The Micro-80 ( Russian : Микро-80 ) was the first do-it-yourself home computer in the Soviet Union .
64-465: Schematics and information were published in the local DIY electronic magazine Radio in 1983. It was complex, using an KR580VM80A -based system (a clone of the Intel 8080 ) which contained about 200 ICs. This system gained low popularity, but set a precedent in getting the attention of hobbyists for DIY computers, and later other DIY computers were published by Radio and other DIY magazines. The creation of
128-416: A KZ / K − 1 impedance between the second node and ground. Since impedance varies inversely with capacitance, the internode capacitance, C , is replaced by a capacitance of KC from input to ground and a capacitance of ( K − 1) C / K from output to ground. When the input-to-output gain is very large, the equivalent input-to-ground impedance
192-450: A coil is sometimes called self capacitance, but this is a different phenomenon. It is actually mutual capacitance between the individual turns of the coil and is a form of stray or parasitic capacitance . This self capacitance is an important consideration at high frequencies: it changes the impedance of the coil and gives rise to parallel resonance . In many applications this is an undesirable effect and sets an upper frequency limit for
256-506: A Fourier transform of a transient current in response to a step-like voltage excitation: C ( ω ) = 1 Δ V ∫ 0 ∞ [ i ( t ) − i ( ∞ ) ] cos ( ω t ) d t . {\displaystyle C(\omega )={\frac {1}{\Delta V}}\int _{0}^{\infty }[i(t)-i(\infty )]\cos(\omega t)dt.} Usually, capacitance in semiconductor devices
320-513: A capacitor is found by integrating the work W {\textstyle W} : W charging = 1 2 C V 2 . {\displaystyle W_{\text{charging}}={\frac {1}{2}}CV^{2}.} The discussion above is limited to the case of two conducting plates, although of arbitrary size and shape. The definition C = Q / V {\displaystyle C=Q/V} does not apply when there are more than two charged plates, or when
384-597: A conventional household TV and a keyboard read through the PPA KR580VV55, which eliminated the bulky industrial terminal. After a data storage system based on a cassette recorder was developed, in 1980 a prototype of a full-fledged household computer was obtained. After bringing it into a presentable form, it was shown to the Deputy Minister of the Radio Industry N.V. Gorshkov, but did not meet his understanding regarding
448-404: A femtofarad. Historical texts use other, obsolete submultiples of the farad, such as "mf" and "mfd" for microfarad (μF); "mmf", "mmfd", "pfd", "μμF" for picofarad (pF). The capacitance can be calculated if the geometry of the conductors and the dielectric properties of the insulator between the conductors are known. Capacitance is proportional to the area of overlap and inversely proportional to
512-447: A limiting factor for proper functioning of circuits at high frequency . Stray capacitance between the input and output in amplifier circuits can be troublesome because it can form a path for feedback , which can cause instability and parasitic oscillation in the amplifier. It is often convenient for analytical purposes to replace this capacitance with a combination of one input-to-ground capacitance and one output-to-ground capacitance;
576-672: A pin spacing of one tenth of an inch. For the KR580VM1 ( КР580ВМ1 ) see Further development below. Several integrated circuits in the K580 series were actually intended for other microprocessor families: the KR580VR43 ( КР580ВР43 — Intel 8243) for the K1816 family ( Intel MCS-48 ) and the KR580GF84 ( КР580ГФ84 — Intel 8284 ) / KR580VG88 ( КР580ВГ88 — Intel 8288 ) / KR580VB89 ( КР580ВБ89 — Intel 8289 ) for
640-638: A version in a PDIP-40 package was produced and was named the KR580IK80A (КР580ИК80А). The pin layout of the latter completely matched that of Intel's 8080A CPU. In 1986 this CPU received a new part number to conform with the 1980 Soviet integrated circuit designation and became known as the KR580VM80A (КР580ВМ80А), the number it is most widely known by today (the KR580VV51A and KR580VV55A peripheral devices went through similar revisions). Normal clock frequency for
704-541: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . KR580VM80A The KR580VM80A ( Russian : КР580ВМ80А ) is a Soviet microprocessor , a clone of the Intel 8080 CPU . Different versions of this CPU were manufactured beginning in the late 1970s, the earliest known use being in the SM1800 computer in 1979. Initially called the K580IK80 (К580ИК80), it was produced in a 48-pin planar metal-ceramic package. Later,
