142-481: Migraine ( UK : / ˈ m iː ɡ r eɪ n / , US : / ˈ m aɪ -/ ) is a genetically-influenced complex neurological disorder characterized by episodes of moderate-to-severe headache , most often unilateral and generally associated with nausea and light and sound sensitivity . Other characterizing symptoms may include vomiting , cognitive dysfunction , allodynia , and dizziness . Exacerbation or worsening of headache symptoms during physical activity
284-481: A neuromodulator , may be involved. Released after the progressive cleavage of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine acts on adenosine receptors to put the body and brain in a low activity state by dilating blood vessels and slowing the heart rate, such as before and during the early stages of sleep. Adenosine levels have been found to be high during migraine attacks. Caffeine's role as an inhibitor of adenosine may explain its effect in reducing migraine. Low levels of
426-432: A 34–51% genetic influence on the likelihood of developing migraine. This genetic relationship is stronger for migraine with aura than for migraine without aura. It is clear from family and populations studies that migraine is a complex disorder , where numerous genetic risk variants exist, and where each variant increases the risk of migraine marginally. It is also known that having several of these risk variants increases
568-443: A castle. Usually the lines are in black and white but some people also see colored lines. Some people lose part of their field of vision known as hemianopsia while others experience blurring. Sensory aura are the second most common type; they occur in 30–40% of people with auras. Often a feeling of pins-and-needles begins on one side in the hand and arm and spreads to the nose–mouth area on the same side. Numbness usually occurs after
710-549: A century as Received Pronunciation (RP). However, due to language evolution and changing social trends, some linguists argue that RP is losing prestige or has been replaced by another accent, one that the linguist Geoff Lindsey for instance calls Standard Southern British English. Others suggest that more regionally-oriented standard accents are emerging in England. Even in Scotland and Northern Ireland, RP exerts little influence in
852-448: A continuum of different attack frequencies and associated levels of disability." For those with occasional, episodic migraine, a "proper combination of drugs for prevention and treatment of migraine attacks" can limit the disease's impact on patients' personal and professional lives. But fewer than half of people with migraine seek medical care and more than half go undiagnosed and undertreated. "Responsive prevention and treatment of migraine
994-429: A disability can impact people's identities. Which style of language used varies between different countries, groups and individuals. Identity-first language describes the person as "disabled". Some people prefer this and argue that this fits the social model of disability better than people-first language, as it emphasizes that the person is disabled not by their body, but by a world that does not accommodate them. This
1136-543: A disability community—such as with art, social media, and sports. Contemporary understandings of disability derive from concepts that arose during the scientific Enlightenment in the west; prior to the Enlightenment, physical differences were viewed through a different lens. There is evidence of humans during prehistory that looked after people with disabilities. At the Windover Archeological Site , one of
1278-606: A disability". This style is reflected in major legislation on disability rights, including the Americans with Disabilities Act and the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities . "Cerebral Palsy: A Guide for Care" at the University of Delaware describes people-first language: The American Psychological Association style guide states that, when identifying a person with
1420-426: A disability, the person's name or pronoun should come first, and descriptions of the disability should be used so that the disability is identified, but is not modifying the person. Acceptable examples included "a woman with Down syndrome " or "a man who has schizophrenia ". It also states that a person's adaptive equipment should be described functionally as something that assists a person, not as something that limits
1562-403: A distinct clinical entity. Disease burden can range from episodic discrete attacks to chronic disease. Migraine is believed to be caused by a mixture of environmental and genetic factors that influence the excitation and inhibition of nerve cells in the brain. An incomplete "vascular hypothesis" postulated that the aura of migraine is produced by vasoconstriction and the headache of migraine
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#17328686495621704-405: A feature that creates an impairment, restriction, or limitation from reaching the social definition of health, the individual is labeled as disabled. Under this idea, disability is not defined by the physical features of the body but by a deviance from the social convention of health. The social construction of disability would argue that the medical model of disability 's view that a disability
1846-501: A greater movement, normally [əʊ], [əʉ] or [əɨ]. Dropping a morphological grammatical number , in collective nouns , is stronger in British English than North American English. This is to treat them as plural when once grammatically singular, a perceived natural number prevails, especially when applying to institutional nouns and groups of people. The noun 'police', for example, undergoes this treatment: Police are investigating
1988-468: A headache may be a type of migraine or are at least a precursor to migraine attacks. These episodes of pain may or may not follow a migraine-like prodrome and typically last minutes to hours. They often occur in those with either a personal or family history of typical migraine. Other syndromes that are believed to be precursors include cyclical vomiting syndrome and benign paroxysmal vertigo of childhood . Other conditions that can cause similar symptoms to
2130-406: A lesser class or social status and often discounted or considered of a low intelligence. Another contribution to the standardisation of British English was the introduction of the printing press to England in the mid-15th century. In doing so, William Caxton enabled a common language and spelling to be dispersed among the entirety of England at a much faster rate. Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of
2272-525: A life-changing disorder of chronic pain, sensory amplification, and autonomic and affective disruption. This progression, sometimes termed chronification in the migraine literature, is common, affecting 3% of migraineurs in a given year, such that 8% of migraineurs have chronic migraine in any given year." Brain imagery reveals that the electrophysiological changes seen during an attack become permanent in people with chronic migraine; "thus, from an electrophysiological point of view, chronic migraine indeed resembles
2414-400: A matter of the full integration of individuals into society . In this model, disability is not an attribute of an individual, but rather a complex collection of conditions, created by the social environment. The management of the problem requires social action and it is the collective responsibility of society to create a society in which limitations for disabled people are minimal. Disability
2556-472: A migraine diagnosis. It is believed that a substantial number of people with the condition remain undiagnosed. The diagnosis of migraine without aura, according to the International Headache Society , can be made according the "5, 4, 3, 2, 1 criteria", which is as follows: If someone experiences two of the following: photophobia, nausea, or inability to work or study for a day, the diagnosis
