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171-566: In many universities across the United States, Chicano studies is linked with other ethnic studies, such as black studies , Asian American studies , and Native American studies . Many students who have studied anthropology have also been involved in varying degrees of Chicano studies. Today, most major universities in areas of high Chicano concentration have a formal Chicano/a studies department or interdisciplinary program. Providing Chicano studies to Chicano students has helped these students find

342-547: A Black studies department, amidst great targeting and discrimination of student leaders of color on the University of California campuses. In the Autumn season of 1968, black students from UCSB joined the national civil rights movement to end racial segregation and exclusion of Black history and studies from college campuses. Triggered by the insensitivity of the administration and general campus life, they occupied North Hall and presented

513-498: A Democratic Society (SDS), a well-connected and organized club, hosted a conference entitled "Black Power and its Challenges." Black leaders, who were directly tied to then ongoing civil rights movements, spoke to a predominantly white audience about their respective goals and challenges. These leaders included Stokely Carmichael of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and James Bevel of

684-482: A Ph.D. degree in Mexican American Studies. The idea of the "borderland" or nepantla grew stronger than the idea of Aztlán by the 1980s and Chicanos celebrated the many different (often conflicting) aspects of themselves. Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (1987) by Gloria Anzaldúa both grew out of and signifies this change. Chicano studies became less about nationalism, and more about belonging to

855-399: A broad way of teaching just to get the information out. AASU used these claims to gain ground on their proposal to create a Black studies department. Nathan Hare , a sociology professor at San Francisco State University, created what was known as the "A Conceptual Proposal for Black Studies" and AASU used Hare's framework to create a set of criteria. A Black studies program was implemented by

1026-405: A central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently. These changes helped Texas universities receive federal research funds. Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one urban and industrialized. The state's population grew quickly during this period, with large levels of migration from outside the state. As

1197-403: A certain type of student creates self-segregation and further separation from the non-Chicano, particularly white, students. Another type of criticism comes from some Chicanos as well, who believe that Chicano studies create students who become bothersome activists and generate a new wave movement that is not needed or wanted. Either way, opposers of the studies remain a strong voice (in addition to

1368-696: A chain of events that led to the Mexican–American War in 1846. Following victory by the United States, Texas remained a slave state until the American Civil War , when it declared its secession from the Union in early 1861 before officially joining the Confederate States of America on March   2. After the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered

1539-470: A community which offers a curriculum that is unique to their own heritage. The establishment of Chicano studies in colleges and universities was in response to fundamental issues in the American educational system and how many Chicanos felt excluded from educational success in the United States. Specifically, one of the issues that led to the establishment of Chicano studies was how Mexican-Americans, and in turn

1710-655: A continuing education diploma program in Afro-Colombian studies was developed and began to be offered at the University of Cauca in Belalcázar, Caldas . At the Pontifical Xavierian University , there is a master's degree program in Afro-Colombian studies. There is also a study abroad program for Afro-Colombian students and African-American students existing between the Afro-Colombian studies program at

1881-568: A frontier territory. The state became notorious as a haven for people from other parts of the country who wanted to escape debt, war tensions, or other problems. "Gone to Texas" was a common expression for those fleeing the law in other states. Nevertheless, the state also attracted many businessmen and other settlers with more legitimate interests. The cattle industry continued to thrive, though it gradually became less profitable. Cotton and lumber became major industries creating new economic booms in various regions. Railroad networks grew rapidly as did

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2052-509: A global context. This aim reinforces the importance of representing diverse voices and experiences, ensuring that the Black experience is recognized as integral to the broader human narrative. In summary, Africana studies serves not only to broaden students' understanding of global histories and cultures but also to empower them with an enriched perspective that celebrates the complexity and diversity of Black experiences. By acknowledging and addressing

2223-490: A group and contributing to "something greater." This shift helped reshape the mission of Chicano studies and gave it "new life" and "new authority." The 1980s saw more Chicano studies programs integrated into institutions of higher learning while it also created a "canonical approach" to its studies and "gatekeeping procedures" to evaluate promotions and tenure . In addition, Chicano studies programs helped universities and colleges fulfill affirmative action requirements. During