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#1732872176982768-721: Is a good approximation if d is small compared to the other dimensions of the plates so that the electric field in the capacitor area is uniform, and the so-called fringing field around the periphery provides only a small contribution to the capacitance. Combining the equation for capacitance with the above equation for the energy stored in a capacitor, for a flat-plate capacitor the energy stored is: W stored = 1 2 C V 2 = 1 2 ε A d V 2 . {\displaystyle W_{\text{stored}}={\frac {1}{2}}CV^{2}={\frac {1}{2}}\varepsilon {\frac {A}{d}}V^{2}.} where W {\textstyle W}
832-399: Is a piece of electronic test equipment used to measure capacitance, mainly of discrete capacitors . For most purposes and in most cases the capacitor must be disconnected from circuit . Many DVMs ( digital volt meters ) have a capacitance-measuring function. These usually operate by charging and discharging the capacitor under test with a known current and measuring the rate of rise of
896-691: Is a theoretical hollow conducting sphere, of infinite radius, with the conductor centered inside this sphere. Self capacitance of a conductor is defined by the ratio of charge and electric potential: C = q V , {\displaystyle C={\frac {q}{V}},} where Using this method, the self capacitance of a conducting sphere of radius R {\textstyle R} in free space (i.e. far away from any other charge distributions) is: C = 4 π ε 0 R . {\displaystyle C=4\pi \varepsilon _{0}R.} Example values of self capacitance are: The inter-winding capacitance of
960-732: Is affected by electric fields and by a number of physical phenomena - such as carrier drift and diffusion, trapping, injection, contact-related effects, impact ionization, etc. As a result, device admittance is frequency-dependent, and a simple electrostatic formula for capacitance C = q / V , {\displaystyle C=q/V,} is not applicable. A more general definition of capacitance, encompassing electrostatic formula, is: C = Im ( Y ( ω ) ) ω , {\displaystyle C={\frac {\operatorname {Im} (Y(\omega ))}{\omega }},} where Y ( ω ) {\displaystyle Y(\omega )}
1024-799: Is appropriate since d q = 0 {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} q=0} for systems involving either many electrons or metallic electrodes, but in few-electron systems, d q → Δ Q = e {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} q\to \Delta \,Q=e} . The integral generally becomes a summation. One may trivially combine the expressions of capacitance Q = C V {\displaystyle Q=CV} and electrostatic interaction energy, U = Q V , {\displaystyle U=QV,} to obtain C = Q 1 V = Q Q U = Q 2 U , {\displaystyle C=Q{1 \over V}=Q{Q \over U}={Q^{2} \over U},} which
1088-509: Is called elastance . In discussing electrical circuits, the term capacitance is usually a shorthand for the mutual capacitance between two adjacent conductors, such as the two plates of a capacitor. However, every isolated conductor also exhibits capacitance, here called self capacitance . It is measured by the amount of electric charge that must be added to an isolated conductor to raise its electric potential by one unit of measurement, e.g., one volt . The reference point for this potential
1152-407: Is particularly important in the operation of the capacitor , an elementary linear electronic component designed to add capacitance to an electric circuit . The capacitance between two conductors depends only on the geometry; the opposing surface area of the conductors and the distance between them; and the permittivity of any dielectric material between them. For many dielectric materials,
1216-426: Is positive. However, in some devices and under certain conditions (temperature, applied voltages, frequency, etc.), capacitance can become negative. Non-monotonic behavior of the transient current in response to a step-like excitation has been proposed as the mechanism of negative capacitance. Negative capacitance has been demonstrated and explored in many different types of semiconductor devices. A capacitance meter
1280-516: Is similar to the quantum capacitance. A more rigorous derivation is reported in the literature. In particular, to circumvent the mathematical challenges of spatially complex equipotential surfaces within the device, an average electrostatic potential experienced by each electron is utilized in the derivation. Apparent mathematical differences may be understood more fundamentally. The potential energy, U ( N ) {\displaystyle U(N)} , of an isolated device (self-capacitance)
