirie , set sail for the colony three days later. An amendment to the 1834 Act (the South Australia Government Act 1838 ( 1 & 2 Vict. c. 60), passed 31 July 1838) incorporated the changes. Under the emigration scheme, "worthy" labourers and their families received free passage. They had to be between 15 and 30 years of age, preferably married, and needed two references. Steerage passengers paid £15-20, middle berth £35-40, and cabin class £70. Children under 14 years were charged £3 while those under 1 year were free. Montefiore and Lt-Col Palmer helped Colonel Light to prepare two of
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4872-543: The South Australia Company arrived at Nepean Bay on Kangaroo Island : the Duke of York on 27 July, Lady Mary Pelham on 30 July, John Pirie on 16 August and Emma on 5 October. More ships left in the coming months, making a total of at least nine, which for convenience can be regarded as the First Fleet of South Australia . Apart from the last one, HMS Buffalo , all went to Nepean Bay first. A settlement
4988-640: The South Australian Company imported pure merinos from the German region of Saxony , and cows and goats were also shipped over. Sheep and other livestock were brought in from Van Diemen's Land and New South Wales. The wool industry was the basis of South Australia's economy for the first few years, with the first wool auction held in Adelaide in 1840. The settlers were mostly British, but some German settlers , mainly " Old Lutherans ", also emigrated in
5104-554: The Southern Coast of Australia" was prepared under the auspices of Gouger, Anthony Bacon , Jeremy Bentham and Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey , but its ideas were considered too radical, and it was unable to attract the required investment. After his first proposal failed, Wakefield published his "Plan of a company to be established for the purpose of founding a colony in Southern Australia, purchasing land therein and preparing
5220-505: The Tanganekeld people consisted of some 22 bands . The Tanganekald were divided into the following clans : Tindale recorded and transcribed many Tanganekald songs from Milerum, several of them bawdy. One story cycle describes legends associated with the people the Tanganekald regarded as having lived in their land before their arrival. These people, the Thakuni, inhabited the lagoons around
5336-622: The ambitious John Hindmarsh had got wind of the forthcoming appointment, and set out first to see Napier, then woo some powerful supporters in London, including the Lords of the Admiralty before approaching the Colonial Secretary (Gouger). Light was appointed Surveyor-General on 14 December 1835, and on 21 January 1836 Captain Hindmarsh was appointed the first Governor of South Australia . Hindmarsh
5452-425: The appointment was forbidden by London. Durham appointed one of his other advisors, Charles Buller , as Commissioner, but kept Wakefield as an unofficial representative, advisor and negotiator, giving him effectively the same powers he would have had if he been appointed, but without being paid. Wakefield's main task was analysis of the issue of public lands and the relationship of land to settlement. He prepared
5568-600: The association was to bring to fruition the idea of "systematic colonisation", as proposed by Edward Gibbon Wakefield , in the creation of a new colony in South Australia by the British government. The proposal was for a colony that belonged to the Crown but with its administration run by trustees. The aim of the Association and details of the planned administration of the proposed colony were published on 11 January 1834 in The Spectator : The object of this Association
5684-540: The centre of government would be on Kangaroo Island or at Port Lincoln on the western side of Spencer Gulf , based on reports from Matthew Flinders . However, the scheme, which included free trade, self-government and the power to select the Governor, was not approved as these ideas were considered too radical and republican. In 1833 the South Australian Association was established and began to lobby
5800-460: The colonisation of South Australia . He believed that many of the social problems in Britain were caused by overpopulation , and he saw emigration to the colonies as a useful safety valve. He set out to design a colonisation scheme with a workable combination of labourers, artisans and capital. The scheme was to be financed by the sale of land to the capitalists who would thereby support the other classes of emigrants. It took several attempts before
5916-662: The company folded. The South Australian Association was formed in 1833 by Wakefield, Robert Gouger and other supporters, which put forward a proposal less radical than previous ones, which was finally supported and a Bill proposed in Parliament. The British Province of South Australia was established by the South Australia Act 1834 in August 1834, and the South Australian Company formed on 9 October 1835 to fulfil
