Misplaced Pages

#806193

86-654: Mozi , personal name Mo Di , was a Chinese philosopher , logician, and founder of the Mohist school of thought, making him one of the most important figures of the Warring States period ( c.  475  – 221 BCE). Alongside Confucianism , Mohism became the most prominent, organized schools of the Hundred Schools of Thought throughout the period. The Mozi is an anthology of writings traditionally attributed to Mozi and to his followers. Born in what

172-561: A Mohist in a debate with Mencius (in the Mengzi ), where the Mohist argued, in relation to carrying out universal love, that "we begin with what is near." Also, in the first chapter in the Mozi on the topic of universal love, Mozi argued that the best way of being filial to one's parents is to be filial to the parents of others. The foundational principle was therefore that benevolence, as well as malevolence,

258-921: A disciplined order that studied both Mozi's philosophical and technical writings. According to some accounts of the popular understanding of Mozi at the time, he had been hailed by many as the greatest hero to come from Henan . His passion was said to be for the good of the people, without concern for personal gain or even for his own life or death. His tireless contribution to society was praised by many, including Confucius's disciple Mencius . Mencius wrote in Jinxin ( Chinese : 孟子盡心 ; pinyin : Mengzi jinxin ) that Mozi believed in love for all mankind, noting that, as long as something benefitted mankind, Mozi would pursue it even if it meant "hurting his head or his feet". Zhang Tai Yan said that, in terms of moral virtue, even Confucius and Laozi could not compare to Mozi. Mozi travelled from one crisis zone to another throughout

344-513: A general attitude of care towards others. However, this does not require that we renounce all forms of special relationships we have with our families and friends. In fact, the Mohists introduce the problem that universal love is meant to solve by lamenting the fact that fathers and sons don't care for each other, and so must instead adopt an attitude of universal love. Conversely, the Mohists hope, when people adopt an attitude of universal love, society as

430-575: A high official position, Mozi was sought out by various rulers as an expert on fortification. He was schooled in Confucianism in his early years, although he viewed Confucianism as being too fatalistic, with an overemphasis on elaborate celebrations and funerals, which Mozi considered to be detrimental to the livelihood and productivity of the common people. Mozi managed to attract a large following during his lifetime, rivaling that of Confucius. His followers—mostly technicians and craftspeople—were organized in

516-640: A life of asceticism and self-restraint, renouncing both material and spiritual extravagance. Like Confucius, Mozi idealized the Xia dynasty and the ancients of Chinese mythology , but he also criticized the Confucian belief that modern life should be patterned on the ways of the ancients. Mozi argued that what is thought of as "ancient" was actually innovative in its time, and thus should not be used to hinder present-day innovation . Though Mozi did not believe that history necessarily progresses, as did Han Fei Zi , he shared

602-422: A morally consistent universe. Heaven, it is argued, is the ultimate moral standard, while ghosts and spirits serve as Heaven's enforcers. Both doctrines, when adopted, promote societal benefit both by enabling people to rely upon an objective standard to guide their actions (namely, Heaven), and by acting as a sort of cosmic authority capable of enacting rewards and punishments. Mozi's condemnation of music rests on

688-421: A notion that philosophers in other schools found absurd, as they interpreted this notion as implying no special amount of care or duty towards one's parents and family. Overlooked by those critics, however, was a passage in the chapter on "Self-Cultivation" which stated, "When people near-by are not befriended, there is no use endeavoring to attract those at a distance." This point was also precisely articulated by

774-584: A profound influence on the development of classical Chinese philosophy in general. In fact, Mohism was so prominent during the Warring States period that philosophical opponents, including Mencius and some authors of the Daoist anthology, the Zhuangzi , lament the very prevalence and widespread influence of their ideas. In modern times, Mohism has been given a fresh analysis. Sun Yat-Sen used "universal love" as one of

860-406: A result, society will suffer, and so the doctrine that there is fate ought to be rejected. "Mozi" is also the name of the philosophical anthology written and compiled by followers of Mozi. The text was formed by an accretional process that took place over a period of hundreds of years, beginning perhaps during or shortly after Mozi's lifetime, and lasting until perhaps the early Han dynasty. During