1344-484: Is the device admittance, and ω {\displaystyle \omega } is the angular frequency. In general, capacitance is a function of frequency. At high frequencies, capacitance approaches a constant value, equal to "geometric" capacitance, determined by the terminals' geometry and dielectric content in the device. A paper by Steven Laux presents a review of numerical techniques for capacitance calculation. In particular, capacitance can be calculated by
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#17328721769821408-547: Is the energy, in joules; C {\textstyle C} is the capacitance, in farads; and V {\textstyle V} is the voltage, in volts. Any two adjacent conductors can function as a capacitor, though the capacitance is small unless the conductors are close together for long distances or over a large area. This (often unwanted) capacitance is called parasitic or stray capacitance. Stray capacitance can allow signals to leak between otherwise isolated circuits (an effect called crosstalk ), and it can be
1472-474: Is the instantaneous rate of change of voltage, and d C d t {\textstyle {\frac {dC}{dt}}} is the instantaneous rate of change of the capacitance. For most applications, the change in capacitance over time is negligible, so the formula reduces to: i ( t ) = C d v ( t ) d t , {\displaystyle i(t)=C{\frac {dv(t)}{dt}},} The energy stored in
1536-968: Is the work measured in joules, q is the charge measured in coulombs and C is the capacitance, measured in farads. The energy stored in a capacitor is found by integrating this equation. Starting with an uncharged capacitance ( q = 0 ) and moving charge from one plate to the other until the plates have charge + Q and − Q requires the work W : W charging = ∫ 0 Q q C d q = 1 2 Q 2 C = 1 2 Q V = 1 2 C V 2 = W stored . {\displaystyle W_{\text{charging}}=\int _{0}^{Q}{\frac {q}{C}}\,\mathrm {d} q={\frac {1}{2}}{\frac {Q^{2}}{C}}={\frac {1}{2}}QV={\frac {1}{2}}CV^{2}=W_{\text{stored}}.} The capacitance of nanoscale dielectric capacitors such as quantum dots may differ from conventional formulations of larger capacitors. In particular,
1600-530: Is twice that stored in a "connected" device in the lower limit N = 1 {\displaystyle N=1} . As N {\displaystyle N} grows large, U ( N ) → U {\displaystyle U(N)\to U} . Thus, the general expression of capacitance is C ( N ) = ( N e ) 2 U ( N ) . {\displaystyle C(N)={(Ne)^{2} \over U(N)}.} In nanoscale devices such as quantum dots,
1664-472: Is very small while the output-to-ground impedance is essentially equal to the original (input-to-output) impedance. Calculating the capacitance of a system amounts to solving the Laplace equation ∇ 2 φ = 0 {\textstyle \nabla ^{2}\varphi =0} with a constant potential φ {\textstyle \varphi } on the 2-dimensional surface of
1728-561: The K1810 family ( Intel 8086 ). Additionally, most devices in the K580 series could be used for the K1810 series as well. While the Soviet clone appears to be fully software-compatible with Intel 8080A, there is a slight difference between the two processors' interrupt handling logic, which looks like an error in the KR580VM80A's microcode . If a CALL instruction opcode is supplied during INTA cycle and
1792-466: The work required to push the charges into the capacitor, i.e. to charge it. Consider a capacitor of capacitance C , holding a charge + q on one plate and − q on the other. Moving a small element of charge d q from one plate to the other against the potential difference V = q / C requires the work d W : d W = q C d q , {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} W={\frac {q}{C}}\,\mathrm {d} q,} where W
1856-434: The "capacitor" is often an isolated or partially isolated component within the device. The primary differences between nanoscale capacitors and macroscopic (conventional) capacitors are the number of excess electrons (charge carriers, or electrons, that contribute to the device's electronic behavior) and the shape and size of metallic electrodes. In nanoscale devices, nanowires consisting of metal atoms typically do not exhibit
1920-655: The INT input remains asserted, the KR580VM80A does not clear its internal Interrupt Enable flag, despite the INTE output going inactive. As a result, the CPU enters a microcode loop, continuously acknowledging the interrupt and pushing the PC onto the stack , which leads to stack overflow . In a typical hardware configuration this phenomenon is masked by the behavior of 8259A interrupt controller, which deasserts INT during INTA cycle. The Romanian MMN8080 behaves