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#17330857158176032-458: The early years. The first large group of Germans arrived in 1838, with the financial assistance of the Emigration Fund. Most moved out of Adelaide and to the Barossa Valley and settlements in the Adelaide Hills such as Hahndorf , living in socially closed communities, by 1842, and did not participate in government until responsible government was granted 15 years later in 1857. Established in 1840, with its first meeting held on 4 November 1840,
6148-495: The end of the parliamentary session in October 1842, John William Dunscomb , the member of the Legislative Assembly for the Beauharnois district , resigned his seat, since he had taken a new position in Montreal. Wakefield saw an opportunity and stood for election in Beauharnois. Campaigning as a supporter of LaFontaine, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly in November 1842. Having been elected, he then returned to Britain. Wakefield returned to Canada in September 1843 for
6264-431: The fact that she was a wealthy heiress probably played a part, with Edward receiving a marriage settlement of £70,000 (almost US$ 7m in 2018 dollars ), with the prospect of more when Eliza turned 21. The married couple, accompanied by the bride's mother and various servants, moved to Genoa , Italy, where Wakefield was again employed in a diplomatic capacity. Here his first child, Susan Priscilla Wakefield, known as Nina,
6380-400: The fitting out. Fearing a last-minute attempt by the government to prevent her sailing, Wakefield hastened down to Plymouth and advised their immediate departure. The Tory finally quit English shores on 12 May 1839 and reached New Zealand 96 days later. Wakefield did not sail with the colonists, and many years were to pass before he saw New Zealand. He may have recognised that he did not have
6496-422: The government for the establishment of a colony in South Australia, with Crown-appointed governance. Robert Gouger started setting up the South Australian Association from November 1833. Between that time and August 1834, he corresponded with George Grote , Sir Edward Smith-Stanley, Earl of Derby , William Wolryche-Whitmore , Joseph Hume , Liberal MP Sir William Clay , and Charles Shaw-Lefevre . The aim of
6612-402: The government on 19 February 1836, and with its adoption along with an Order-in-Council on 23 February 1836 the foundation of the South Australian province was achieved. The main changes in the Letters Patent were to amend the wording in the 1834 document which referred to the land as "unoccupied", and to recognise the rights of the "Aboriginal Natives" to live unhindered within the lands of
6728-429: The government under the Colonisation Commission set up by the 1834 Act failed to achieve financial self-sufficiency, the South Australia Act 1842 repealed the earlier Act, made South Australia a Crown colony , provided for the formation of an appointed Legislative Assembly and passed greater powers to the Governor of South Australia (then Sir George Grey ). There were moves towards representative self-government in
6844-539: The ideas of the society. Colonel Robert Torrens and Robert Wilmot-Horton were on the committee of the society. The society published The Outline of a Plan of a Colony , later expanded and elaborated upon by Wakefield. In 1831, Lord Howick , Under-Secretary of the Colonial Office was won over by the idea of selling land at a fixed, uniform price, and based his "Ripon Regulations" on this principle, issued in February 1831, which abolished free land grants, replacing them with and land sales at public auction , set at
6960-420: The land so purchased for the Reception of Immigrants", and the South Australian Land Company ( SALC ) was formed in 1831 to establish a new colony in the area of South Australia. The SALC sought a Royal Charter for the purchase of land for colonisation, which would raise funding for the transport of immigrants, and for the governance of the new colony to be administered by the SALC. The company anticipated that
7076-418: The land. Land could be bought at a uniform price per acre, but it would go to auction in the case of more than one potential buyer. Leases of up to three years could be granted "for pasturage" on unsold lands. All proceeds were to go to the Emigration Fund, set up to help poorer people to migrate to the colony. These regulations were of great significance; the success of the Wakefield scheme to populate and fund
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#17330857158177192-516: The latter suspicious and, as she went blind, she thought of taking the child to harvest her eyes so she might regain her sight. While the grandmother was netting fish, Prupe managed to kidnap her young ward, who had revealed her presence by crying out for water, and took her back to her camp. When Koromarange realized what had happened, she followed their spoors and came across Prupe, who was about to extract Koakaŋgi's eyes. Feigning fatigue she asked her sister to fetch her some restorative water, giving her