946-417: A retransmitter of Zhou values. His philosophy concerns the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. The Analects stress the importance of ritual, but also the importance of ren , which loosely translates as "human-heartedness", Confucianism, along with Legalism , is responsible for creating one of

SECTION 10

#1732868766807

1032-510: A thoroughly Chinese religious philosophy dominated by the school of Zen Buddhism . Neo-Confucianism became highly popular during the Song dynasty and Ming dynasty due in large part to the eventual combination of Confucian and Buddhist and even Taoist Philosophy. State of Qi During the Zhou conquest of Shang , Jiang Ziya , a native of Ju County served as the chief minister to King Wu ,

1118-525: A whole will benefit. Dovetailing with this idea is that of condemning aggression. The main targets of this doctrine are undoubtedly the rulers of the various warring states in China, who regularly embarked on expansionist military campaigns in order to increase their territory, power, and influence. However, such campaigns were enormously taxing on the population, disrupting regular farming cycles by conscripting able-bodied people for these military ends. Additionally,

1204-469: Is also famous for his ideas about frugality, such as those concerning moderating expenses and eliminating wasteful ceremonies including music and funerals. A common misconception is that the Mohists eschewed all forms of art, but of course the Mohists' targets are more specifically elaborate, state-sponsored rituals that would place incredible financial burdens upon a mostly peasant population. This can be seen from Xunzi's own arguments against Mozi in book 10 of

1290-764: Is also said to have used try squares and wrote the Zhoubi Suanjing with his astrologer. Several early beliefs might be found in the Guicang and perhaps the earliest Chinese book, the small calendar of the Xia in Da Dai Liji, though debated to exist the Xia dynasty is said to be its origin. Confucianism developed during the Spring and Autumn period from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), who considered himself

1376-502: Is considered a form of consequentialism , according to which the morality of an action, statement, teaching, policy, judgment, and so on, is determined by the consequences that it brings about. In particular, Mozi thought that actions should be measured by the way they contribute to the benefit of all members of society. With this criterion, Mozi denounced things as diverse as offensive warfare, expensive funerals, and even music and dance, which he saw as serving no useful purpose. According to

1462-516: Is known that King Yi of Zhou ( r.   865–858 BCE) attacked Qi and boiled Duke Ai to death. During the time of King Xuan of Zhou ( r.   827–782), there was a local succession struggle. Throughout this period, many of the native Dongyi peoples were absorbed into the Zhou cultural sphere. The succession crisis following the violent death of King You of Zhou led to a dramatic and unrecoverable loss of political and military authority in

1548-464: Is now Tengzhou , Shandong, Mozi and his followers argued strongly against both Confucianism and Taoism , with a philosophy emphasizing universal love, social order , the will of Heaven , sharing, and honoring the worthy. Mohism was actively developed and practiced across Warring States–era China, but fell out of favor following the establishment of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE. While tradition assumes

1634-787: Is requited, and that one would be treated by others as one treats others. Mozi quoted a popular passage from the Book of Odes to bring home this point: "When one throws to me a peach, I return to him a plum." One's parents will be treated by others as one treats the parents of others. Mozi also differentiated between "intention" and "actuality", thereby placing a central importance on the will to love, even though in practice it might very well be impossible to bring benefit to everyone. In addition, Mozi argued that benevolence comes to human beings "as naturally as fire turns upward or water turns downward", provided that persons in positions of authority illustrate benevolence in their own lives. In differentiating between

1720-511: Is some debate over how to understand the consequences Mozi seems most concerned with, and therefore over which kind of consequentialism to ascribe to him. Some believe the best descriptor to be state consequentialism. According to this reading, Mohist ethics makes moral evaluations based on how well the action, statement, etc., in question contributes to the stability of a state. Such state-related goods include social order, material wealth, and population growth. By centering his ethical theory around

1806-647: Is the Way of Heaven", since "Heaven nourishes and sustains all life without regard to status." Mozi's ideal of government, which advocated a meritocracy based on talent rather than background, also followed his idea of Heaven. Mozi opposed the Confucian idea of "Destiny", promoting instead an idea of "anti-fatalism" ( 非命 ). Where the Confucian philosophy held that a person's life, death, wealth, poverty, and social status were entirely dependent upon destiny and therefore could not be changed, Mozi argued that hard work and virtuous acts could change one's position in life. Mohist ethics