2698-455: A migraine headache include temporal arteritis , cluster headaches , acute glaucoma , meningitis and subarachnoid hemorrhage . Temporal arteritis typically occurs in people over 50 years old and presents with tenderness over the temple , cluster headache presents with one-sided nose stuffiness, tears and severe pain around the orbits , acute glaucoma is associated with vision problems, meningitis with fevers , and subarachnoid hemorrhage with
2840-506: A negative connotation that they are considered to be slurs. A current point of contention is whether it is appropriate to use person-first language (i.e. a person who is disabled) or identity-first language (i.e. a disabled person) when referring to disability and an individual. Due to the marginalization of disabled people, there have been several activist causes that push for equitable treatment and access in society. Disability activists have fought to receive equal and equitable rights under
2982-490: A never-ending migraine attack." Severe migraine ranks in the highest category of disability, according to the World Health Organization, which uses objective metrics to determine disability burden for the authoritative annual Global Burden of Disease report. The report classifies severe migraine alongside severe depression, active psychosis, quadriplegia, and terminal-stage cancer. Migraine with aura appears to be
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#17328686495623124-490: A person to do certain activities or have equitable access within a given society. Disabilities may be cognitive , developmental , intellectual , mental , physical , sensory , or a combination of multiple factors. Disabilities can be present from birth or can be acquired during a person's lifetime. Historically, disabilities have only been recognized based on a narrow set of criteria—however, disabilities are not binary and can be present in unique characteristics depending on
3266-433: A person's capability to perform the activities of daily life. As Marta Russell and Ravi Malhotra argue, "The ' medicalization ' of disablement and the tools of classification clearly played an important role in establishing divisions between the 'disabled' and the 'able-bodied. ' " This positions disability as a problem to be solved via medical intervention, which hinders our understanding about what disability can mean. For
3408-413: A person's efforts to go to school, work, socialize, and more. Some examples of invisible disabilities include intellectual disabilities , autism spectrum disorder , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder , fibromyalgia , mental disorders , asthma , epilepsy , allergies , migraines , arthritis , and chronic fatigue syndrome . Employment discrimination is reported to play a significant part in
3550-611: A person, for example, "a woman who uses a wheelchair" rather than "a woman in/confined to a wheelchair". People-first terminology is used in the UK in the form "people with impairments" (such as "people with visual impairments"). However, in the UK, identity-first language is generally preferred over people-first language. The use of people-first terminology has given rise to the use of the acronym PWD to refer to person(s) (or people) with disabilities (or disability). However other individuals and groups prefer identity-first language to emphasize how
3692-492: A political construction is also widely used by international organizations of disabled people, such as Disabled Peoples' International . Using the identity-first language also parallels how people talk about other aspects of identity and diversity. For example: In the autism community, many self-advocates and their allies prefer terminology such as 'Autistic,' 'Autistic person,' or 'Autistic individual' because we understand autism as an inherent part of an individual's identity –
3834-451: A problem of the person, directly caused by disease, trauma, or other health conditions which therefore requires sustained medical care in the form of individual treatment by professionals. In the medical model, management of the disability is aimed at a "cure", or the individual's adjustment and behavioral change that would lead to an "almost-cure" or effective cure. The individual, in this case, must overcome their disability by medical care. In
3976-648: A process called T-glottalisation . National media, being based in London, have seen the glottal stop spreading more widely than it once was in word endings, not being heard as "no [ʔ] " and bottle of water being heard as "bo [ʔ] le of wa [ʔ] er". It is still stigmatised when used at the beginning and central positions, such as later , while often has all but regained /t/ . Other consonants subject to this usage in Cockney English are p , as in pa [ʔ] er and k as in ba [ʔ] er. In most areas of England and Wales, outside
4118-477: A range of blurring and ambiguity". Variations exist in formal (both written and spoken) English in the United Kingdom. For example, the adjective wee is almost exclusively used in parts of Scotland, north-east England, Northern Ireland, Ireland, and occasionally Yorkshire , whereas the adjective little is predominant elsewhere. Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within
4260-511: A regional accent or dialect. However, about 2% of Britons speak with an accent called Received Pronunciation (also called "the King's English", "Oxford English" and " BBC English" ), that is essentially region-less. It derives from a mixture of the Midlands and Southern dialects spoken in London in the early modern period. It is frequently used as a model for teaching English to foreign learners. In
4402-428: A risk factor for ischemic stroke doubling the risk. Being a young adult, being female, using hormonal birth control , and smoking further increases this risk. There also appears to be an association with cervical artery dissection . Migraine without aura does not appear to be a factor. The relationship with heart problems is inconclusive with a single study supporting an association. Migraine does not appear to increase
Migraine - Misplaced Pages Continue
4544-532: A role. These hormonal influences seem to play a greater role in migraine without aura. Migraine episodes typically do not occur during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy, or following menopause. Between 12% and 60% of people report foods as triggers. There are many reports that tyramine – which is naturally present in chocolate, alcoholic beverages, most cheeses, processed meats, and other foods – can trigger migraine symptoms in some individuals. Monosodium glutamate (MSG) has been reported as
4686-510: A societally-created limitation on individuals who do not have the same ability as the majority of the population. Although the medical model and social model are the most common frames for disability, there are a multitude of other models that theorize disability. There are many terms that explain aspects of disability. While some terms solely exist to describe phenomena pertaining to disability, others have been centered around stigmatizing and ostracizing those with disabilities. Some terms have such
4828-552: A society) that help overcome or remove a disability. The first recorded example of the use of a prosthesis dates to at least 1800 BC. The wheelchair dates from the 17th century. The curb cut is a related structural innovation. Other examples are standing frames , text telephones , accessible keyboards , large print , braille , and speech recognition software . Disabled people often develop adaptations which can be personal (e.g. strategies to suppress tics in public) or community (e.g. sign language in d/Deaf communities). As
4970-532: A trigger for migraine, but a systematic review concluded that "a causal relationship between MSG and headache has not been proven... It would seem premature to conclude that the MSG present in food causes headache". A 2009 review on potential triggers in the indoor and outdoor environment concluded that while there were insufficient studies to confirm environmental factors as causing migraine, "migraineurs worldwide consistently report similar environmental triggers". Migraine