7308-435: The leaders without trial, nor to threaten the exiles with death. Melbourne's government disallowed Durham's ordinance, which Durham took as a lack of confidence. He and Wakefield left Lower Canada shortly before the second outbreak of the Rebellion in November 1838. In Britain, Durham went into seclusion while he wrote his report on the causes of the rebellions and his recommendations for reforms to prevent further unrest in
7424-514: The marriage, which had not been consummated , was dissolved by a special act of parliament . He turned his attention while in prison to colonial subjects, and considered the main causes of the slow progress of the Australian colonies in the enormous size of the landed estates , the reckless manner in which land was given away, the absence of all systematic effort at colonisation, and the consequent discouragement of immigration and dearth of labour . He proposed to remedy this state of things by
7540-417: The members of the Executive Council resigned, arguing that Metcalfe's actions were inconsistent with the principle of responsible government. There was a major debate in the Assembly over the issue, resulting in the passage of a motion condemning Governor Metcalfe for his actions. Wakefield defended Metcalfe, relying on a narrow interpretation of the principle of responsible government, and also insinuating that
7656-416: The mid-nineteenth century, and South Australia became a self-governing colony in October 1856. The French Nicolas Baudin and the British Matthew Flinders had both made exploratory voyages along the central southern coastline. On 8 April 1802, the vessels of the two explorers met off South Australia, at what is now called Encounter Bay . They each gave names to various places around Kangaroo Island and
7772-677: The narrow coastal strip along Coorong . Norman Tindale gives the following precise locations, based on detailed work with his informant, Clarence Long ( Milerum ), the last full blooded adult survivor of the Tangane. from Middleton south to Twelve Mile Point (north of Kingston ); inland only to about inner margin of first inland swamp and dune terrace, the Woakwine or 25 foot (7.5 m.) terrace, usually no more than 5 to 10 miles (8 to 16 km.); on islands in Lake Alexandrina, except eastern and western extremities of Hindmarsh Island ; around Meningie at south and of Lake Albert , at Salt Creek and Taratap (Ten Mile Point). Law professor Irene Watson wrote in
7888-561: The negotiations. In May 1847 the British Government agreed to take over the debts of the New Zealand Company and to buy out their interests in the Colony. The directors readily accepted the offer. Wakefield found he was powerless and unable to influence the decision, which did not please him. Without notice, his youngest brother Felix Wakefield , who had been in Tasmania since the early 1830s, reappeared in England accompanied by eight of his children, having abandoned his wife and youngest child in Australia. Felix had no money and no prospects and
8004-407: The new Governor General, Sir Charles Metcalfe . (Bagot had died earlier in the year.) In November, there was a major political crisis: LaFontaine and his colleague, Robert Baldwin , who had taken office on the principle of responsible government, got into a dispute with Metcalfe over appointments that Metcalfe made without consulting the Executive Council. LaFontaine, Baldwin, and all but one of
8120-426: The new Province hinged on land development, so land law and regulations governing it were fundamental. Sales of land had proved difficult; buyers did not rush to buy an acre of wild land for 20 shillings . It was left to the South Australian Company (formed on 15 October 1835, after talented businessman George Fife Angas resigned as Commissioner ) to purchase the remaining portion of the £35,000 worth of land that
8236-461: The new colony to the Colonial Office as well as the Commissioners, which led to tension between the two and caused problems later. The Act provided that three or more persons could be appointed as Commissioners to be known as Colonization Commissioners for South Australia, to carry out certain parts of the Act. The Commissioners formed a Board, which had responsibilities for: The British government appointed Commissioners to oversee implementation of
8352-479: The new government was to be saddled with the remaining debts of the defunct New Zealand Company. Wakefield now decided that he had achieved everything he could in England; it was time to see the colony he felt he had created. He sailed from Plymouth in September 1852, knowing he would never return. His sister Catherine and her son Charley came to see him off. Then, at the last minute, his father appeared. Edward Wakefield
8468-783: The new main settlement, including Kangaroo Island, Port Lincoln and Encounter Bay . Light decided that the Adelaide plains were the best location for settlement. The River Torrens was discovered to the south and Light and his team set about determining the city's precise location and layout. The survey was completed on 11 March 1837. Light's poorly paid and ill-equipped surveying team were expected to begin another massive task of surveying at least 405 square kilometres (156 sq mi) of rural land. Light, despite slowly succumbing to tuberculosis , managed to survey 605.7 square kilometres (233.9 sq mi) (or 150,000 acres (61,000 ha)) by June 1838. The settlement grew steadily. In 1836