SECTION 20

#1732868766807

1892-1007: Is the first to describe the physical principle behind the camera , also known as the camera obscura . Chinese philosopher Confucianism Persons Topics Neo Confucianism New Confucianism Daoism Persons Topics Legalism Mohism Military and Strategy Han Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism Maoism General topics Vedic philosophy Mimamsa Vedanta Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Navya-Nyāya Vaisheshika Nāstika (heterodox) Tamil Other General topics Jainism Buddhism Traditions Topics Japanese Buddhism Japanese Confucianism Kokugaku Modern Thought Statism Kyoto School Korean Buddhism Korean Confucianism Persons Topics Donghak Modern Thought Persons Topics Chinese philosophy originates in

1978-561: Is unstable... The people of Qi are by nature unyielding and their country prosperous, but the ruler and officials are arrogant and care nothing for the people. The state's policies are not uniform and not strictly enforced. Salaries and wages are unfair and unevenly distributed, causing disharmony and disunity. Qi's army is arrayed with their heaviest hitters at the front while the rest follow behind, so that even when their forces appear mighty, they are in reality fragile. To defeat them, we should divide our army into three columns and have two attack

2064-715: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BCE, is the "world's earliest form of consequentialism, a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare". Consequentialist theories vary over exactly which consequences are relevant, though they all share the same basic outcome-based structure. With Mozi's overwhelming focus on "benefit" ( 利 , li ) among other ends, and his explicit focus on making moral evaluations in light of them, Mozi's ethics indeed shares this consequentalist structure. For interpreting Mozi, however, there

2150-608: The Battle of An in 589. In 579, the four great powers of Qin , Jin, Chu, and Qi met to declare a truce and limit their military strength. Early in the period, Qi annexed a number of smaller states. Qi was one of the first states to patronize scholars. In 532   BCE, the Tian clan destroyed several rival families and came to dominate the state. In 485, the Tian clan killed the heir to the house of Jiang and fought several rival clans. Four years later,

2236-590: The Han dynasty due to the efforts of Confucians in establishing their views as political orthodoxy. The Six Dynasties era saw the rise of the Xuanxue philosophical school and the maturation of Chinese Buddhism , which had entered China from India during the Late Han dynasties. By the time of the Tang dynasty five-hundred years after Buddhism's arrival into China, it had transformed into

2322-508: The Lunyu ( Analects ) and Mengzi respectively, wherein the thinkers in question are portrayed as expressing emotions, chiding students, and even making mistakes. (Consider Mengzi's disastrous advice to the King of Qi to invade the state of Yan.) To contrast, Mozi has little if any personality in the text, instead serving only as a mouthpiece for Mohist philosophy. Mohism, like other schools of thought at

2408-532: The School of Names . Mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched Chinese ideal of strong attachments to family and clan structures with the concept of "impartial caring" or "universal love" ( 兼愛 , jiān ài ). He argued directly against Confucians, who had philosophized that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in different degrees. Mozi, in contrast, argued that people in principle should care for all people equally,

2494-595: The Son of Heaven (the Zhou king). The first of five such hegemons, he earned a tribute from the other states, and had the honour of paying the royal court a larger tribute than anyone else. His calls to arms were as binding as the king's own. Using this authority, during the first eleven years of his hegemony, Duke Huan intervened in a power struggle in Lu; protected Yan from encroaching Western Rong nomads; drove off Northern Di nomads after their invasions of Wey and Xing , providing

2580-578: The Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period , during a period known as the " Hundred Schools of Thought ", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments. Although much of Chinese philosophy begun in the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), elements of Chinese philosophy have existed for several thousand years. Some can be found in the I Ching (the Book of Changes ), an ancient compendium of divination , which dates back to at least 672 BCE. The Han dynasty Records of