1984-502: The Intel 8080 architecture and is binary compatible with it. The extensions differ, however, from both the Intel 8085 and the Zilog Z80. The KR580VM1 extends the address range from 64KB to 128KB. It adds two registers, H1 and L1, that can be used instead of H and L. Several 16-bit arithmetic instructions were added as well ( DAD , DSUB , DCOMP ). Just like the Intel 8085 and the Zilog Z80,
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2048-539: The K580IK80A is 2 MHz, with speeds up to 2.5 MHz for the KR580VM80A. The KR580IK80A was manufactured in a 6 μm process. In the later KR580VM80A the feature size was reduced to 5 μm and the die became 20% smaller. The KR580VM80A was manufactured with an n-MOS process. The pins were electrically compatible with TTL logic levels. The load capacity of each output pin was sufficient for one TTL input. The output capacitance of each control and data pins
2112-400: The KR580VM1 needs only a single +5V power supply instead of the three voltages required by the KR580VM80A. The maximum clock frequency was increased from 2 MHz to 5 MHz while the power consumption was reduced from 1.35W to 0.5W, compared to the KR580VM80A. Capacitance Capacitance is the capacity of a material object or device to store electric charge . It is measured by
2176-581: The Micro-80 prototype began in 1978, when a package from the Kiev NPO Kristall arrived at the Moscow Institute of Electronic Machine Building (MIEM) by mistake. There were microcircuits in that package. Soon, MIEM specialists figured out that this was a domestic analogue of the i8080 microprocessor and peripheral controllers and decided to create their own PC. In 1979, the first sample of a microcomputer
2240-623: The Soviet Union produced the IM1821VM85A ( ИМ1821ВМ85А , actually the CMOS version Intel 80C85), KR1858VM1 ( КР1858ВМ1 ), and K1810VM86 ( К1810ВМ86 ), respectively. The 580VM80 is still shown on the price list of 15 August 2022 of the "Kvazar" plant in Kyiv together with various support chips of the K580 series. Another development, the KR580VM1 ( КР580ВМ1 ), has no western equivalent. The KR580VM1 extends
2304-408: The capacitor-under-test into a bridge circuit . By varying the values of the other legs in the bridge (so as to bring the bridge into balance), the value of the unknown capacitor is determined. This method of indirect use of measuring capacitance ensures greater precision. Through the use of Kelvin connections and other careful design techniques, these instruments can usually measure capacitors over
2368-427: The charge in response to a difference in electric potential , expressed as the ratio of those quantities. Commonly recognized are two closely related notions of capacitance: self capacitance and mutual capacitance . An object that can be electrically charged exhibits self capacitance, for which the electric potential is measured between the object and ground. Mutual capacitance is measured between two components, and
2432-402: The conductors embedded in 3-space. This is simplified by symmetries. There is no solution in terms of elementary functions in more complicated cases. For plane situations, analytic functions may be used to map different geometries to each other. See also Schwarz–Christoffel mapping . See also Basic hypergeometric series . The energy (measured in joules ) stored in a capacitor is equal to
2496-444: The conventional expression described in the introduction where W stored = U {\displaystyle W_{\text{stored}}=U} , the stored electrostatic potential energy, C = Q 2 2 U , {\displaystyle C={Q^{2} \over 2U},} by a factor of 1 / 2 with Q = N e {\displaystyle Q=Ne} . However, within
2560-408: The correct operation of the circuit. A common form is a parallel-plate capacitor , which consists of two conductive plates insulated from each other, usually sandwiching a dielectric material. In a parallel plate capacitor, capacitance is very nearly proportional to the surface area of the conductor plates and inversely proportional to the separation distance between the plates. If the charges on
2624-571: The device is then C Q ( N ) = e 2 μ ( N + 1 ) − μ ( N ) = e 2 E ( N ) . {\displaystyle C_{Q}(N)={\frac {e^{2}}{\mu (N+1)-\mu (N)}}={\frac {e^{2}}{E(N)}}.} This expression of "quantum capacitance" may be written as C Q ( N ) = e 2 U ( N ) , {\displaystyle C_{Q}(N)={e^{2} \over U(N)},} which differs from
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2688-673: The electron). The derivation of a "quantum capacitance" of a few-electron device involves the thermodynamic chemical potential of an N -particle system given by μ ( N ) = U ( N ) − U ( N − 1 ) , {\displaystyle \mu (N)=U(N)-U(N-1),} whose energy terms may be obtained as solutions of the Schrödinger equation. The definition of capacitance, 1 C ≡ Δ V Δ Q , {\displaystyle {1 \over C}\equiv {\Delta V \over \Delta Q},} with