5112-467: A trigger. Common triggers quoted are stress, hunger, and fatigue (these equally contribute to tension headaches ). Psychological stress has been reported as a factor by 50–80% of people. Migraine has also been associated with post-traumatic stress disorder and abuse. Migraine episodes are more likely to occur around menstruation . Other hormonal influences, such as menarche , oral contraceptive use, pregnancy , perimenopause, and menopause , also play
5254-502: A variety of different theoretical lenses. There are two main models that attempt to explain disability in our society: the medical model and the social model . The medical model serves as a theoretical framework that considers disability as an undesirable medical condition that requires specialized treatment. Those who ascribe to the medical model tend to focus on finding the root causes of disabilities, as well as any cures—such as assistive technology. The social model centers disability as
5396-688: A very fast onset. Tension headaches typically occur on both sides, are not pounding, and are less disabling. Those with stable headaches that meet criteria for migraine should not receive neuroimaging to look for other intracranial disease. This requires that other concerning findings such as papilledema (swelling of the optic disc) are not present. People with migraine are not at an increased risk of having another cause for severe headaches. Management of migraine includes prevention of migraine attacks and rescue treatment . There are three main aspects of treatment: trigger avoidance, acute (abortive), and preventive (prophylactic) control. "Migraine exists on
5538-401: A wheelchair, multiple sclerosis , muscular dystrophy , obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), spina bifida , and schizophrenia . This is not an exhaustive list and many injuries and medical problems cause disability. Some causes of disability, such as injuries, may resolve over time and are considered temporary disabilities . An acquired disability
5680-452: Is a key pathophysiological phenomenon in migraine. It is debatable whether sensitization starts in the periphery or in the brain. Cortical spreading depression , or spreading depression according to Leão , is a burst of neuronal activity followed by a period of inactivity, which is seen in those with migraine with aura. There are a number of explanations for its occurrence, including activation of NMDA receptors leading to calcium entering
5822-725: Is also due to London-centric influences. Examples of R-dropping are car and sugar , where the R is not pronounced. British dialects differ on the extent of diphthongisation of long vowels, with southern varieties extensively turning them into diphthongs, and with northern dialects normally preserving many of them. As a comparison, North American varieties could be said to be in-between. Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are usually preserved, and in several areas also /oː/ and /eː/, as in go and say (unlike other varieties of English, that change them to [oʊ] and [eɪ] respectively). Some areas go as far as not diphthongising medieval /iː/ and /uː/, that give rise to modern /aɪ/ and /aʊ/; that is, for example, in
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5964-432: Is an impairment, restriction, or limitation is wrong. Instead what is seen as a disability is just a difference in the individual from what is considered "normal" in society. People-first language is one way to talk about disability which some people prefer. Using people-first language is said to put the person before the disability. Those individuals who prefer people-first language would prefer to be called, "a person with
6106-415: Is another distinguishing feature. Up to one-third of people with migraine experience aura , a premonitory period of sensory disturbance widely accepted to be caused by cortical spreading depression at the onset of a migraine attack. Although primarily considered to be a headache disorder, migraine is highly heterogenous in its clinical presentation and is better thought of as a spectrum disease rather than
6248-404: Is based on British English, but has more influence from American English , often grouped together due to their close proximity. British English, for example, is the closest English to Indian English, but Indian English has extra vocabulary and some English words are assigned different meanings. Disability Disability is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for
6390-441: Is believed to be primarily a neurological disorder, while others believe it to be a neurovascular disorder with blood vessels playing the key role, although evidence does not support this completely. Others believe both are likely important. One theory is related to increased excitability of the cerebral cortex and abnormal control of pain neurons in the trigeminal nucleus of the brainstem . Sensitization of trigeminal pathways
6532-407: Is both cultural and ideological in creation. According to the social model, equal access for someone with an impairment/disability is a human rights concern. The social model of disability has come under criticism. While recognizing the importance played by the social model in stressing the responsibility of society, scholars, including Tom Shakespeare , point out the limits of the model and urge
6674-455: Is defined as the execution of a task or action. The ICF lists nine broad domains of functioning which can be affected: In concert with disability scholars, the introduction to the ICF states that a variety of conceptual models have been proposed to understand and explain disability and functioning, which it seeks to integrate. These models include the following: The medical model views disability as
6816-439: Is especially true in the UK, where it is argued under the social model that while someone's impairment (for example, having a spinal cord injury ) is an individual property, "disability" is something created by external societal factors such as a lack of accessibility. This distinction between the individual property of impairment and the social property of disability is central to the social model . The term "disabled people" as
6958-417: Is experienced differently based on the other multi-faceted identities of the individual is one often pointed out by disabled self-advocates. The ostracization of disability from mainstream society has created the opportunity for a disability culture to emerge. While disabled activists still promote the integration of disabled people into mainstream society, several disabled-only spaces have been created to foster
7100-769: Is included in style guides issued by various publishers including The Times newspaper, the Oxford University Press and the Cambridge University Press . The Oxford University Press guidelines were originally drafted as a single broadsheet page by Horace Henry Hart, and were at the time (1893) the first guide of their type in English; they were gradually expanded and eventually published, first as Hart's Rules , and in 2002 as part of The Oxford Manual of Style . Comparable in authority and stature to The Chicago Manual of Style for published American English ,
7242-438: Is incredibly important" because evidence shows "an increased sensitivity after each successive attack, eventually leading to chronic daily migraine in some individuals." Repeated migraine results in "reorganization of brain circuitry", causing "profound functional as well as structural changes in the brain." "One of the most important problems in clinical migraine is the progression from an intermittent, self-limited inconvenience to
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#17328686495627384-489: Is more likely. In those with four out of five of the following: pulsating headache, duration of 4–72 hours, pain on one side of the head, nausea, or symptoms that interfere with the person's life, the probability that this is a migraine attack is 92%. In those with fewer than three of these symptoms, the probability is 17%. Migraine was first comprehensively classified in 1988. The International Headache Society updated their classification of headaches in 2004. A third version