2394-425: A growing body of scholarship that challenged dominant narratives. As Africana studies continues to evolve, the fourth stage—emphasizing global connections and an Afro-centric perspective—highlights the discipline's responsiveness to contemporary issues. It seeks to explore the interconnectedness of African and African Diaspora experiences, fostering a deeper understanding of cultural phenomena and their implications in

2565-503: A long period of economic stagnation. Historically, five major industries shaped the Texas economy prior to World War II : cattle, bison, cotton, timber, and oil. Before and after the Civil War, the cattle industry—which Texas came to dominate—was a major economic driver and created the traditional image of the Texas cowboy. In the later 19th century, cotton and lumber grew to be major industries as

2736-466: A major destination for migration during the early 21st century and was named the most popular state to move for three consecutive years. Another study in 2019 determined Texas's growth rate at 1,000 people per day. During the COVID-19 pandemic in Texas , the first confirmed case of the virus in Texas was announced on March 4, 2020. On April 27, 2020, Governor Greg Abbott announced phase one of re-opening

2907-529: A part of the Sun Belt , Texas experienced strong economic growth, particularly during the 1970s and early 1980s. Texas's economy diversified, lessening its reliance on the petroleum industry . By 1990, Hispanics and Latino Americans overtook Blacks to become the largest minority group. Texas has the largest Black population with over 3.9 million. During the late 20th century, the Republican Party replaced

3078-423: A prominent scholar in the field of Chicano studies, has discovered a new popularity surrounding the perspectivist approach. The ideological approach to Chicano studies has shifted from pragmatic to perspectivist since the 1970s. Thus, according to Soldatenko, the approach's widespread popularity signals its significance to the furtherance of the field of Chicano studies. Responses to Chicano studies and its impact on

3249-624: A remnant Afro-Dominican language. Lorimer Denis , Francois Duvalier , and Jean Price-Mars , as founders of the Bureau of Ethnology and leading figures in the Noirisme movement in Haiti , were also influential in the publishing of the foundational Afro-Haitian studies journal, Les Griots . One of the most influential academics in Afro-Haitian studies is René Piquion . As of 2019, Afro-Puerto Rican studies

3420-508: A result of increased global focus on Afro-Latin American studies. The curriculum for Afro-Venezuelan studies was developed at Universidad Politécnica Territorial de Barlovento Argelia Laya (UPTBAL), in Higuerote , Barlovento , by Alejandro Correa. In 2006, Afro-Epistemology and African Culture were formally developed as the initial courses for students in this curriculum. Following the rise and decline of Black British Cultural Studies between

3591-427: A sense of nationalism. In 1970, the first volume of Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies was published by students at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Aztlán had a big influence on the discourse surrounding Chicano studies and was the reason behind the founding of many Chicano studies in colleges and universities. The name of the journal came directly from El Plan Espiritual de Aztlán and under

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3762-486: A sit-in at the Sproul Hall Administration building to protest an unfair rule that prohibited all political clubs from fundraising, excluding the democrat and republican clubs. Police arrested 800 students. Students formed a " freedom of speech movement" and Mario Savio became its poetic leader, stating that "freedom of speech was something that represents the very dignity of what a human is." The Students for

3933-507: A study with the Los Angeles State College which laid the foundation for a national center of Mexican American studies at California State College, Los Angeles (CSCLA) . Both Mexican American and Black Student Unions pressed CSCLA to have ethnic studies classes at this time. The Plan de Santa Barbara is generally considered to be the manifesto of Chicano studies. Drafted in 1969 at the University of California, Santa Barbara ,

4104-513: A supply state was marginalized in mid-1863 after the Union capture of the Mississippi River . The final battle of the Civil War was fought at Palmito Ranch , near Brownsville, Texas, and saw a Confederate victory. Texas descended into anarchy for two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger . Violence marked

4275-435: A third of Colorado , and small portions of Kansas , Oklahoma , and Wyoming to the federal government, in return for the assumption of $ 10 million of the old republic's debt. Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state. They also brought or purchased enslaved African Americans, whose numbers tripled in the state from 1850 to 1860, from 58,000 to 182,566. Texas re-entered war following

