80-586: A middlings purifier is a device used in the production of flour to remove the husks from the kernels of wheat . It was developed in Minnesota by Edmund LaCroix, a French inventor hired by Cadwallader C. Washburn and George Christian of the Washburn "A" Mill . It was developed to complement the emerging roller mill technique of the late 19th century, which used corrugated metal rollers instead of abrasive grindstones to grind wheat into flour. The middlings purifier
160-537: A Natufian hunter-gatherer site more than 14,000 years old in northwest Jordan. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills . In 1786, at the beginning of the Industrial Era , the first steam-powered flour mill, Albion Mills, Southwark , was completed in London . In the 1930s, some flour began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine and riboflavin. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid
240-727: A golden eagle , and skull of a beech marten . At Ain Mallaha (in Northern Israel), Anatolian obsidian and shellfish from the Nile valley have been found. The source of malachite beads is still unknown. Epipaleolithic Natufians carried parthenocarpic figs from Africa to the southeastern corner of the Fertile Crescent , c. 10,000 BC . There was a rich bone industry , including harpoons and fish hooks . Stone and bone were worked into pendants and other ornaments. There are
320-541: A microlithic industry centered on short blades and bladelets. The microburin technique was used. Geometric microliths include lunates , trapezes, and triangles. There are backed blades as well. A special type of retouch ( Helwan retouch ) is characteristic for the early Natufian. In the late Natufian, the Harif-point, a typical arrowhead made from a regular blade, became common in the Negev . Some scholars use it to define
400-470: A sedentary or semi-sedentary population even before the introduction of agriculture . Natufian communities may be the ancestors of the builders of the first Neolithic settlements of the region, which may have been the earliest in the world. Some evidence suggests deliberate cultivation of cereals , specifically rye , by the Natufian culture at Tell Abu Hureyra , the site of earliest evidence of agriculture in
480-471: A 14% moisture content. Thus, a US flour with 0.48% ash would approximate a French Type 55. Other measurable properties of flour as used in baking can be determined using a variety of specialized instruments, such as the farinograph . Flour dust suspended in air is explosive —as is any mixture of a finely powdered flammable substance with air ( see dust explosion ). Some devastating explosions have occurred at flour mills, including an explosion in 1878 at
560-561: A Proto-Mediterranean population. According to Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, "It seems that certain preadaptive traits, developed already by the Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran populations within the Mediterranean park forest, played an important role in the emergence of the new socioeconomic system known as the Natufian culture." Settlements occur mostly in Israel and Palestine. This could be deemed
640-650: A bit more strength than cakes, but still produce flaky crusts rather than hard or crispy ones. All-purpose, or "AP flour", or plain flour is medium in gluten protein content at 9.5–11.5% (10–12% from second source ) protein content. It has adequate protein content for many bread and pizza bases, though bread flour and special 00 grade Italian flour are often preferred for these purposes, respectively, especially by artisan bakers. Some biscuits are also prepared using this type of flour. "Plain" refers not only to AP flour's middling gluten content but also to its lack of any added leavening agent (as in self-rising flour). Bread flour
720-585: A carved stone object held at the British Museum , is the oldest known depiction of a couple having sex. It was found in the Ain Sakhri cave in the Judean desert . Natufian grave goods are typically made of shell, teeth (of red deer ), bones, and stone. There are pendants, bracelets, necklaces, earrings, and belt-ornaments as well. In 2008, the 12,400–12,000 cal BC grave of an apparently significant Natufian female
800-615: A dissemination of morphological characteristics and artifacts from North Africa to the Near East, as well as explaining the presence of Y-chromosome haplogroup E in Natufians and Levantine farmers. Fregel summarizes that "More evidence will be needed to determine the specific origin of the North African Upper Paleolithic populations". In their 2017 paper, Ranajit Das , Paul Wexler , Mehdi Pirooznia and Eran Elhaik analyzed
880-455: A few human figurines made of limestone (El-Wad, Ain Mallaha, Ain Sakhri), but the favorite subject of representative art seems to have been animals. Ostrich-shell containers have been found in the Negev . In 2018, the world's oldest brewery was found, with the residue of 13,000-year-old beer, in a prehistoric cave near Haifa in Israel when researchers were looking for clues into what plant foods