7526-734: Is most pronounced in migraine without aura. Worldwide, migraine affects nearly 15% or approximately one billion people. In the United States, about 6% of men and 18% of women experience a migraine attack in a given year, with a lifetime risk of about 18% and 43% respectively. In Europe, migraine affects 12–28% of people at some point in their lives with about 6–15% of adult men and 14–35% of adult women getting at least one attack yearly. Rates of migraine are slightly lower in Asia and Africa than in Western countries. Chronic migraine occurs in approximately 1.4–2.2% of
7668-457: Is not in phase with the pulse . In more than 40% of cases, however, the pain may be bilateral (both sides of the head), and neck pain is commonly associated with it. Bilateral pain is particularly common in those who have migraine without aura. Less commonly pain may occur primarily in the back or top of the head. The pain usually lasts 4 to 72 hours in adults; however, in young children frequently lasts less than 1 hour. The frequency of attacks
7810-511: Is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. The resident population at this time was generally speaking Common Brittonic —the insular variety of Continental Celtic , which was influenced by the Roman occupation. This group of languages ( Welsh , Cornish , Cumbric ) cohabited alongside English into the modern period, but due to their remoteness from the Germanic languages , influence on English
7952-422: Is produced by vasodilation . However, the vasoconstrictive mechanism has been disproven, and the role of vasodilation in migraine pathophysiology is uncertain. The accepted hypothesis suggests that multiple primary neuronal impairments lead to a series of intracranial and extracranial changes, triggering a physiological cascade that leads to migraine symptomatology. Initial recommended treatment for acute attacks
8094-456: Is the case for English used by European Union institutions. In China, both British English and American English are taught. The UK government actively teaches and promotes English around the world and operates in over 200 countries . English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what
8236-492: Is the idea that disability is constructed by social expectations and institutions rather than biological differences. Highlighting the ways society and institutions construct disability is one of the main focuses of this idea. In the same way that race and gender are not biologically fixed, neither is disability. Around the early 1970s, sociologists, notably Eliot Friedson, began to argue that labeling theory and social deviance could be applied to disability studies. This led to
8378-403: Is the result of impairments that occur suddenly or chronically during the lifespan, as opposed to being born with the impairment. Invisible disabilities may not be obviously noticeable. The medical model focuses heavily on finding treatments, cures, or rehabilitative practices for disabled people. Assistive technology is a generic term for devices and modifications (for a person or within
8520-426: Is unilateral, throbbing, and moderate to severe in intensity. It usually comes on gradually and is aggravated by physical activity during a migraine attack. However, the effects of physical activity on migraine are complex, and some researchers have concluded that, while exercise can trigger migraine attacks, regular exercise may have a prophylactic effect and decrease frequency of attacks. The feeling of pulsating pain
8662-448: Is unknown. However, it is believed to be related to a mix of environmental and genetic factors. Migraine runs in families in about two-thirds of cases and rarely occur due to a single gene defect. While migraine attacks were once believed to be more common in those of high intelligence, this does not appear to be true. A number of psychological conditions are associated, including depression , anxiety , and bipolar disorder . Success of
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#17328686495628804-432: Is variable, from a few in a lifetime to several a week, with the average being about one a month. The pain is frequently accompanied by nausea, vomiting, sensitivity to light , sensitivity to sound , sensitivity to smells , fatigue, and irritability. Many thus seek a dark and quiet room. In a basilar migraine , a migraine with neurological symptoms related to the brain stem or with neurological symptoms on both sides of
8946-412: Is with over-the-counter analgesics (pain medication) such as ibuprofen and paracetamol (acetaminophen) for headache, antiemetics (anti-nausea medication) for nausea, and the avoidance of migraine triggers. Specific medications such as triptans , ergotamines , or calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor antagonist (CGRP) inhibitors may be used in those experiencing headaches that do not respond to
9088-530: The Chambers Dictionary , and the Collins Dictionary record actual usage rather than attempting to prescribe it. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other varieties of English, and neologisms are frequent. For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the ninth century, the form of language spoken in London and
9230-637: The East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education in Britain. The standardisation of British English is thought to be from both dialect levelling and a thought of social superiority. Speaking in the Standard dialect created class distinctions; those who did not speak the standard English would be considered of
9372-611: The Hippocratic school of medicine described the visual aura that can precede the headache and a partial relief occurring through vomiting. British English British English (abbreviations: BrE , en-GB , and BE ) is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . More narrowly, it can refer specifically to the English language in England , or, more broadly, to
9514-500: The Middle Ages , disabled people were still able to play significant roles in the rural production based economy, allowing them to make genuine contributions to daily economic life. The Industrial Revolution and the advent of capitalism made it so that people were no longer tied to the land and were then forced to find work that would pay a wage in order to survive. The wage system, in combination with industrialized production, transformed
9656-484: The Royal Spanish Academy with Spanish. Standard British English differs notably in certain vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features from standard American English and certain other standard English varieties around the world. British and American spelling also differ in minor ways. The accent, or pronunciation system, of standard British English, based in southeastern England, has been known for over
9798-486: The Scots language or Scottish Gaelic ). Each group includes a range of dialects, some markedly different from others. The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from other languages. Around the middle of the 15th century, there were points where within the 5 major dialects there were almost 500 ways to spell the word though . Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1949–1950),
9940-508: The University of Leeds has started work on a new project. In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to Leeds to study British regional dialects. The team are sifting through a large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the "Voices project" run by the BBC , in which they invited the public to send in examples of English still spoken throughout
10082-556: The West Country and other near-by counties of the UK, the consonant R is not pronounced if not followed by a vowel, lengthening the preceding vowel instead. This phenomenon is known as non-rhoticity . In these same areas, a tendency exists to insert an R between a word ending in a vowel and a next word beginning with a vowel. This is called the intrusive R . It could be understood as a merger, in that words that once ended in an R and words that did not are no longer treated differently. This