2752-402: The electronic properties of the device. In such devices, the number of electrons may be very small, so the resulting spatial distribution of equipotential surfaces within the device is exceedingly complex. The capacitance of a connected, or "closed", single-electron device is twice the capacitance of an unconnected, or "open", single-electron device. This fact may be traced more fundamentally to
2816-433: The electrostatic potential difference experienced by electrons in conventional capacitors is spatially well-defined and fixed by the shape and size of metallic electrodes in addition to the statistically large number of electrons present in conventional capacitors. In nanoscale capacitors, however, the electrostatic potentials experienced by electrons are determined by the number and locations of all electrons that contribute to
2880-414: The energy stored in the single-electron device whose "direct polarization" interaction energy may be equally divided into the interaction of the electron with the polarized charge on the device itself due to the presence of the electron and the amount of potential energy required to form the polarized charge on the device (the interaction of charges in the device's dielectric material with the potential due to
2944-476: The first American microcomputers Altair 8800 of 1975), it was necessary to manually enter the program for loading the block from punched tape with toggle switches. When i2708 chips (UV-ROM 1K×8) became available some time after the computer was running, they were used to store the ROM-BIOS and the monitor, eliminating the need to constantly load them from punched tape. Popov developed a text video adapter that works on
3008-460: The framework of purely classical electrostatic interactions, the appearance of the factor of 1 / 2 is the result of integration in the conventional formulation involving the work done when charging a capacitor, W charging = U = ∫ 0 Q q C d q , {\displaystyle W_{\text{charging}}=U=\int _{0}^{Q}{\frac {q}{C}}\,\mathrm {d} q,} which
3072-515: The implementation of the development. The idea to build a computer on their own interested many radio amateurs. Letters began to come to the editors of the Radio magazine with requests to simplify the design of the Micro-80 and, to facilitate assembly, develop printed circuit boards for it. Therefore, soon, already in 1986, the same authors published a much simpler Radio 86RK computer, containing only 29 microcircuits. This computer hardware article
3136-415: The majority of capacitors used in electronic circuits is generally several orders of magnitude smaller than the farad . The most common units of capacitance are the microfarad (μF), nanofarad (nF), picofarad (pF), and, in microcircuits, femtofarad (fF). Some applications also use supercapacitors that can be much larger, as much as hundreds of farads, and parasitic capacitive elements can be less than
3200-634: The mutual capacitance C m {\displaystyle C_{m}} between two objects can be defined by solving for the total charge Q {\textstyle Q} and using C m = Q / V {\displaystyle C_{m}=Q/V} . C m = 1 ( P 11 + P 22 ) − ( P 12 + P 21 ) . {\displaystyle C_{m}={\frac {1}{(P_{11}+P_{22})-(P_{12}+P_{21})}}.} Since no actual device holds perfectly equal and opposite charges on each of
3264-601: The net charge on the two plates is non-zero. To handle this case, James Clerk Maxwell introduced his coefficients of potential . If three (nearly ideal) conductors are given charges Q 1 , Q 2 , Q 3 {\displaystyle Q_{1},Q_{2},Q_{3}} , then the voltage at conductor 1 is given by V 1 = P 11 Q 1 + P 12 Q 2 + P 13 Q 3 , {\displaystyle V_{1}=P_{11}Q_{1}+P_{12}Q_{2}+P_{13}Q_{3},} and similarly for
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#17328721769823328-424: The original configuration – including the input-to-output capacitance – is often referred to as a pi-configuration. Miller's theorem can be used to effect this replacement: it states that, if the gain ratio of two nodes is 1 / K , then an impedance of Z connecting the two nodes can be replaced with a Z / 1 − K impedance between the first node and ground and