8584-636: The other Patriote leaders were "profoundly ignorant of their own position and thoroughly devoid of judgment..." Durham abruptly resigned his post as Governor General in the fall of 1838. He had attempted to deal with those who had been caught in arms by pardoning the rank and file, exiling eight of the leaders to Bermuda, and threatening Patriotes in exile in the United States with death if they returned to Lower Canada. In London, Lord Brougham , former Lord Chancellor , vigorously criticised these actions, arguing that Durham had no legal authority to exile
8700-520: The other settlers described him as "the worst man we have in Canterbury". During 1851 and 1852 Wakefield continued to work for the Canterbury Association and also worked towards making New Zealand a self-governing colony . The New Zealand Constitution Act was passed on 30 June 1852. There was general satisfaction among New Zealanders about this, although they were less happy to discover that
8816-633: The parliamentary session. He initially aligned himself with the French-Canadian Group under LaFontaine's leadership, but part-way through the session he left them. He had introduced a bill to make the North American Colonial Association of Ireland a mortgage and trust company, with an accompanying colonisation plan. When the French-Canadian Group refused to support his proposals, he left them and shifted his support to
8932-489: The patience, the skills or the talents needed on a frontier. His talents lay in visualising dramatic plans and grandiose schemes, ignoring the details, and then persuading other people to get involved. He was a salesman, a propagandist and a politician, secretly inspiring and guiding many parliamentary committees on colonial subjects, especially on the abolition of penal transportation . By the end of 1839, he had dispatched eight more ships to New Zealand, before he even knew of
9048-547: The planning and establishment of the colony of South Australia by the British government, covering the period from 1829, when the idea was raised by the then-imprisoned Edward Gibbon Wakefield , to 1842, when the South Australia Act 1842 changed the form of government to a Crown colony . Ideas espoused and promulgated by Wakefield since 1829 led to the formation of the South Australian Land Company in 1831, but this first attempt failed to achieve its goals, and
9164-506: The proceedings. Thirdly, Persons who may take an active part in the preliminary proceedings of the Association, and may become, under the proposed Charter, Trustees for carrying its provisions into effect. The members of the South Australian Association were men of varied backgrounds, from philanthropists to merchants, including Wakefield, Robert Gouger, Robert Torrens Sr and George Fife Angas . The association organised
9280-513: The purposes of the Act by forming a new colony financed by land sales. The first settlers arrived on Kangaroo Island in July 1836, with all of the ships later sailing north soon afterwards to anchor in Holdfast Bay on the advice of Surveyor-General , Colonel William Light . The foundation of South Australia is usually considered to be the proclamation of the new Province by Governor Hindmarsh at Glenelg on 28 December 1836. However, after
9396-489: The real reason LaFontaine and Baldwin had resigned was that they feared defeat on a taxation bill they had introduced. He voted against the motion and in support of Metcalfe, along with Viger and some other members who left the French-Canadian Group on the issue. Following the resignations, Wakefield appeared to be heavily involved in giving advice to Metcalfe, with some saying that he was the real governor. His motivation appears to have been still focused on his schemes to develop
9512-478: The rebellions, but the underlying political discontent had not been resolved. In January 1838, the government of Lord Melbourne appointed Lord Durham as Governor General of all of British North America , to inquire into the causes of the rebellions and to make recommendations to settle the disputes. Durham was authorised to appoint his own advisors, and chose Wakefield as one of them. Durham knew Wakefield through Wakefield's plans for colonisation of New Zealand. He
9628-473: The reformers from Lower Canada, Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine . He also travelled to Saratoga Springs , New York, in an unsuccessful attempt to meet with the main leader of the Patriote movement , Louis-Joseph Papineau , who had fled to the United States during the Rebellion. It is not clear if Wakefield was acting on his own initiative in these conversations, or on secret instructions from Durham. He later said he