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#1732870161367960-403: A high proportion of starches , which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides . The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour (known as plain outside North America), self-rising flour, and cake flour (including bleached flour). The higher the protein content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crispy or chewy breads. The lower
1040-471: A hundred kinds of cereals, fruits, nuts, and other edible parts of plants, and the flora of the Levant during the Natufian period was not the dry, barren, and thorny landscape of today, but rather woodland . The Natufian developed in the same region as the earlier Kebaran culture . It is generally seen as a successor, which evolved out of elements within that preceding culture. There were also other industries in
1120-537: A majority component that is "maximized in Late Pleistocene (Epipaleolithic) Natufian hunter–gatherers from the Levant". Alexander Militarev , Vitaly Shevoroshkin and others have linked the Natufian culture to the proto-Afroasiatic language , which they in turn believe has a Levantine origin. Some scholars, for example Christopher Ehret , Roger Blench and others, contend that the Afroasiatic Urheimat
1200-430: A mix of about 50% Basal Eurasian ancestry, and 50% from a West-Eurasian Unknown Hunter Gatherer (UHG) population, which was related to European Western Hunter-Gatherers . Vallini et al. (2024) modeled the amount of Basal Eurasian ancestry among Natufians at roughly 15%, with the remainder being associated with West Eurasian sources. The Natufian population also displays ancestral ties to Paleolithic Taforalt samples,
1280-541: A mixture of a Dzudzuana component and a sub-Saharan African component" (or an ancient and now-extinct North African component that diverged prior to the Out-of-Africa migration) and "also argue that (...) the Taforalt people (...) contributed to the genetic composition of Natufians and not the other way around", , which, according to Lazaridis et al., would be consistent with morphological and archaeological studies that indicate
1360-496: A plausible source for haplogroup E in Natufians; still according to Shriner, the Natufian samples had 61.2% ancestry related to Arabs and 10.8% ancestry related to West Asians. As summarized by Rosa Fregel, a later preprint from Lazaridis et al. (2018) has contested Loosdrecht's conclusion and argues for a minor sub-Saharan African component in Natufians, stating "that [the Iberomaurusians of] Taforalt can be better modeled as
1440-542: A separate culture, the Harifian . Sickle blades also appear for the first time in the Natufian lithic industry. The characteristic sickle-gloss shows that they were used to cut the silica -rich stems of cereals, indirectly suggesting the existence of incipient agriculture. Shaft straighteners made of ground stone indicate the practice of archery . There are heavy ground-stone bowl mortars as well. The Ain Sakhri lovers ,
1520-444: A stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. Roller mills soon replaced stone grist mills as the production of flour has historically driven technological development, as attempts to make gristmills more productive and less labor-intensive led to the watermill and windmill . These terms are now applied more broadly to uses of water and wind power for purposes other than milling. More recently,
1600-596: Is a powder made by grinding raw grains , roots , beans , nuts , or seeds . Flours are used to make many different foods . Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour , is the main ingredient of bread , which is a staple food for many cultures. Corn flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple in the Americas. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in both Central Europe and Northern Europe . Cereal flour consists either of
1680-527: Is a principal ingredient used to thicken many puddings or desserts, and is the main ingredient in packaged custard. Natufian Natufian culture ( / n ə ˈ t uː f i ə n / nə-TOO-fee-ən ) is a Late Epipaleolithic archaeological culture of the Neolithic prehistoric Levant in Western Asia , dating to around 15,000 to 11,500 years ago. The culture was unusual in that it supported
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#17328701613671760-400: Is a theoretically possible protein content ). This flour may be used where a recipe adds ingredients that require the dough to be extra strong to hold together in their presence, or when strength is needed for constructions of bread (e.g., some centerpiece displays). Gluten flour is refined gluten protein, or a theoretical 100% protein (though practical refining never achieves a full 100%). It
1840-613: Is an example of round stone structures. Cave sites are also seen frequently during the Natufian culture. El Wad is a Natufian cave site with occupation in the front part of the cave also called the terrace. Some Natufian sites were located in forest/steppe areas and others near inland mountains. The Natufian settlements appear to be the first to exhibit evidence of food storage; not all Natufian sites have storage facilities, but they have been identified at certain sites. Natufians are also suggested to have visited Cyprus , requiring travel over significant distances of water. The Natufian had