2666-530: The Xunzi "Enriching the State," where Xunzi argues against Mozi that prominent displays of wealth on the part of the state is necessary to maintaining social order. Some modern-day supporters for Mozi (as well as Communism) make the claim that Mohism and modern Communism share a lot in terms of ideals for community life. Others would claim that Mohism shares more with the central ideas of Christianity , especially in terms of

Mozi - Misplaced Pages Continue

2752-459: The thought of ancient Chinese masters should be called philosophy has been discussed since the introduction of this academic discipline into China. See Legitimacy of Chinese philosophy for details. Early Shang dynasty thought was based on cycles like the 10 stems and 12 earthly branches . This notion stems from what the people of the Shang dynasty could observe around them: day and night cycles,

2838-525: The Grand Historian by Sima Tan looked back on the Warring States era and grouped the thinkers into the major philosophical schools, Confucianism , Legalism , and Taoism , along with philosophies that later fell into obscurity, like Agriculturalism , Mohism , Chinese Naturalism , and the Logicians . Even in modern society, Confucianism is still the creed of social behaviour. The debate over whether

2924-564: The Han dynasty, as Confucianism came to be the official school of political thought, Mohism gradually lost both its adherents and influence while simultaneously being partly incorporated into more mainstream political thought. The text was eventually neglected, and only 58 of the text's original 71 books ( pian ) survive, some of which, notably the later Mohist Canons , contain significant textual corruptions and are fragmentary in nature. The anthology can be divided into 5 main groups, which are determined on

3010-592: The Jixia Academy not to be a physical institution, but an informal collaboration of sponsored scholars engaged in intellectual work. One impressive surviving achievement of the Jixia school of thought is the Yanzi Chunqiu . The state of Qi was known for having well organized cities that were nearly rectangular in shape, with roads that were neatly knit into a grid-like pattern. The palace was strategically positioned facing

3096-502: The Shang were overthrown by the Zhou a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the Mandate of Heaven . This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a justification for Zhou rule it is said that the Duke of Zhou made the early solar terms by measuring with a gnomon that was added to make the complete solar terms . He

3182-569: The State of Lu. He taught that the defense of a city did not depend only on fortification, weaponry, and food supply, but rather that it was also important to keep talented people close by and to put trust in them. Mozi's moral teachings emphasized introspection , self-reflection , and authenticity , rather than obedience to rituals . He observed that people often learned about the world through adversity. By reflecting on one's own successes and failures, one attains true self-knowledge rather than mere conformity to ritual. Mozi exhorted people to lead

3268-406: The Tian chief killed a puppet ruler, most of his family, and a number of rival chiefs. He took control of most of the state and left the monarch with only the capital of Linzi and the area around Mount Tai . In 386, the house of Tian fully replaced the house of Jiang as rulers of Qi. The Warring States period ended with the Qin conquest of Qi, which was the last to fall, in 222. So ended Qi, and

3354-617: The Zhou royal court. Under this new geopolitical situation, Qi rose to prominence under Duke Huan of Qi ( r.   685–643   BCE ). He and his minister Guan Zhong strengthened the state by consolidating power in the hands of the central government at the expense of the landed aristocracy, establishing a system of counties ( 縣 ; xiàn ) ruled directly by ministers of the state court. Qi annexed 35 neighboring polities – including Tan – and brought others into submission. Guan Zhong's administrative reforms also included state monopolies on salt and iron, and in general were characteristic of

3440-431: The basic normative attitude the Mohists encourage us to adopt towards others. The idea is that people ought to consider all others as being part of their scope of moral concern. Indeed this is perhaps the most infamous of Mohist doctrines, and was criticized early on by philosophers such as Mengzi, who held that the doctrine was akin to renouncing one's family. However, close readings of the texts by modern scholars have shown

3526-548: The basis of both chronological and thematic features: The Mozi is a rich source of insight into early Chinese dynastic history, culture, and philosophy. The text frequently cites ancient classics, such as the Shang Shu , and at times departs from the received version, giving scholars insight into the textual development of such classics as well. The texts portray Mozi as a mouthpiece for Mohist philosophy and not much else. This picture contrasts that of Confucius and Mencius found in