10224-482: The World Health Organization , distinguishes between body functions (physiological or psychological, such as vision) and body structures (anatomical parts, such as the eye and related structures). Impairment in bodily structure or function is defined as involving an anomaly, defect, loss or other significant deviation from certain generally accepted population standards, which may fluctuate over time. Activity
10366-430: The brainstem and diencephalon ), while other data support the role of peripheral activation (such as via the sensory nerves that surround blood vessels of the head and neck). The potential candidate vessels include dural arteries , pial arteries and extracranial arteries such as those of the scalp . The role of vasodilatation of the extracranial arteries, in particular, is believed to be significant. Adenosine ,
10508-487: The exocytosis complex. Another genetic disorder associated with migraine is CADASIL syndrome or cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy. One meta-analysis found a protective effect from angiotensin converting enzyme polymorphisms on migraine. The TRPM8 gene, which codes for a cation channel , has been linked to migraine. The common forms migraine are Polygenetic , where common variants of numerous genes contributes to
10650-604: The limbic system and hypothalamus as the origin of prodromal symptoms in migraine. Aura is a transient focal neurological phenomenon that occurs before or during the headache. Aura appears gradually over a number of minutes (usually occurring over 5–60 minutes) and generally lasts less than 60 minutes. Symptoms can be visual, sensory or motoric in nature, and many people experience more than one. Visual effects occur most frequently: they occur in up to 99% of cases and in more than 50% of cases are not accompanied by sensory or motor effects. If any symptom remains after 60 minutes,
10792-612: The personal computer has become more ubiquitous, various organizations have formed to develop software and hardware to make computers more accessible for disabled people. Some software and hardware, such as Voice Finger , Freedom Scientific 's JAWS , the Free and Open Source alternative Orca etc. have been specifically designed for disabled people while other software and hardware, such as Nuance 's Dragon NaturallySpeaking , were not developed specifically for disabled people, but can be used to increase accessibility. The LOMAK keyboard
10934-421: The 1830s of l'homme moyen – the average man. Quetelet postulated that one could take the sum of all people's attributes in a given population (such as their height or weight) and find their average and that this figure should serve as a statistical norm toward which all should aspire. This idea of the statistical norm threads through the rapid take-up of statistics gathering by Britain, the United States, and
11076-603: The 21st century. RP, while long established as the standard English accent around the globe due to the spread of the British Empire , is distinct from the standard English pronunciation in some parts of the world; most prominently, RP notably contrasts with standard North American accents. In the 21st century, dictionaries like the Oxford English Dictionary , the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English ,
11218-538: The Ancient Greeks may not have viewed persons with disability all that differently from more able-bodied individuals as terms describing them in their records appear to be very vague. As long as the disabled person in question could still contribute to society, the Greeks appeared to tolerate them. During the Middle Ages , madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons. They were also thought to be part of
11360-816: The English Language (1755) was a large step in the English-language spelling reform , where the purification of language focused on standardising both speech and spelling. By the early 20th century, British authors had produced numerous books intended as guides to English grammar and usage, a few of which achieved sufficient acclaim to have remained in print for long periods and to have been reissued in new editions after some decades. These include, most notably of all, Fowler's Modern English Usage and The Complete Plain Words by Sir Ernest Gowers . Detailed guidance on many aspects of writing British English for publication
11502-644: The Germanic schwein ) is the animal in the field bred by the occupied Anglo-Saxons and pork (like the French porc ) is the animal at the table eaten by the occupying Normans. Another example is the Anglo-Saxon cu meaning cow, and the French bœuf meaning beef. Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English;
11644-891: The Oxford Manual is a fairly exhaustive standard for published British English that writers can turn to in the absence of specific guidance from their publishing house. British English is the basis of, and very similar to, Commonwealth English . Commonwealth English is English as spoken and written in the Commonwealth countries , though often with some local variation. This includes English spoken in Australia , Malta , New Zealand , Nigeria , and South Africa . It also includes South Asian English used in South Asia, in English varieties in Southeast Asia , and in parts of Africa. Canadian English
11786-701: The South East, there are significantly different accents; the Cockney accent spoken by some East Londoners is strikingly different from Received Pronunciation (RP). Cockney rhyming slang can be (and was initially intended to be) difficult for outsiders to understand, although the extent of its use is often somewhat exaggerated. Londoners speak with a mixture of accents, depending on ethnicity, neighbourhood, class, age, upbringing, and sundry other factors. Estuary English has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of RP and some of Cockney. Immigrants to
11928-537: The UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country and particularly to London. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 125 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's schoolchildren. Notably Multicultural London English , a sociolect that emerged in the late 20th century spoken mainly by young, working-class people in multicultural parts of London . Since
12070-564: The United Kingdom , as well as within the countries themselves. The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England (which is itself broadly grouped into Southern English , West Country , East and West Midlands English and Northern English ), Northern Irish English (in Northern Ireland), Welsh English (not to be confused with the Welsh language ), and Scottish English (not to be confused with
12212-426: The United Kingdom, and this could be described by the term British English . The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken and so a uniform concept of British English is more difficult to apply to the spoken language. Globally, countries that are former British colonies or members of the Commonwealth tend to follow British English, as
12354-458: The West Scottish accent. Phonological features characteristic of British English revolve around the pronunciation of the letter R, as well as the dental plosive T and some diphthongs specific to this dialect. Once regarded as a Cockney feature, in a number of forms of spoken British English, /t/ has become commonly realised as a glottal stop [ʔ] when it is in the intervocalic position, in
12496-458: The Western European states during this time period, and it is tied to the rise of eugenics . Disability, as well as the concepts of abnormal, non-normal, and normalcy, came from this. The circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of the freak show , where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those norms. With the rise of eugenics in the latter part of
12638-552: The accumulated genetic risk of the common variations, into a so-called polygenetic risk , it is possible to assess e.g. the treatment response to triptans. Migraine may be induced by triggers, with some reporting it as an influence in a minority of cases and others the majority. Many things such as fatigue, certain foods, alcohol, and weather have been labeled as triggers; however, the strength and significance of these relationships are uncertain. Most people with migraine report experiencing triggers. Symptoms may start up to 24 hours after