1920-470: Is most closely linked to the Arabian lineage. Possible bidirectional geneflow events between these groups has also been suggested, with particular evidence for affinity between the Natufians and Iberomaurusians. Contact between Natufians and other Neolithic Levantines, Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG), Anatolian and Iranian farmers is believed to have decreased genetic variability among later populations in
2000-511: Is no codified dividing line. The CDC has cautioned not to eat raw flour doughs or batters. Raw flour can contain bacteria like E. coli and needs to be cooked like other foods. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower , and both words derive from the Old French fleur or flour , which had the literal meaning "blossom", and a figurative meaning "the finest". The phrase fleur de farine meant "the finest part of
2080-416: Is often referred to as "white flour". Bleached flour is artificially aged using a "bleaching" agent, a "maturing" agent, or both. A bleaching agent affects the carotenoids responsible for the natural colour of the flour; a "maturing" agent also affects gluten development. A maturing agent may either strengthen or weaken gluten development. The four most common additives used as bleaching/maturing agents in
2160-460: Is poor because of the soil conditions, but at some sites such as Tell Abu Hureyra substantial amounts of plant remains discovered through flotation have been excavated. However wild cereals like legumes , almonds , acorns and pistachios have been collected throughout most of the Levant . Animal bones show that mountain and goitered gazelles ( Gazella gazella and Gazella subgutturosa ) were
2240-687: Is to be found in North Africa or Northeast Africa , probably in the area of Egypt , the Sahara , Horn of Africa or Sudan . Within this group, Ehret, who like Militarev believes Afroasiatic may already have been in existence in the Natufian period, would associate Natufians only with the Near Eastern Proto-Semitic branch of Afroasiatic. John Bengston documented that archeological and physical anthropological evidence showed Natufians are closely related to modern Semitic-speaking people from
2320-457: Is treated either with benzoyl peroxide or chlorine gas, but no way exists to tell which process has been used when buying the flour at the grocery store. The old method of procuring white or "bleached" flour did not entail the use of chemical agents at all. Rather, the wheat kernels were moistened with water long enough for the outer kernels of the wheat which contained the bran to soften and, eventually, fall off while grinding. In some places,
2400-555: Is typically made from hard red winter wheat planted in the fall and harvested in the spring. Hard wheat is high in gluten, a protein that makes dough stretchy. Hard wheat is 11.5–13.5% (12–14% from second source ) protein. The increased protein binds to the flour to entrap carbon dioxide released by the yeast fermentation process, resulting in a better rise and chewier texture. Hard is a general term for flours with high gluten protein content, commonly refers to extra strong flour, with 13.5–16% (or 14–15% from some sources) protein (16%
2480-474: Is used to strengthen flour as needed. For example, adding approximately one teaspoon per cup of AP flour gives the resulting mix the protein content of bread flour. It is commonly added to whole grain flour recipes to overcome the tendency of greater fiber content to interfere with gluten development, needed to give the bread better rising (gas holding) qualities and chew. Unbleached flour is simply flour that has not undergone bleaching and therefore does not have
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2560-497: The Fertile Crescent , but such suggestions are considered highly speculative until more North African archaeological evidence can be gathered. In fact, Weiss et al. have shown that the earliest known intensive usage of plants was in the Levant 23,000 years ago at the Ohalo II site . Anthropologist C. Loring Brace (1993) cross-analysed the craniometric traits of Natufian specimens with those of various ancient and modern groups from
2640-651: The Mesolithic , a transitional period between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic which was well-represented in Europe but had not yet been found in the Near East . A year later, when she discovered similar material at el-Wad Terrace , Garrod suggested the name "the Natufian culture", after Wadi an-Natuf that ran close to Shuqba. Over the next two decades Garrod found Natufian material at several of her pioneering excavations in
2720-624: The Mount Carmel region, including el-Wad, Kebara and Tabun , as did the French archaeologist René Neuville , firmly establishing the Natufian culture in the regional prehistoric chronology. As early as 1931, both Garrod and Neuville drew attention to the presence of stone sickles in Natufian assemblages and the possibility that this represented a very early agriculture. Epipalaeolithic Near East Caucasus Zagros Fertile Crescent : Europe : Africa : Siberia : Radiocarbon dating places