4446-535: A volume of this journal. In 1967, Carlos Larrazábal Blanco authored, Los Negros Y La Esclavitud En Santo Domingo , which is considered to be a foundational academic work in Afro-Dominican studies. Even in areas of the Dominican Republic with many Afro-Dominicans and where Afro-Dominican culture is predominant, there has been an ongoing challenge in Afro-Dominican studies to find linguistic evidence of

4617-591: Is Perspectivism, an approach which emphasizes introspection and is supported by prominent scholar, Michael Soldatenko. However, the Chicano studies discipline is not limited to these perspectives. Scholar Raoul Contreras, for example, considers Chicano internal colonialism and Chicano self-determination to be important issues that are explored within Chicano studies. Pragmatism is an ideological approach to Chicano studies. This ideology emphasizes political activism and social responsibility. Adherents to this approach believe it

4788-591: Is a combination of factors: the composite expertise of their faculty, their faculty's areas of specialization, and the worldviews of the faculty that make up each unit. By worldview, I am referring to the question of whether the constituent faculty in a given setting manifests any or a combination of the following visions of our project: The range of names in Black Studies also reflects the historical and sociopolitical contexts in which these programs emerged. For example, terms like "Afro-American Studies" originated during

4959-537: Is key to the Pragmatic approach. They contend that Chicano political advocacy should emphasize the lobbying of government officials for pro-Chicano studies policies. Rodolfo Acuña, former chair at the Department of Chicano Studies at California State University, Northridge, and prominent scholar in the field, fervently emphasizes the importance of sacrifice and struggle in order to institutionalize and gain formal respect for

5130-530: Is nicknamed the Lone Star State for its former status as an independent republic . Spain was the first European country to claim and control Texas. Following a short-lived colony controlled by France, Mexico controlled the land until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming the Republic of Texas . In 1845, Texas joined the United States of America as the 28th state. The state's annexation set off

5301-552: Is not inextricably linked to being white. Those who view Chicano studies as negative believe that the area of studies creates further problems for Chicano students and the greater American educational system. Chicano studies opposers cite that the education in Chicano classes teach anti-whiteness and a disdain for those of European descent. In addition, opposers believe that Chicano studies allow Mexican-American students to feel as if they are victims or sufferers of Anglo-America. Furthermore, some believe that having education dedicated for

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5472-521: Is not offered as a degree program by the University of Puerto Rico . Numerous academic publications, such as Arrancando Mitos De Raiz: Guia Para La Ensenanza Antirracista De La Herencia Africana En Puerto Rico , were scholarly works that established Isar Godreau as a leading academic in Afro-Puerto Rican Studies. The Executive branch created a law to establish a Committee for Afro-Costa Rican Studies, as one, among other laws, to increase

5643-698: Is rooted in and derives from the cultures and experiences of African peoples. By doing so, as Ama Mazama indicates, this should increase how relevant Black studies is and strengthen its disciplinary presence. Among English-speaking countries of the Caribbean , scholars educated in the United States and Britain added considerably to the development of Black studies. Scholars, such as Fitzroy Baptiste, Richard Goodridge, Elsa Goveia , Allister Hinds, Rupert Lewis, Bernard Marshall, James Millette, and Alvin Thompson, added to

5814-405: Is the second-largest U.S. state by area, after Alaska , and the largest state within the contiguous United States , at 268,820 square miles (696,200 km ). If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 39th-largest . It ranks 26th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size . Texas is in the south central part of the United States. The Rio Grande forms a natural border with

5985-432: Is the community's job to insert themselves into the workings of the current educational system to demand formal recognition of Chicano studies as a discipline. Additionally, it is vital that resources such as staff and offices are acquired in order to institutionalize the discipline. Rafael Pérez-Torres, author of "Chicana/o Studies's Two Paths", highlights that this approach has faced criticism due to its tendency to allow for

6156-399: Is tied to "whiteness," an educational standard that they can not attain. Acosta noted that the students that were exposed to Chicano literature felt empowered and believed that educational success and higher education was meant for them. Therefore, those who view the studies as positive believe Chicano education assists in Chicano students' academic growth and in their realization that education