Mozi - Misplaced Pages Continue

3612-424: The body. While xing refers to the flesh-bloody part of human being, the concept of xin focuses on the aspect of cognition and is closely related to the concept of shan ( 善 , 'goodness'), ai ( 愛 , 'love'), zhi ( 志 , 'will') and xing. Some views claim that Mozi's philosophy was at once more advanced and less so than that of Confucius. Indeed the Mohists were radical political reformers who sought primarily to benefit

3698-399: The demands of Mohist universal love to be much more mild and reasonable. Additionally, given the accretional nature of the texts, the audience of such texts may have changed depending upon the Mohists' social influence, and so the demands for universal love made on rulers, for example, is considerably higher than that made on the masses. At its most basic, however, the doctrine merely encourages

3784-538: The destruction of many Mohist texts in 213 BCE as part of Emperor Qin Shi Huang 's burning of books and burying of scholars , traces of Mohism can still be seen late in the early Han (from 202 BCE), in syncretic texts like the Huainanzi of c.  139 BCE . As Confucianism became the dominant school of thought during the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), Mohism disappeared almost entirely by

3870-537: The dominant philosophical school of China during the early Han dynasty following the replacement of its contemporary, the more Taoist Huang-Lao . Legalism as a coherent philosophy disappeared largely due to its relationship with the unpopular authoritarian rule of Qin Shi Huang , however, many of its ideas and institutions would continue to influence Chinese philosophy throughout the Han dynasty and after. Mohism, though initially popular due to its emphasis on brotherly love versus harsh Legalism, fell out of favour during

3956-500: The era of Imperial China began. Before Qin unified China, each state's customs, culture, dialects, and orthography had pronounced differences. According to the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu , composed in the fourth or fifth century BCE and included in the Classic of Documents , there were nine distinct cultural regions of China, which are described in detail. The work focuses on the travels of

4042-491: The fact that officials tended to indulge in them at the expense of their duties. Finally, the Mohists rejected the idea of fatalism, or the idea that there is fate. The Mohists reject this idea on the grounds that it encourages lazy and irresponsible behavior. When people believe that there is fate, and that the consequences of their actions lie beyond their control, people will not be encouraged to improve themselves, nor will they be willing to take responsibility for disasters. As

4128-572: The fair distribution of wealth, yet he recognized the need for strong urban defenses so he could maintain the harmonious society he desired. The "material wealth" of Mohist consequentialism refers to basic needs like shelter and clothing, and the "order" of Mohist consequentialism refers to Mozi's stance against warfare and violence, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability. Stanford sinologist David Shepherd Nivison , in The Cambridge History of Ancient China , writes that

4214-429: The form of 10 core doctrines: Each of these doctrines is justified on the grounds that it produces the best consequences for society, and that all people stand to benefit from adopting them. Promoting the worthy, for example, encourages people in positions of power to hire competent and worthy subordinates to fill posts, rather than hire friends and relatives instead. The reasoning here is that someone better qualified for

4300-533: The foundations for his idea of Chinese democracy. More recently, Chinese scholars under Communism have tried to rehabilitate Mozi as a "philosopher of the people", highlighting his rational-empirical approach to the world as well as his "proletarian" background. The body in the Mozi is constructed by xing ( 形 , 'body'), xin ( 心 , 'heart'), qi ( 氣 , 'energy') 'which is in accord with the Pre-Qin thinkers' understanding to

4386-686: The idea of "universal love" (in Greek, " agape "), the " Golden Rule ", and the relation of humanity to the supernatural realm. However, Mohism is undoubtedly a product of Warring States China, a period of tremendous political violence and turmoil. The Mohists were political reformers, but they did not seek to challenge the monarchical model of government that prevailed during that time, and sought instead to reform from within by encouraging governments to hire competent people to carry out political tasks, care for their people inclusively, eliminate frivolous government spending, and halt all wars of aggression. In many ways

SECTION 50

#1732868766807

4472-417: The ideas of "universal" ( jian ) and "differential" ( bie ), Mozi said that "universal" originated from righteousness while "differential" entailed human effort. Mozi also held a belief in the power of ghosts and spirits, although he is often thought to have only worshipped them pragmatically. In fact, in his discussion on ghosts and spirits, he remarked that, even if they did not exist, communal gatherings for