12780-489: The acute headache has settled. Many report a sore feeling in the area where the migraine was, and some report impaired thinking for a few days after the headache has passed. The person may feel tired or "hung over" and have head pain, cognitive difficulties, gastrointestinal symptoms, mood changes, and weakness. According to one summary, "Some people feel unusually refreshed or euphoric after an attack, whereas others note depression and malaise ." The underlying cause of migraine
12922-481: The award of the grant in 2007, Leeds University stated: that they were "very pleased"—and indeed, "well chuffed"—at receiving their generous grant. He could, of course, have been "bostin" if he had come from the Black Country , or if he was a Scouser he would have been well "made up" over so many spondoolicks, because as a Geordie might say, £460,000 is a "canny load of chink". Most people in Britain speak with
13064-403: The body, common effects include a sense of the world spinning , light-headedness, and confusion. Nausea occurs in almost 90% of people, and vomiting occurs in about one-third. Other symptoms may include blurred vision , nasal stuffiness, diarrhea, frequent urination, pallor , or sweating. Swelling or tenderness of the scalp may occur as can neck stiffness. Associated symptoms are less common in
13206-449: The cell. After the burst of activity, the blood flow to the cerebral cortex in the area affected is decreased for two to six hours. It is believed that when depolarization travels down the underside of the brain, nerves that sense pain in the head and neck are triggered. The exact mechanism of the head pain which occurs during a migraine episode is unknown. Some evidence supports a primary role for central nervous system structures (such as
13348-567: The collective dialects of English throughout the British Isles taken as a single umbrella variety, for instance additionally incorporating Scottish English , Welsh English , and Northern Irish English . Tom McArthur in the Oxford Guide to World English acknowledges that British English shares "all the ambiguities and tensions [with] the word 'British' and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within
13490-613: The country. The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools. This information will also be collated and analysed by Johnson's team both for content and for where it was reported. "Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio". When discussing
13632-430: The creation of the social construction of disability theory. The social construction of disability is the idea that disability is constructed as the social response to a deviance from the norm. The medical industry is the creator of the ill and disabled social role. Medical professionals and institutions, who wield expertise over health, have the ability to define health and physical and mental norms. When an individual has
13774-671: The elderly. Sometimes, aura occurs without a subsequent headache. This is known in modern classification as a typical aura without headache , or acephalgic migraine in previous classification, or commonly as a silent migraine. However, silent migraine can still produce debilitating symptoms, with visual disturbance, vision loss in half of both eyes, alterations in color perception, and other sensory problems, like sensitivity to light, sound, and odors. It can last from 15 to 30 minutes, usually no longer than 60 minutes, and it can recur or appear as an isolated event. The migraine postdrome could be defined as that constellation of symptoms occurring once
13916-412: The field include Marta Russell , Robert McRuer , Johanna Hedva , Laura Hershey , Irving Zola , and many more. Prominent disability scholar Lennard J. Davis notes that disability studies should not be considered a niche or specialized discipline, but instead is applicable to a wide range of fields and topics. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), produced by
14058-654: The first medication ( Erenumab ) of a new class of drugs specifically designed for migraine prevention called calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor antagonists (CGRPs) was approved by the FDA . As of July 2023, the FDA has approved eight drugs that act on the CGRP system for use in the treatment of migraine. Globally, approximately 15% of people are affected by migraine. In the Global Burden of Disease Study , conducted in 2010, migraine ranked as
14200-715: The gods. In Ancient Egypt , staffs were frequently used in society. A common usage for them was for older persons with disabilities to help them walk. Provisions that enabled individuals with impaired mobility to access temples and healing sanctuaries were made in ancient Greece. Specifically, by 370 B.C., at the most important healing sanctuary in the wider area, the Sanctuary of Asclepius at Epidaurus , there were at least 11 permanent stone ramps that provided access to mobility-impaired visitors to nine different structures; evidence that people with disabilities were acknowledged and cared for, at least partly, in ancient Greece. In fact,
14342-668: The groups targeted by the Nazi regime in Germany, resulting in approximately 250,000 disabled people being killed during the Holocaust . At the end of the Second World War , with the example of Nazi eugenics , eugenics faded from public discourse , and increasingly disability cohered into a set of attributes to which medicine could attend – whether through augmentation, rehabilitation, or treatment. In both contemporary and modern history, disability
14484-453: The idea of two different morphemes, one that causes the double negation, and one that is used for the point or the verb. Standard English in the United Kingdom, as in other English-speaking nations, is widely enforced in schools and by social norms for formal contexts but not by any singular authority; for instance, there is no institution equivalent to the Académie française with French or
14626-474: The individual. A disability may be readily visible, or invisible in nature. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines disability as including: long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder [a person's] full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others. Disabilities have been perceived differently throughout history, through
14768-511: The last southern Midlands accent to use the broad "a" in words like bath or grass (i.e. barth or grarss ). Conversely crass or plastic use a slender "a". A few miles northwest in Leicestershire the slender "a" becomes more widespread generally. In the town of Corby , five miles (8 km) north, one can find Corbyite which, unlike the Kettering accent, is largely influenced by
14910-508: The later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary . Dialects and accents vary amongst the four countries of
15052-508: The law—though there are still political issues that enable or advance the oppression of disabled people. Although disability activism serves to dismantle ableist systems, social norms relating to the perception of disabilities are often reinforced by tropes used by the media. Since negative perceptions of disability are pervasive in modern society, disabled people have turned to self-advocacy in an attempt to push back against their marginalization. The recognition of disability as an identity that
15194-452: The mass internal migration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and given its position between several major accent regions, it has become a source of various accent developments. In Northampton the older accent has been influenced by overspill Londoners. There is an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a transitional accent between the East Midlands and East Anglian . It is
15336-408: The medical approach to disability. Due to this work, physical barriers to access were identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the social model of disability emerged. Coined by Mike Oliver in 1983, this phrase distinguishes between the medical model of disability – under which an impairment needs to be fixed – and the social model of disability – under which