9744-438: The sale of land in small quantities at a sufficient price, and the employment of the proceeds as a fund for promoting immigration. These views were expressed in his Letter from Sydney (1829; published under a false name ), published while he was still in prison, but often quoted as if written on the spot. He had published pamphlets in prison in 1828 under the title "Sketch of a Proposal for Colonising Australia", which had created
9860-685: The same year, Wakefield co-founded the Colonial Reform Society with Charles Adderley , a landowner and member of parliament for North Staffordshire . Felix was causing problems back in Britain and causing Wakefield a great deal of grief. Felix decided that settlement in New Zealand was the solution to all his problems. Wakefield reluctantly sponsored his passage to Canterbury, where Felix was allocated 100 acres (0.40 km ) (40 hectares) of land near Sumner . He and six of his children arrived in Lyttelton in November 1851. A short time later one of
9976-471: The sea. There they were transmogrified either into jagged limestone boulders on the outer reefs, or became fairy penguins . According to Tanganekald belief, ancestral human-like beings, the Ŋurunderi and others, collectively referred to by the term maldawuli, were responsible, together with ŋaitje, (totemtotemic animals, consisting mostly of birds) for the creation of the landscape they now inhabit. One story in this sequence, whose events are associated with
10092-464: The sealing colonies on Bass Strait – who were often violently abducted from their homelands and made to work as slaves. Influenced by prison reformer Elizabeth Fry serving a term in prison for abducting a minor, Wakefield turned his mind to social problems caused by over-population . In 1829, he wrote a series of anonymous "Letters from Sydney" to a London newspaper, The Morning Chronicle , in which he purported to write about his own experiences as
10208-548: The seigneury was also valuable because it was close to the location for a proposed canal, to avoid a stretch of rapids on the River St. Lawrence . The initial arrangement for purchase had been made in 1839, and in 1841 Wakefield made a brief trip to Canada to gain support for the canal proposal. He met with the Governor General, Lord Sydenham , who was interested in the proposal but wary of Wakefield's involvement. Sydenham died in
10324-513: The settlers. In addition, the colonies would be more or less self-governing. His ideas were not original, but Wakefield was the one who synthesised a number of theories into one plan of systematic colonisation, and who spread the ideas among the British public and urged the Colonial Office to push forward with such a plan. After his release from prison in 1830, he funded the National Colonization Society , with Gouger as secretary and
10440-407: The ships, Rapid and Cygnet . They proposed a new code for emigrant ships carrying more than 100 passengers, which meant having a minimum deck height and including a medical practitioner on board. These reforms reduced mortality and were later adopted by all British emigrant ships. Four ships chartered by the South Australia Company set sail for South Australia in early 1836: All four ships of
10556-855: The success of the Tory expedition led by his brother William. He then recruited another brother, Arthur , to lead another expedition, this time to settle in the Nelson area at the top of the South Island . Charles Torlesse, the 16-year-old son of his elder sister Catherine, and Rev. Charles Martin Torlesse, rector of Stoke-by-Nayland in Suffolk , sailed with Arthur as a trainee surveyor. By now William's daughter, Emily, and his ward, Leocadia, were already in New Zealand. Two more of his brothers also went to New Zealand later, along with numerous nieces and nephews. Although active with
10672-464: The theorists, in particular Wakefield and Gouger, who had not seen Australia, and, lastly, the settlers, who had to marry fact with ideals. Prior to the establishment of a formal British colony, Kangaroo Island was inhabited by sealers more or less continuously from 1803, when American sealing captain Isaac Pendleton established an outpost at what was named American River . The island soon became
10788-484: The traditional Tanganekald landscape, leading one aged informant to grieve that, 'Our maldawuli (ancestors) told us, long, long ago, to 'beware of ants'. Whitemen must be the 'ants' he spoke of, for he has eaten away all my people, my herbs, my game, and even my sandhills.' Tanganekald , also known as Thangal, is one of several dialects of the Ngarrindjeri language , but is now extinct. According to Norman Tindale ,
10904-469: The two colonies be united under a single government, but with the key recommendation that the government be drawn from the groups which had a majority in the Assembly: the basic principle of responsible government . Durham's report was one of the first documents to outline this principle in detail. Durham provided the proofs of the report to Cabinet on 31 January 1839, four days before he presented it to