4558-565: The influence of Mohism was a victim of its own successes, and it is fairly easy to understand its decline. The Mohists' ideas about the importance of meritocracy and universal love were gradually absorbed by mainstream Confucian thinking. Their opposition to offensive warfare became irrelevant once the various Warring States were unified under the Qin and later Han dynasty, and their religious superstitions were eventually replaced with less supernatural accounts. So their most promising ideas were metabolized by

4644-443: The job will perform better and enable society as a whole to benefit. Identifying upward refers to the idea that people in subordinate positions in society must look to their superiors as models for their own conduct. Provided that the superiors are indeed morally competent and worthy of emulation, the rest of society will always have a reliable guide for their own actions, thereby giving rise to social benefits. Universal love refers to

4730-411: The king that his disciples had already trained the soldiers of Song in his fortification methods, so it would be useless to kill him. The Chu king was forced to call off the war. On the way back, however, the soldiers of Song, not recognizing Mozi, would not allow him to enter their city, and he had to spend a night freezing in the rain. After this episode, he also prevented the state of Qi from attacking

4816-399: The later political philosophy of Legalism . In 667   BCE, the lords of Qi, Lu , Song , Chen , and Zheng assembled in one of the first great interstate conferences, and Duke Huan was elected as their leader. Subsequently, King Hui of Zhou pronounced him Bà ( 霸 ; 'big brother '), the "hegemon-protector" sworn to protect the royal house of Zhou and uphold the authority of

4902-466: The latter's critique of fate ( 命 , mìng ). Mozi believed that people were capable of changing their circumstances and directing their own lives, which could be achieved by applying one's senses to observing the world, as well as judging objects and events by their causes, functions, and historical bases. This was the "three-prong method" Mozi recommended for testing the truth or falsehood of statements. His students later expanded upon this theory to form

4988-465: The left and right flanks of Qi's army. Once their battle formations are thrown into disarray, the central column should be in position to attack and victory will follow. While visiting Qi, Confucius was deeply impressed with perfection of performance of Shao music ( 韶 ) therein. During the Warring States period, Qi was famous for Linzi's Jixia Academy , where renowned scholars of the era from all over China would visit. Modern scholarship understands

5074-414: The main Mohist ideas about frugality. In one's own projects, utility ought to be the only consideration. What is the purpose of houses? It is to protect us from the wind and cold of winter, the heat and rain of summer, and to keep out robbers and thieves. Once these ends have been secured, that is all. Whatever does not contribute to these ends should be eliminated. The Mohists took particular offense to

5160-420: The main focus of Mozi's consequentialism in the welfare of the people themselves rather than that of the state as a whole. Such interpretations as Chris Fraser's argue that it is a mistake to view Mozi's focus on the collective well-being of a population as a focus on the well-being of the state itself rather than its constituents. In this way, Mozi tended to evaluate actions based on whether they provide benefit to

5246-467: The masses and challenge the practices of the ruling orthodoxy, often targeting a perceived wasteful aristocracy whom they referred to as "the gentlemen of the world." The Mohist idea of "universal love" embraced a broader idea of human community than that of the Confucians, arguing that the scope of individuals' moral concern should include all people. Opponents of this idea often claimed that "universal love"

SECTION 60

#1732868766807

5332-464: The middle of the Western Han period of 202 BCE to 9 CE. Mozi is referenced in the 6th-century CE Thousand Character Classic , which records that he was saddened when he saw the dyeing of pure white silk, which embodied his conception of austerity as simplicity and chastity. Most historians believe that Mozi was a member of the lower artisan class who managed to climb his way to an official post. Mozi

5418-429: The moral goods of Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more reproduction; more people, then more production and wealth ... if people have plenty, they would be good, filial, kind, and so on unproblematically". In contrast to Jeremy Bentham , Mozi did not believe that individual happiness was important; the consequences of the state outweigh the consequences of individual actions. Alternative readings locate

5504-435: The motion will never stop. This is as true as that an ox is not a horse.' which, he claims, is a precursor to Newton's first law of motion. Mozi also contains speculations in optics and mechanics that are similarly strikingly original, although their ideas were not taken up by later Chinese philosophers. The Mohist tradition is also highly unusual in Chinese thought in that it devoted time to developing principles of logic. He