15478-562: The medical model, medical care is viewed as the main issue, and at the political level, the principal response is that of modifying or reforming healthcare policy. The medical model focuses on finding causes and cures for disabilities. There are many causes of disability that often affect basic activities of daily living , such as eating, dressing, transferring, and maintaining personal hygiene ; or advanced activities of daily living such as shopping, food preparation, driving, or working. However, causes of disability are usually determined by
15620-550: The natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the Black Death , which wrought impairments throughout the general population. In the early modern period there was a shift to seeking biological causes for physical and mental differences, as well as heightened interest in demarcating categories: for example, Ambroise Pare, in the sixteenth century, wrote of "monsters", "prodigies", and "the maimed". The European Enlightenment 's emphases on knowledge derived from reason and on
15762-457: The need for a new model that will overcome the "medical vs. social" dichotomy. The limitations of this model mean that often the vital services and information persons with disabilities face are simply not available, often due to limited economic returns in supporting them. Some say medical humanities is a fruitful field where the gap between the medical and the social model of disability might be bridged. The social construction of disability
15904-520: The neurotransmitter serotonin , also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), are also believed to be involved. Calcitonin gene-related peptides (CGRPs) have been found to play a role in the pathogenesis of the pain associated with migraine, as levels of it become elevated during an attack. The diagnosis of a migraine is based on signs and symptoms. Neuroimaging tests are not necessary to diagnose migraine, but may be used to find other causes of headaches in those whose examination and history do not confirm
16046-493: The nineteenth century, such deviations were viewed as dangerous to the health of entire populations. With disability viewed as part of a person's biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, scientists turned their attention to notions of weeding such as "deviations" out of the gene pool. Various metrics for assessing a person's genetic fitness were determined and were then used to deport , sterilize, or institutionalize those deemed unfit. People with disabilities were one of
16188-777: The over-the-counter pain medications. For people who experience four or more attacks per month, or could otherwise benefit from prevention, prophylactic medication is recommended. Commonly prescribed prophylactic medications include beta blockers like propranolol , anticonvulsants like sodium valproate , antidepressants like amitriptyline , and other off-label classes of medications. Preventive medications inhibit migraine pathophysiology through various mechanisms, such as blocking calcium and sodium channels , blocking gap junctions , and inhibiting matrix metalloproteinases , among other mechanisms. Non-pharmacological preventive therapies include nutritional supplementation, dietary interventions, sleep improvement, and aerobic exercise. In 2018,
16330-673: The pain, duration of the headache, and frequency of attacks are variable. A migraine attack lasting longer than 72 hours is termed status migrainosus. There are four possible phases to a migraine attack, although not all the phases are necessarily experienced: Migraine is associated with major depression , bipolar disorder , anxiety disorders , and obsessive–compulsive disorder . These psychiatric disorders are approximately 2–5 times more common in people without aura, and 3–10 times more common in people with aura. Prodromal or premonitory symptoms occur in about 60% of those with migraine, with an onset that can range from two hours to two days before
16472-598: The population. During perimenopause symptoms often get worse before decreasing in severity. While symptoms resolve in about two-thirds of the elderly, in 3–10% they persist. An early description consistent with migraine is contained in the Ebers Papyrus , written around 1500 BCE in ancient Egypt. The word migraine is from the Greek ἡμικρᾱνίᾱ ( hēmikrāníā ), 'pain in half of the head', from ἡμι- ( hēmi- ), 'half' and κρᾱνίον ( krāníon ), 'skull'. In 200 BCE, writings from
16614-457: The predisposition for migraine. These genes can be placed in three categories increasing the risk of migraine in general, specifically migraine with aura, or migraine without aura. Three of these genes, CALCA , CALCB , and HTR1F are already target for migraine specific treatments. Five genes are specific risk to migraine with aura, PALMD , ABO , LRRK2 , CACNA1A and PRRT2 , and 13 genes are specific to migraine without aura. Using
16756-562: The purposes of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 , the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulations provide a list of conditions that should easily be concluded to be disabilities: amputation , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism , bipolar disorder , blindness , cancer , cerebral palsy , deafness , diabetes , epilepsy , HIV/AIDS , intellectual disability , major depressive disorder , mobility impairments requiring
16898-477: The risk by a small to moderate amount. Single gene disorders that result in migraine are rare. One of these is known as familial hemiplegic migraine , a type of migraine with aura, which is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion. Four genes have been shown to be involved in familial hemiplegic migraine. Three of these genes are involved in ion transport . The fourth is the axonal protein PRRT2 , associated with
17040-791: The risk of death from stroke or heart disease. Preventative therapy of migraine in those with migraine with aura may prevent associated strokes. People with migraine, particularly women, may develop higher than average numbers of white matter brain lesions of unclear significance. Migraine is common, with around 33% of women and 18% of men affected at some point in their lifetime. Onset can be at any age, but prevalence rises sharply around puberty , and remains high until declining after age 50. Before puberty, boys and girls are equally impacted, with around 5% of children experiencing migraine attacks. From puberty onwards, women experience migraine attacks at greater rates than men. From age 30 to 50, up to 4 times as many women experience migraine attacks as men., this
17182-645: The same way one refers to 'Muslims,' 'African-Americans,' 'Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgender/Queer,' 'Chinese,' 'gifted,' 'athletic,' or 'Jewish.' Similarly, Deaf communities in the US reject people-first language in favor of identity-first language. In 2021, the US Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) announced their decision to use identity-first language in their materials, explaining: "Identity-first language challenges negative connotations by claiming disability directly. Identity-first language references
17324-486: The skeletons was a male about 15 years old who had spina bifida . The condition meant that the boy, probably paralyzed below the waist, was taken care of in a hunter-gatherer community. Disability was not viewed as a means of divine punishment and therefore disabled individuals were neither exterminated nor discriminated against for their impairments. Many were instead employed in different levels of Mesopotamian society including working in religious temples as servants of
17466-461: The society that limits a person needs to be fixed. Like many social categories, the concept of "disability" is under heavy discussion amongst academia, the medical and legal worlds, and the disability community. The academic discipline focused on theorizing disability is disability studies , which has been expanding since the late twentieth century. The field investigates the past, present, and future constructions of disability, along with advancing