2800-672: The Shuqba cave (Wadi an-Natuf) near the town of Shuqba . The Natufian culture was discovered by British archaeologist Dorothy Garrod during her excavations of Shuqba cave in the Judaean Hills , on the West Bank of the Jordan River. Prior to the 1930s, the majority of archaeological work taking place in British Palestine was biblical archaeology focused on historic periods, and little
2880-489: The Unifine mill , an impact-type mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Modern farm equipment allows livestock farmers to do some or all of their own milling when it comes time to convert their own grain crops to coarse meal for livestock feed . This capability is economically important because the profit margins are often thin enough in commercial farming that saving expenses is vital to staying in business. Flour contains
2960-527: The Washburn "A" Mill in Minneapolis that killed 22 people. The CDC has cautioned not to eat raw flour doughs or batters. Raw flour can contain bacteria like E. coli and needs to be cooked like other foods. Bread , pasta , crackers , many cakes , and many other foods are made using flour. Wheat flour is also used to make a roux as a base for thickening gravy and sauces. It can also be used as an ingredient in papier-mâché glue . Cornstarch
3040-400: The endosperm , germ , and bran together (whole-grain flour) or of the endosperm alone (refined flour). Meal is either differentiable from flour as having slightly coarser particle size (degree of comminution ) or is synonymous with flour; the word is used both ways. For example, the word cornmeal often connotes a grittier texture whereas corn flour connotes fine powder, although there
3120-763: The Lazaridis et al. (2016) study concluding that the Natufians, together with one Neolithic Levantine sample, clustered in the proximity to modern Palestinians and Bedouins , and also "marginally overlapped" with Yemenite Jews . Ferreira et al. (2021) and Almarri et al. (2021) found that ancient Natufians cluster with modern Arabian groups, such as Saudi Arabians and Yemenis , which derive most of their ancestry from local Natufian-like hunter-gatherer peoples and have less Neolithic Anatolian ancestry than Levantines. Sirak et al. (2024) found that medieval Socotra (the Soqotri people ), similar to modern Saudis, Yemenis and Bedouins, have
3200-559: The Levant, citing the microburin technique and "microlithic forms such as arched backed bladelets and La Mouillah points." But recent research has shown that the presence of arched backed bladelets, La Mouillah points, and the use of the microburin technique was already apparent in the Nebekian industry of the Eastern Levant. And Maher et al. state that, "Many technological nuances that have often been always highlighted as significant during
3280-493: The Levant. Under his hypothesis, Afro-Asiatic branches originated in North Africa proper (Egypt), and the age of these languages can be dated to the periods of the Natufian culture around ~12,000 years ago. He postulated this based on the biological discontinuity between Pleistocene and Holocene North Africa, where there was population replacement and admixture in this region involving external migrants from northern areas, whom were
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3360-768: The Middle East. Migrations from the Near-East also occurred towards Africa, and the West Eurasian-like ancestry among populations in the Horn of Africa being best represented by the Levant Neolithic, and may be associated with the spread of Afroasiatic languages. Lazaridis et al. (2016) did not find a greater genetic affinity between Natufians and sub-Saharan Africans than that existing between sub-Saharan Africans and other ancient populations of Western Eurasia, and also stated that
3440-504: The Natufian culture at an epoch from the terminal Pleistocene to the very beginning of the Holocene , a time period between 12,500 and 9,500 BC . The period is commonly split into two subperiods: Early Natufian (12,000–10,800 BC) and Late Natufian (10,800–9,500 BC). The Late Natufian most likely occurred in tandem with the Younger Dryas (10,800 to 9,500 BC). The Levant hosts more than
3520-493: The Natufian culture of the Levant and of contemporary foragers in coastal North Africa across the late Pleistocene and early Holocene boundary". According to Isabelle De Groote and Louise Humphrey, Natufians practiced the Iberomaurusian and Capsian custom of sometimes extracting their maxillary central incisors (upper front teeth). Ofer Bar-Yosef has argued that there are signs of influences coming from North Africa to