6327-509: Is unetymological, contrary to the historical value of the letter x ( / ʃ / ) in Spanish orthography . Alternative etymologies of the name advanced in the late 19th century connected the name Texas with the Spanish word teja , meaning 'roof tile', the plural tejas being used to designate Indigenous Pueblo settlements. A 1760s map by Jacques-Nicolas Bellin shows a village named Teijas on

6498-632: The Aranama , lived in southern Texas. This entire culture group, primarily centered in northeastern Mexico , is now extinct. No culture was dominant across all of present-day Texas, and many peoples inhabited the area. Native American tribes who have lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include the Alabama , Apache , Atakapan , Bidai , Caddo , Aranama , Comanche , Choctaw , Coushatta , Hasinai , Jumano , Karankawa , Kickapoo , Kiowa , Tonkawa , and Wichita . Many of these peoples migrated from

6669-577: The Battle of Gonzales . This launched the Texas Revolution . Texians elected delegates to the Consultation , which created a provisional government. The provisional government soon collapsed from infighting, and Texas was without clear governance for the first two months of 1836. Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna personally led an army to end the revolt. General José de Urrea defeated all

6840-637: The Democratic Party as the dominant party in the state. Beginning in the early 21st century, metropolitan areas including Dallas–Fort Worth and Greater Austin became centers for the Texas Democratic Party in statewide and national elections as liberal policies became more accepted in urban areas. From the mid-2000s to 2019, Texas gained an influx of business relocations and regional headquarters from companies in California . Texas became

7011-519: The Ford Foundation , and the African-American academics who produced the publications used traditional disciplinary orthodoxies, from outside of African-American studies, to analyze and evaluate the boundaries, structure, and legitimacy of African-American studies. To the detriment of the field, an abundance of research on African American studies has been developed by academics who are not within

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7182-554: The Gulf of Mexico . The resulting " oil boom " transformed Texas. Oil production averaged three million barrels per day at its peak in 1972. In 1901, the Democratic-dominated state legislature passed a bill requiring payment of a poll tax for voting, which effectively disenfranchised most Black and many poor White and Latino people. In addition, the legislature established white primaries , ensuring minorities were excluded from

7353-566: The Mexican-American studies program taught in the Tucson Unified School District (TUSD) was found to be in violation of House Bill 2281 by the former Arizona Superintendent, Tom Horne . On the contrary, an independent audit, paid for by the state of Arizona, found the program was not in violation of HB 2281. However, after TUSD issued an appeal stating the program was in violation, Superintendent John Huppenthal decided that

7524-715: The Mississippian culture , also known as Mound Builders , which extended along the Mississippi River Valley east of Texas; and the civilizations of Mesoamerica , which were centered south of Texas. Influence of Teotihuacan in northern Mexico peaked around AD 500 and declined between the 8th and 10th centuries. When Europeans arrived in the Texas region, the language families present in the state were Caddoan, Atakapan , Athabaskan, Coahuiltecan , and Uto-Aztecan, in addition to several language isolates such as Tonkawa . Uto-Aztecan Puebloan and Jumano peoples lived neared

7695-611: The Old Three Hundred , made places along the Brazos River in 1822. The population of Texas grew rapidly. In 1825, Texas had about 3,500 people, with most of Mexican descent. By 1834, the population had grown to about 37,800 people, with only 7,800 of Mexican descent. Many immigrants openly flouted Mexican law, especially the prohibition against slavery . Combined with United States' attempts to purchase Texas, Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit continued immigration from

7866-553: The Pacific Ocean . Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans. The conflict between the factions was typified by an incident known as the Texas Archive War . With wide popular support, Texas first applied for annexation to the United States in 1836, but its status as a slaveholding country caused its admission to be controversial and it

8037-534: The Saint Malo settlement assisting Jean Lafitte in the Battle of New Orleans . In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence included the Texas territory, which became part of Mexico. Due to its low population, the territory was assigned to other states and territories of Mexico ; the core territory was part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas , but other parts of today's Texas were part of Tamaulipas , Chihuahua , or

8208-545: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Educational conferences, like that of the SDS, forced the university to take some measures to correct the most obvious racial issue on campus—the sparse black student population. In 1966, the school held its first official racial and ethnic survey, in which it was discovered that the "American Negro" represented 1.02% of the university population. In 1968,