5590-463: The mountain ridges of central Shandong Province to the Yellow Sea in the present-day city of Qingdao . Its total length has been estimated at 600 km (370 miles). Most of the wall is still visible. Qi is represented by the star Chi Capricorni in the "Twelve States" asterism in the " Girl " lunar mansion in the " Black Turtle " symbol . Qi is also represented by the star 112 Herculis in

5676-401: The people with provisions and protective garrison units; and led an alliance of eight states to conquer Cai and thereby block the northward expansion of Chu . After Duke Huan's death, a war of succession between rival claimants greatly weakened Qi and ending its reign of hegemony. In 632   BCE, Qi helped Jin defeat Chu at the Battle of Chengpu , only to be defeated by Jin itself at

5762-527: The people, which he measured in terms of an enlarged population (states were sparsely populated in his day), a prosperous economy, and social order. Indeed these are collective goods rather than individual ones, which is a major difference between Mohist consequentialism and modern, Western versions. However, this reading emphasizes that collective goods are better considered as aggregated individual goods rather than as state goods. This consequentialist structure supports Mohist ethics and politics, which survives in

5848-517: The practice of extremely lavished funerals and demanding mourning rituals. Such funerals and rituals would potentially bankrupt an entire clan, at least temporarily, and disrupt its farming practices. For the dead in higher positions of authority, this disruption would affect an even greater number of people. Again, the point here is to promote benefit across society, and the Mohists believe that adopting frugal practices will do so. Mozi's ideas about ghosts and spirits follow from their religious beliefs in

5934-400: The practices is ethically wrong for the same reason that robbery and murder are wrong. In fact, according to Mozi, the two are actually one and the same; for what is an expansionist war of aggression other than robbery and murder on a grand scale? And yet, Mozi laments, those rulers who execute robbers and murderers engage in the very same practices. With respect to universal love, indeed part of

6020-486: The promotion of such state-related ends, Mozi shows himself to be a state consequentialist. Unlike hedonistic utilitarianism , which views pleasure as a moral good, "the basic goods in Mohist consequentialist thinking are ... order, material wealth, and increase in population". During Mozi's era, war and famines were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a harmonious society. Mozi opposed wars because they wasted life and resources while interfering with

6106-518: The ravaged landscape of the Warring States, trying to dissuade rulers from their plans of conquest. According to the chapter "Gongshu" in the Mozi , he once walked for ten days to the state of Chu in order to forestall an attack on the State of Song. At the Chu court, Mozi engaged in nine simulated war games with Gongshu Ban , the chief military strategist of Chu, and overturned each one of his stratagems. When Gongshu Ban threatened him with death, Mozi informed

6192-456: The reason why rulers believe it is acceptable to invade and conquer other states while it is not acceptable for their own subjects to rob and steal from one another is that the people in neighboring states are not part of the rulers' scope of moral concern. If rulers were to instead include these people and refrain from wars of aggression, all states, those attacking and those defending, will benefit. Moderation in use and moderation in burials are

6278-567: The revolt along with the Dongyi polities of Yan  [ zh ] , Xu , and Pugu , located within the boundaries of Qi. These were suppressed by 1039   BCE, but the Bamboo Annals suggest that the native people of Pugu continued to revolt for about another decade before being destroyed a second time c.  1026 . Transmitted documents from the Western Zhou period are scant, but it

6364-462: The sake of making sacrificial offering would play a role in strengthening social bonds. Furthermore, for Mozi the will of Heaven ( 天 , tiān ) was that people should love one another, and that mutual love by all would bring benefit to all. Therefore, it was in everyone's interest that they would love others "as they love themselves". According to Mozi, Heaven should be respected because failing to do so would subject one to punishment. For Mozi, Heaven

6450-458: The same economic considerations as their general ideas of frugality. In ancient China, grand musical ceremonies established by rulers would place enormous financial and human strains on populations, and so Mozi condemned such ceremonies for this reason. Mozi did not object to music in principle—"It's not that I don't like the sound of the drum" ("Against Music")—but only because of the heavy tax burden such activities placed on commoners and also due to