3600-654: The Natufian people were eating. This is 8,000 years earlier than experts previously thought beer was invented. A study published in 2019 shows an advanced knowledge of lime plaster production at a Natufian cemetery in Nahal Ein Gev II site in the Upper Jordan Valley dated to 12 thousand (calibrated) years before present [k cal BP]. Production of plaster of this quality was previously thought to have been achieved some 2,000 years later. The Natufian people lived by hunting and gathering. The preservation of plant remains
3680-453: The Natufian were already present during the Early and Middle EP [Epipalaeolithic] and do not, in most cases, represent a radical departure in knowledge, tradition, or behavior." Authors such as Christopher Ehret have built upon the little evidence available to develop scenarios of intensive usage of plants having built up first in North Africa, as a precursor to the development of true farming in
3760-532: The Near East, Africa and Europe. The Late Pleistocene Epipalaeolithic Natufian sample was described as problematic due to its small size (consisting of only three males and one female), as well as the lack of a comparative sample from the Natufians' putative descendants in the Neolithic Near East. Brace observed that the Natufian fossils lay between those of the Niger–Congo-speaking series included and
3840-531: The US are: Some other chemicals used as flour treatment agents to modify color and baking properties include: Common preservatives in commercial flour include: All bleaching and maturing agents (with the possible exception of ascorbic acid) have been banned in the United Kingdom. Bromination of flour in the US has fallen out of favor, and while it is not yet actually banned anywhere, few retail flours available to
3920-425: The ancestry of a primitive population from North Africa could not be tested because modern North Africans are largely descended from late migrant populations from Eurasia. However, Daniel Shriner (2018), using modern populations as a reference, found 28% autosomal African ancestry in Natufian samples, with 21.2% related to North Africa and 6.8% related to Omotic-speaking populations in southern Ethiopia, which reveals
4000-427: The ash mass is only rarely given on the label by flour manufacturers. However, the legally required standard nutrition label specifies the protein content of the flour, which is also a way for comparing the extraction rates of different available flour types. In general, as the extraction rate of the flour increases, so do both the protein and the ash content. However, as the extraction rate approaches 100% (whole meal),
4080-436: The beer-related residues may simply be a result of a spontaneous fermentation . Generally, though, Natufians exploited wild cereals and hunted animals, notably gazelles . Archaeogenetic analysis has revealed derivation of later (Neolithic to Bronze Age) Levantines primarily from Natufians, besides substantial admixture from Chalcholithic Anatolians . Dorothy Garrod coined the term Natufian based on her excavations at
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#17328701613674160-432: The bleaching process, nutrients are lost. Some of these nutrients may be replaced during refining – the result is known as enriched flour. Cake flour is the lowest in gluten protein content, with 6–7% (5–8% from second source ) protein to produce minimal binding so the cake "crumbles" easily. Pastry flour has the second-lowest gluten protein content, with 7.5–9.5% (8–9% from second source ) protein to hold together with
4240-497: The color of "white" flour. An example is graham flour , whose namesake, Sylvester Graham , was against using bleaching agents, which he considered unhealthy. In English-speaking countries, self-raising (or self-rising) flour is commercially available with chemical leavening agents already in the mix. In America, it is also likely to be pre-salted; in Britain this is not the case. The added ingredients are evenly distributed throughout
4320-462: The conventional techniques of grinding grain between millstones ended up producing a darker flour than consumers desired. It was also difficult to mix the gluten and the starch completely. After Washburn's company developed the roller-milling technique with the use of a middlings purifier, they tried to monopolize the method, but the Pillsbury Company and other competitors were able to duplicate
4400-564: The core zone of the Natufian culture, but Israel is a place that has been excavated more frequently than other places hence the greater number of sites. During the years more sites have been found outside the core zone of Israel and Palestine stretching into what now is Syria , Lebanon , Jordan , the Sinai Peninsula and the Negev desert. The settlements in the Natufian culture were larger and more permanent than in preceding ones. Some Natufian sites had stone built architecture; Ain Mallaha
4480-402: The countryside. Heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels. Today, "stone-ground" usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over
4560-403: The different available flour varieties are labeled according to the ash mass that remains after a sample is incinerated in a laboratory oven (typically at 550 °C (1,022 °F) or 900 °C (1,650 °F), see international standards ISO 2171 and ICC 104/1 ). This is an easily verified indicator for the fraction of the whole grain remains in the flour, because the mineral content of