11020-512: The two colonies: Report on the Affairs of British North America . Wakefield and Buller are not mentioned in the report, but it seems likely that the report was written cooperatively by the three men, although some historians have asserted the primary author was Wakefield, while others have said it was Buller. (Lord Brougham, still a critic of Durham, commented that "Wakefield thought it, Buller wrote it, Durham signed it.") The report recommended that
11136-515: The two gulfs: Gulf St Vincent and Spencer Gulf . The British Government, not wanting to be pre-empted by the French, sent out expeditions to Port Phillip and northern Tasmania , and set up the first free settlement, the Swan River Colony , in 1829. Historian Geoffrey Dutton suggests three clear phases in the foundation of the colony: first, the practical men, with their discoveries, second,
11252-464: Was a British criminal who became a politician in colonial Canada and New Zealand . He is considered a key figure in the establishment of the colonies of South Australia and New Zealand (where he later served as a member of parliament). He also had significant interests in British North America , being involved in the drafting of Lord Durham's Report and being a member of the Parliament of
11368-612: Was a bicameral parliament with an elected Legislative Assembly and an appointed Legislative Council , but the Governor General still retained considerable control over the government. Wakefield was involved with the North American Colonial Association of Ireland . At his instigation, the Association had purchased a large estate just outside Montreal , the seigneury of Villechauve, where they wanted to establish another colonial settlement. The seigneury, also known as Beauharnois , had been owned by Edward Ellice ,
11484-431: Was a founder member, and Robert Gouger was elected (or appointed ) inaugural secretary of the society, although he was later to fall out with Wakefield when they disagreed on the price that should be charged for land. Members over time included Robert Rintoul (editor of The Spectator ), Charles Buller , John Stuart Mill , Sir William Molesworth , W. W. Whitmore , and Sir William Hutt . Jeremy Bentham supported
11600-606: Was a member of the New Zealand Association, set up by Wakefield ten years earlier to encourage emigration to New Zealand. Durham was only prepared to accept the task if Wakefield accompanied him as Commissioner of Crown Lands. However, they both knew that Wakefield would be completely unacceptable to the British government, so Durham planned to announce the appointment only after he had reached Canada. Wakefield and his son, Edward Jerningham Wakefield, sailed secretly for Canada in April 1838, but before they arrived word had leaked out, and
11716-425: Was acting on his own, but LaFontaine had the clear impression he was acting for Durham. During his conversation with LaFontaine, Wakefield had tried to persuade him to publicly approve Durham's policy concerning the exiles to Bermuda, and the death penalty for Patriotes still in the United States. LaFontaine refused, seeing in it his " suicide politique ". Wakefield was not impressed by LaFontaine, writing that he and
11832-538: Was actively considering making New Zealand a British Colony in which case land sales would become a government monopoly . At a meeting in March 1839, Wakefield was invited to become the director of the New Zealand Company. His philosophy was the same as when he planned his elopements: "Possess yourself of the Soil and you are Secure." It was decided that the Tory would sail for New Zealand as soon as possible. His brother William
11948-501: Was appointed the leader of the expedition with his son Jerningham as his nominal secretary. They had some difficulty finding a suitable captain for the Tory , but then found Edward Main Chaffers who had been sailing master on HMS Beagle during Fitzroy's circumnavigation . Dr. Ernst Dieffenbach was appointed as scientific officer, and Charles Heaphy as a draughtsman. The Tory left London on 5 May and called at Plymouth to complete
12064-644: Was appointed to act under the orders of the Commissioners. All monies were to be submitted to the Lord of His Majesty's Treasury , and be audited in the same manner as other public accounts. A report was required to be submitted to the Secretary of State at least once a year. Robert Gouger was Colonial Secretary to the Commission, John Hindmarsh was appointed Governor and William Light Surveyor-General. The Commission
12180-722: Was born in 1817. The household returned to London in 1820 and a second child, Edward Jerningham Wakefield , was born. Four days later Eliza died, and Edward resigned his post. The two children were brought up by their aunt, Wakefield's older sister, Catherine. Nina was suffering from tuberculosis , and Wakefield took his daughter to Lisbon in Portugal in the hope of recovery. He employed a young peasant girl, Leocadia de Oliveira, whom he later fostered, to help care for Nina, and after Nina's death in 1835, sent Leocadia on to Wellington , New Zealand, where she met John Taine and had 13 children. Although wealthy by contemporary standards, Wakefield