6536-522: The same position he had held in service to King Wu's father. Following the Zhou victory, the lands comprising much of the Shandong peninsula and some nearby surrounds were established as the state of Qi, with Jiang charged with ruling and defending them. After King Wu's death, Ziya remained loyal to the Duke of Zhou 's regency during the Three Guards ' failed rebellion . The Shang prince Wu Geng had joined

6622-428: The seasons progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again. Thus, this notion, which remained relevant throughout Chinese history , reflects the order of nature. In juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction from western philosophy , in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, Ancestor worship was present and universally recognized. When

6708-591: The south. To the left (eastwardly direction) of the palace resided the ancestral temple , to its right (westward) the temple of the gods, both one hundred paces away. This ensured that balance was achieved. In front of the palace was the court also one hundred paces away and to the back of the palace was the city. This type of layout influenced greatly the way cities were designed in subsequent generations. Smaller estates known as chengyi ( 城邑 ) were abundant throughout Qi. They typically stretched 450 meters from south to north and 395 meters from east to west. The perimeter

6794-494: The time, was suppressed under the Qin and died out completely under the Han , as its more radical adherents gradually dissolved and its most compelling ideas became absorbed by mainstream political thought. The influence of Mozi is still visible in many Han dynasty works written hundreds of years later. For example, the Confucian scholar Gongsun Hong describes the Confucian virtue of ren ("benevolence") in Mohist terms. Additionally, Mohist epistemology and philosophy of language had

6880-543: The titular sage, Yu the Great , throughout each of the regions. Other texts also discussed these cultural variations. One of these texts was The Book of Master Wu , written in response to a query by Marquis Wu of Wei on how to cope with the other states. Wu Qi , the author of the work, declared that the government and nature of the people were reflective of the terrain of the environment in which they inhabited. Of Qi, he said: Although Qi's troops are numerous, their organization

6966-401: The tradition, while their more radical and anachronistic ones were gradually discarded, leading to their demise during the Han dynasty. According to Joseph Needham , Mozi (collected writings of those in the tradition of Mozi, some of which might have been by Mozi himself) contains the following sentence: 'The cessation of motion is due to the opposing force... If there is no opposing force...

7052-429: The world's first meritocracies , which holds that one's status should be determined by education and character rather than ancestry , wealth , or friendship . Confucianism was and continues to be a major influence in Chinese culture, the state of China and the surrounding areas of East Asia . Before the Han dynasty the largest rivals to Confucianism were Chinese Legalism , and Mohism . Confucianism largely became

7138-411: Was a native of the state of Lu (modern Tengzhou , Shandong), although for a time he served as a minister in the state of Song . Similar to Confucius , Mozi was known to have maintained a school for those who desired to become officials serving in the different ruling courts of the Warring States. Mozi was a carpenter and was extremely skilled in creating devices (see Lu Ban ). Though he did not hold

7224-423: Was akin to renouncing one's family, and indeed more strict Mohists living in Mohist communities as the school flourished may have exhibited such behavior. However, there is some scholarly debate over just how radical the provisions of universal love actually are, and, as can be seen from the example of Gongsun Hong above, the less radical components of the doctrine were eventually absorbed by mainstream thought. Mozi

7310-515: Was not the "amoral", mystical nature of the Daoists ; rather, it was a benevolent, moral force that rewarded good and punished evil. Similar in some ways to the beliefs systems found in the Abrahamic religions , Mozi believed that all living things lived in a realm ruled by Heaven, and Heaven possessed a will which was independent from, and higher than, the will of people. Thus Mozi wrote that "Universal love

7396-623: Was usually surrounded by a wall with the living headquarters situated within and a nearly perfect square-shaped courtyard occupying the center. The Great Wall of Qi ( 齊長城 ) is the oldest existing Great Wall in China . Construction of the wall started in 441 BCE to defend against attacks from the states of Jin and Yue . Construction ended during the Warring States period , with the wall enhancing Qi's defense against enemies states like Ju , Lu , and Chu . The wall stretches from Guangli village of today's Changqing District, Jinan , running across

#806193