3392-601: The other voltages. Hermann von Helmholtz and Sir William Thomson showed that the coefficients of potential are symmetric, so that P 12 = P 21 {\displaystyle P_{12}=P_{21}} , etc. Thus the system can be described by a collection of coefficients known as the elastance matrix or reciprocal capacitance matrix , which is defined as: P i j = ∂ V i ∂ Q j . {\displaystyle P_{ij}={\frac {\partial V_{i}}{\partial Q_{j}}}.} From this,
3456-465: The permittivity, and thus the capacitance, is independent of the potential difference between the conductors and the total charge on them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (symbol: F), named after the English physicist Michael Faraday . A 1 farad capacitor, when charged with 1 coulomb of electrical charge, has a potential difference of 1 volt between its plates. The reciprocal of capacitance
3520-747: The plates are + q {\textstyle +q} and − q {\textstyle -q} , and V {\textstyle V} gives the voltage between the plates, then the capacitance C {\textstyle C} is given by C = q V , {\displaystyle C={\frac {q}{V}},} which gives the voltage/ current relationship i ( t ) = C d v ( t ) d t + V d C d t , {\displaystyle i(t)=C{\frac {dv(t)}{dt}}+V{\frac {dC}{dt}},} where d v ( t ) d t {\textstyle {\frac {dv(t)}{dt}}}
3584-593: The potential difference Δ V = Δ μ e = μ ( N + Δ N ) − μ ( N ) e {\displaystyle \Delta V={\Delta \mu \, \over e}={\mu (N+\Delta N)-\mu (N) \over e}} may be applied to the device with the addition or removal of individual electrons, Δ N = 1 {\displaystyle \Delta N=1} and Δ Q = e . {\displaystyle \Delta Q=e.} The "quantum capacitance" of
3648-494: The resulting voltage ; the slower the rate of rise, the larger the capacitance. DVMs can usually measure capacitance from nanofarads to a few hundred microfarads, but wider ranges are not unusual. It is also possible to measure capacitance by passing a known high-frequency alternating current through the device under test and measuring the resulting voltage across it (does not work for polarised capacitors). More sophisticated instruments use other techniques such as inserting
3712-466: The same as the KR580VM80A; no other 8080A clones seem to be affected by this error. The KR580VM80A was popular in home computers , computer terminals , industrial controllers . Some of the examples of its successful application are: Mirroring the development in the West, where the Intel 8080 was succeeded by the binary compatible Intel 8085 and Zilog Z80 as well as the source compatible Intel 8086 ,
3776-417: The same conductive properties as their macroscopic, or bulk material, counterparts. In electronic and semiconductor devices, transient or frequency-dependent current between terminals contains both conduction and displacement components. Conduction current is related to moving charge carriers (electrons, holes, ions, etc.), while displacement current is caused by a time-varying electric field. Carrier transport
3840-402: The separation between conducting sheets. The closer the sheets are to each other, the greater the capacitance. An example is the capacitance of a capacitor constructed of two parallel plates both of area A {\textstyle A} separated by a distance d {\textstyle d} . If d {\textstyle d} is sufficiently small with respect to
3904-419: The smallest chord of A {\textstyle A} , there holds, to a high level of accuracy: C = ε A d ; {\displaystyle \ C=\varepsilon {\frac {A}{d}};} ε = ε 0 ε r , {\displaystyle \varepsilon =\varepsilon _{0}\varepsilon _{r},} where The equation
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#17328721769823968-412: The two "plates", it is the mutual capacitance that is reported on capacitors. The collection of coefficients C i j = ∂ Q i ∂ V j {\displaystyle C_{ij}={\frac {\partial Q_{i}}{\partial V_{j}}}} is known as the capacitance matrix , and is the inverse of the elastance matrix. The capacitance of
4032-524: Was launched. As in the first Western microcomputers, a terminal connected via a serial interface was used as a display device and keyboard, in this case the Videoton-340. There was also a punched tape reader FS-1500. 4 KB RAM was made on K565RU2 microcircuits with a 1K×1 organization (later the RAM was increased by another 8 KB). Initially, there was no ROM at all, and when the computer was turned on cold (as in one of
4096-416: Was ≤ 100 pF each. The family consists of the following chips: For brevity, the table above lists only the chip variants in a plastic DIP (prefix КР ) as well as the original planar package (prefix К ). Not listed separately are variants in a ceramic DIP (prefix КМ for commercial version and prefix М or no prefix for the military version) or export variants (prefix ЭКР ) in a plastic DIP but with
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