4640-514: The flour", since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse and unwanted matter from the grain during milling. Maize or corn flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple in the Americas. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe. Archaeological evidence for making flour ( wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones ) dates to at least 6000 BC. In 2018, archaeologists reported finding evidence of bread making at Shubayqa 1,
4720-449: The flour, which aids a consistent rise in baked goods. This flour is generally used for preparing sponge cakes, scones, muffins, etc. It was invented by Henry Jones and patented in 1845. If a recipe calls for self-raising flour, and this is not available, the following substitution is possible: Wheat is the grain most commonly used to make flour. Certain varieties may be referred to as "clean" or "white". Flours contain differing levels of
4800-512: The higher temperatures prevailing since the Last Glacial Maximum , which produced a sudden drought in the Levant. This would have endangered the wild cereals, which could no longer compete with dryland scrub, but upon which the population had become dependent to sustain a relatively large sedentary population. By artificially clearing scrub and planting seeds obtained from elsewhere, they began to practice agriculture. However, this theory of
4880-419: The home baker are bromated anymore. Many varieties of flour packaged specifically for commercial bakeries are still bromated. Retail bleached flour marketed to the home baker is now treated mostly with either peroxidation or chlorine gas. Current information from Pillsbury is that their varieties of bleached flour are treated both with benzoyl peroxide and chlorine gas. Gold Medal states that their bleached flour
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#17328701613674960-433: The late 19th century, this process was too short for an industrial production and distribution cycle. As vitamins , micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, removing the germ was an effective solution. Without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermed flour became standard. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach
5040-399: The leaves of Syrian rue ( Peganum harmala ) were spread in stratified layers between the layers of grain, and left in such a state for several days, until the fumes emitted from the astringent leaves of the plant caused the outer kernels of the wheat to break down and dissolve, leaving a clean and white flour after grinding. During the process of making flour, specifically as a result of
5120-465: The lowest ash residue in the table. The closest is French Type 45. There is no official Chinese name corresponding to the highest ash residue in the table. Usually such products are imported from Japan and the Japanese name zenryufun (全粒粉) is used, or it is called quánmài miànfěn (全麥麵粉). It is possible to determine ash content from some US manufacturers. However, US measurements are based on wheat with
5200-513: The main prey. Additionally, deer , aurochs and wild boar were hunted in the steppe , as well as onagers and caprids ( ibex ). Waterfowl and freshwater fish formed part of the diet in the Jordan river valley. Animal bones from Salibiya I (12,300 – 10,800 cal BP) have been interpreted as evidence for communal hunts with nets, however, the radiocarbon dates are far too old compared to the cultural remains of this settlement, indicating contamination of
5280-736: The makers of the Epipaleolithic Iberomaurusian culture of the Maghreb , the Pre-Pottery Neolithic culture of the Levant, the Early Neolithic Ifri N'Amr Ou Moussa and the Late Neolithic Kelif el Boroud culture of North Africa, with samples associated with these early cultures all sharing a common genomic component dubbed the "Natufian component", which diverged from other West Eurasian lineages ~26,000 years ago, and
5360-437: The origin of agriculture is controversial in the scientific community. At the Natufian site of Ain Mallaha in Israel, dated to 12,000 BC, the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-five-month-old puppy were found buried together. At another Natufian site at the cave of Hayonim, humans were found buried with two canids. Ancient DNA analysis of Natufian skeletal remains found that the Natufian ancestry could be modelled as
5440-489: The other samples (Near East, Europe), which he suggested may point to a Sub-Saharan influence in their constitution. Subsequent ancient DNA analysis of Natufian skeletal remains by Lazaridis et al. (2016) found that the specimens instead were a mix of 50% Basal Eurasian ancestral component (see Archaeogenetics ) and 50% West-Eurasian Unknown Hunter Gatherer (UHG) population related to European Western Hunter-Gatherers . Natufians have also been described by anthropologists as