12296-512: Was educated at Westminster School in London, and Edinburgh . He served as a King's Messenger , carrying diplomatic mail all about Europe during the later stages of the Napoleonic Wars , both before and after the decisive Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In 1816, he eloped with a Miss Eliza Pattle and they were subsequently married in Edinburgh. It appears to have been a love match, but
12412-422: Was established by July 1840, with George Strickland Kingston the first appointee to the role. Other architects who served in this role included Richard Lambeth; William Bennett Hays ; and Edward Hamilton , with George Soward acting in the position for six months after Hamilton's resignation in 1860. Edward Gibbon Wakefield Edward Gibbon Wakefield (20 March 1796 – 16 May 1862)
12528-496: Was made between (a) teŋgi - the sandy grassed limestone slopes just back of the pandalapi (Coorong lagoon) where they fished and favoured for camping, as was the southern seaward side, the pariŋari , protected by the natunijuru , duned sandhills between them and the seashore ( jurli ) - and the inland mallee and swamps, known as lerami , which were good for hunting. The introduction of intensive pastoral practices, with sheep and cattle livestock, and rabbits, wrought havoc on
12644-560: Was not satisfied. He wished to acquire an estate and enter Parliament , for which he lacked sufficient capital. Through deception he wed another wealthy heiress in 1826 when he abducted 15-year-old Ellen Turner, after luring her from school with a false message about her mother's health. Wakefield was brought to trial for the case known as the Shrigley abduction in 1826 and, along with his brother William, sentenced to three years in Newgate prison ;
12760-525: Was now 78 years old; he and Wakefield had not spoken since the Ellen Turner abduction 26 years before. They were reconciled, and the elder Edward died two years later. The ship arrived at Port Lyttelton on 2 February 1853. Wakefield had travelled with Henry Sewell who had been deputy chairman and full-time manager of the Canterbury Association. It seems likely that he expected to be welcomed as
12876-423: Was required for settlement to proceed. The South Australian Company acted as a "third power" in the control of the colony and the one which saved it. The South Australia Act was finally ratified on 19 February 1836 and the first appointments made. The appointment of Governor of South Australia , as the most well-paid position and the most important one, proved complex. Sir Charles Napier (who had written
12992-504: Was responsible for land sales and for land surveying , including choosing the site for the capital city. However, the Act did not clarify the powers of the Commission vis-à-vis the Governor, which led to discord for some years. The South Australian Commission Land Sale Regulations 1835 , authored by the Colonization Commission in 1835, stipulated that surveys were to be undertaken and maps to be made available prior to sale of
13108-637: Was rewarded handsomely, while the salaries for the other men were small. Hindmarsh reported to the Colonial Office, while James Hurtle Fisher , Resident Commissioner, was paid far less, despite having practical control of the colony. Not only did Fisher head up the board of Commissioners, but the Treasurer, Emigration Agent, the Surveyor-General and the storekeeper were responsible to him. Hindmarsh and Fisher quarrelled frequently and could not work together harmoniously, so in 1838 both were recalled to London and
13224-585: Was started at Kingscote , at Reeves Point on Kangaroo Island (now a heritage-listed site, as the earliest formal European settlement in South Australia), on 27 July 1836, but this was soon abandoned in favour of a settlement on the mainland. Some of the original ships sailed on to Holdfast Bay in November and December, with Gouger, now Colonial Secretary and Chief Magistrate, arriving on the Africaine on 8 November 1836. The settlers set up camp, to be joined by
13340-410: Was the brother of: Catherine Gurney Wakefield (1793–1873) (who was the mother of Charles Torlesse (1825–1866)); Daniel Bell Wakefield (1798–1858); Arthur Wakefield (1799–1843); William Hayward Wakefield (1801–1848); John Howard Wakefield (1803–1862); Felix Wakefield (1807–1875); Priscilla Susannah Wakefield (1809–1887); Percy Wakefield (1810–1832); and an unnamed child born in 1813. Wakefield
13456-458: Was unable to provide for his family. Wakefield found him somewhere to live and farmed out the children among relatives, but it was another year before his health was strong enough to take over the role of surrogate father, Felix being apparently unable to do anything for his family. Meanwhile, Wakefield was getting involved in a new scheme. He was working with John Robert Godley to promote a new settlement in New Zealand, this one to be sponsored by
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