17608-400: The start of pain or the aura. These symptoms may include a wide variety of phenomena, including altered mood, irritability, depression or euphoria , fatigue , craving for certain food(s), stiff muscles (especially in the neck), constipation or diarrhea , and sensitivity to smells or noise. This may occur in those with either migraine with aura or migraine without aura. Neuroimaging indicates
17750-409: The state is known as persistent aura . Visual disturbances often consist of a scintillating scotoma (an area of partial alteration in the field of vision which flickers and may interfere with a person's ability to read or drive). These typically start near the center of vision and then spread out to the sides with zigzagging lines which have been described as looking like fortifications or walls of
17892-501: The surgical migraine treatment by decompression of extracranial sensory nerves adjacent to vessels suggests that people with migraine may have anatomical predisposition for neurovascular compression that may be caused by both intracranial and extracranial vasodilation due to migraine triggers. This, along with the existence of numerous cranial neural interconnections, may explain the multiple cranial nerve involvement and consequent diversity of migraine symptoms. Studies of twins indicate
18034-587: The theft of work tools worth £500 from a van at the Sprucefield park and ride car park in Lisburn. A football team can be treated likewise: Arsenal have lost just one of 20 home Premier League matches against Manchester City. This tendency can be observed in texts produced already in the 19th century. For example, Jane Austen , a British author, writes in Chapter 4 of Pride and Prejudice , published in 1813: All
18176-441: The third-most prevalent disorder in the world. It most often starts at puberty and is worst during middle age. As of 2016, it is one of the most common causes of disability . Migraine typically presents with self-limited, recurrent severe headache associated with autonomic symptoms. About 15–30% of people living with migraine experience episodes with aura , and they also frequently experience episodes without aura. The severity of
18318-408: The tingling has passed with a loss of position sense . Other symptoms of the aura phase can include speech or language disturbances, world spinning , and less commonly motor problems. Motor symptoms indicate that this is a hemiplegic migraine , and weakness often lasts longer than one hour unlike other auras. Auditory hallucinations or delusions have also been described. Classically the headache
18460-403: The traditional accent of Newcastle upon Tyne , 'out' will sound as 'oot', and in parts of Scotland and North-West England, 'my' will be pronounced as 'me'. Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are diphthongised to [ɪi] and [ʊu] respectively (or, more technically, [ʏʉ], with a raised tongue), so that ee and oo in feed and food are pronounced with a movement. The diphthong [oʊ] is also pronounced with
18602-416: The value of natural science to human progress helped spawn the birth of institutions and associated knowledge systems that observed and categorized human beings; among these, the ones significant to the development of today's concepts of disability were asylums , clinics , and prisons . Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments. Foremost among these
18744-511: The variety that exists in how our bodies and brains work with a myriad of conditions that exist, and the role of inaccessible or oppressive systems, structures, or environments in making someone disabled." Invisible disabilities, also known as Hidden Disabilities or Non-visible Disabilities (NVD), are disabilities that are not immediately apparent, or seeable. They are often chronic illnesses and conditions that significantly impair normal activities of daily living. Invisible disabilities can hinder
18886-439: The viewpoint that disability is a complex social identity from which we can all gain insight. As disabilities scholar Claire Mullaney puts it, "At its broadest, disability studies encourages scholars to value disability as a form of cultural difference". Scholars of the field focus on a range of disability-related topics, such as ethics, policy and legislation, history, art of the disability community, and more. Notable scholars from
19028-528: The way bodies were viewed as people were increasingly valued for their ability to produce like machines. Capitalism and the industrial revolution effectively solidified this class of "disabled" people who could not conform to the standard worker 's body or level of work power. As a result, disabled people came to be regarded as a problem, to be solved or erased. In the early 1970s, the disability rights movement became established, when disability activists began to challenge how society treated disabled people and
19170-560: The world are good and agreeable in your eyes. However, in Chapter 16, the grammatical number is used. The world is blinded by his fortune and consequence. Some dialects of British English use negative concords, also known as double negatives . Rather than changing a word or using a positive, words like nobody, not, nothing, and never would be used in the same sentence. While this does not occur in Standard English, it does occur in non-standard dialects. The double negation follows
19312-520: Was notably limited . However, the degree of influence remains debated, and it has recently been argued that its grammatical influence accounts for the substantial innovations noted between English and the other West Germanic languages. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon , eventually came to dominate. The original Old English
19454-552: Was designed in New Zealand specifically for persons with disabilities. The World Wide Web consortium recognized a need for International Standards for Web Accessibility for persons with disabilities and created the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). As at Dec 2012 the standard is WCAG 2.0 (WCAG = Web Content Accessibility Guidelines). The social model of disability sees "disability" as a socially created problem and
19596-422: Was never a truly mixed language in the strictest sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication). The more idiomatic, concrete and descriptive English is, the more it is from Anglo-Saxon origins. The more intellectual and abstract English is, the more it contains Latin and French influences, e.g. swine (like
19738-467: Was often viewed as a by-product of incest between first-degree relatives or second-degree relatives . Disability scholars have also pointed to the Industrial Revolution , along with the economic shift from feudalism to capitalism , as prominent historical moments in the understanding of disability. Although there was a certain amount of religious superstition surrounding disability during
19880-401: Was published in 2018. According to this classification, migraine is a primary headache disorder along with tension-type headaches and cluster headaches , among others. Migraine is divided into six subclasses (some of which include further subdivisions): The diagnosis of abdominal migraine is controversial. Some evidence indicates that recurrent episodes of abdominal pain in the absence of
20022-533: Was the development of clinical medical discourse, which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed. These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in so doing, became methods of normalization . The concept of the "norm" developed in this time period, and is signaled in the work of the Belgian statistician , sociologist , mathematician , and astronomer Adolphe Quetelet , who wrote in
20164-521: Was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first was by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who settled in parts of Britain in the eighth and ninth centuries; the second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman . These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it
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