5520-478: The process thanks to employees who left Washburn and passed along trade secrets . The development of the middling purifier may have been based on the invention of the purifier by Ignaz Paul, an Austrian miller and inventor (1778–1842) early in the 19th century. Washburn later teamed up with John Crosby to form the Washburn-Crosby Company, which eventually became General Mills . Flour Flour
5600-681: The protein gluten . "Strong flour" or "hard flour" has a higher gluten content than "weak" or "soft" flour. "Brown" and wholemeal flours may be made of hard or soft wheat. When flours do not contain gluten, they are suitable for people with gluten-related disorders , such as coeliac disease , non-celiac gluten sensitivity or wheat allergy sufferers, among others. Contamination with gluten-containing cereals can occur during grain harvesting, transporting, milling, storing, processing, handling and/or cooking. Flour also can be made from soybeans , arrowroot , taro , cattails , manioc , quinoa , and other non-cereal foodstuffs. In some markets,
5680-408: The protein content drops slightly, while the ash content continues to rise. The following table shows some typical examples of how protein and ash content relate to each other in wheat flour: This table is only a rough guideline for converting bread recipes. Since flour types are not standardized in many countries, the numbers may differ between manufacturers. There is no French type corresponding to
5760-429: The protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts. Cereal flour consists either of the endosperm , germ , and bran together (whole-grain flour) or of the endosperm alone (refined flour). "Bleached flour" is "refined" flour with a chemical whitening (bleaching) agent added. "Refined" flour has had the germ and bran, containing much of the nutritional fibre and vitamins, removed and
5840-483: The region, such as the Mushabian culture of the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula , which are sometimes distinguished from the Kebaran culture or believed to have been involved in the evolution of the Natufian culture. More generally there has been discussion of the similarities of these cultures with those found in coastal North Africa. Graeme Barker notes there are: "similarities in the respective archaeological records of
5920-407: The samples. A pita-like bread has been found from 12,500 BC attributed to Natufians. This bread is made of wild cereal seeds and papyrus cousin tubers, ground into flour. According to one theory, it was a sudden change in climate , the Younger Dryas event ( c. 10,800 to 9500 BC), which inspired the development of agriculture . The Younger Dryas was a 1,000-year-long interruption in
6000-480: The starchy endosperm is much lower than that of the outer parts of the grain. Flour made from all parts of the grain ( extraction rate : 100%) leaves about 2 grams (0.071 oz) ash or more per 100 grams (3.5 oz) dry flour. Plain white flour with an extraction rate of 50–60% leaves about 0.4 grams (0.014 oz). In the United States and the United Kingdom, no numbered standardized flour types are defined, and
6080-562: The world. The world's oldest known evidence of the production of bread-like foodstuff has been found at Shubayqa 1, a 14,400-year-old site in Jordan's northeastern desert, 4,000 years before the emergence of agriculture in Southwest Asia . In addition, the oldest known evidence of possible beer-brewing , dating to approximately 13,000 BC, was found in Raqefet Cave on Mount Carmel , although
6160-593: Was added to the list in the 1990s. An important problem of the Industrial Revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life . The reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ , which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled; the fatty acids oxidize and flour starts to become rancid . Depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In
6240-464: Was discovered in a ceremonial pit in the Hilazon Tachtit cave in northern Israel. Media reports referred to this person as a "shaman". The burial contained the remains of at least three aurochs and 86 tortoises, all of which are thought to have been brought to the site during a funeral feast. The body was surrounded by tortoise shells, the pelvis of a leopard , forearm of a boar , a wingtip of
6320-575: Was known about the region's prehistory. In 1928, Garrod was invited by the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem (BSAJ) to excavate Shuqba cave, where prehistoric stone tools had been discovered by Père Mallon four years earlier. She discovered a layer sandwiched between the Upper Palaeolithic and Bronze Age deposits characterised by the presence of microliths . She identified this with
6400-510: Was used to separate the bran from the usable part of the flour. The machine developed by LaCroix passed the partially ground middlings over a screen, and a stream of air blew away the particles of bran. This process was used because winter wheat, sown in the fall and harvested early the next summer was not feasible to grow in Minnesota. Spring wheat was sown in the spring and harvested in late summer. This could be grown by Minnesota farmers, but
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