8379-665: The Trinity River , close to the site of modern Crockett . Texas lies between two major cultural spheres of Pre-Columbian North America : the Southwestern and the Plains areas. Archaeologists have found that three major Indigenous cultures lived in this territory, and reached their developmental peak before the first European contact. These were: the Ancestral Puebloans from the upper Rio Grande region, centered west of Texas;

8550-660: The University of Cincinnati in a single issue in 1977 (an unrelated journal called Studia Africana is published by the Centro de Estudios Africanos, in Barcelona , since 1990). The International Journal of Africana Studies (ISSN 1056-8689) has been appearing since 1992, published by the National Council for Black Studies . Africana philosophy is a part of and developed within the field of Africana studies. In 1988 and 1990, publications on African-American studies were funded by

8721-553: The election of 1860 . During this time, Black people comprised 30 percent of the state's population, and they were overwhelmingly enslaved. When Abraham Lincoln was elected, South Carolina seceded from the Union; five other Deep South states quickly followed. A state convention considering secession opened in Austin on January 28, 1861. On February 1, by a vote of 166–8, the convention adopted an Ordinance of Secession . Texas voters approved this Ordinance on February 23, 1861. Texas joined

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8892-672: The federalists against the government and drove all Mexican soldiers out of East Texas. They took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom. Texians met at the Convention of 1832 to discuss requesting independent statehood, among other issues. The following year, Texians reiterated their demands at the Convention of 1833 . Within Mexico, tensions continued between federalists and centralists. In early 1835, wary Texians formed Committees of Correspondence and Safety. The unrest erupted into armed conflict in late 1835 at

9063-569: The humanities and social sciences . The field also uses various types of research methods . Intensive academic efforts to reconstruct African-American history began in the late 19th century ( W. E. B. Du Bois , The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America , 1896). Among the pioneers in the first half of the 20th century were Carter G. Woodson , Herbert Aptheker , Melville Herskovits , and Lorenzo Dow Turner . Programs and departments of Black studies in

9234-466: The "o" or "a/o". This new language is a result of the movement towards gender inclusivity and as a way to recognize Chicano people whose gender identity does not coincide with the gender binary. There are two ideological approaches to the institutionalization of Chicano studies as a formal discipline. The first approach is Pragmatism, an approach which emphasizes social responsibility and is supported by prominent scholar, Rodolfo Acuña . The second approach

9405-523: The 1950s, publications that included the presence of Afro-Chileans were not systematized, and, from the 1960s to the 1980s, publications continued to group Afro-Chileans with other groups. Since the 2000s, there has been increasing systematization and a more formal development of Afro-Chilean studies, along with a greater focus on Afro-Chileans and the recovery of Afro-Chilean cultural heritage . Scholars, such as Rogerio Velásquez, Aquiles Escalante, José Rafael Arboleda, and Thomas Price, were forerunners in

9576-865: The 1990s, organizations that followed in the example of the Center of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies ushered in the development of the Afro-Ecuadorian Etnoeducación program at the National High School, in Chota Valley , Ecuador , and a master's degree program in Afro-Andean Studies at the Simón Bolívar Andean University (UASB), in Quito , Ecuador. With the promulgation of Article 84 of the 1998 Constitution of Ecuador, gave formal recognition

9747-549: The 20th and 21st centuries. Additionally, Chicano scholars such as Felipe de Ortego y Gasca claim that Mexican Americans are not seen as vital parts of general American history, but neglect to remember that after historical treaties such as the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848, land originally belonging to Mexico has been a part of the United States for an extended period of time, and that those of Mexican descent have been "American" for over 160 years. Therefore, many Chicano scholars feel

9918-560: The Africological movement as a subsequent academic movement. Asante authored the book Afrocentricity , in 1980. Within the book, Asante used the term " Afrology " as the name for the interdisciplinary field of Black studies, and defined it as "the Afrocentric study of African phenomena." Later, Winston Van Horne changed Asante's use of the term "Afrology" to "Africology." Asante then went on to use his earlier definition for "Afrology" as

10089-598: The Americas contributed to how they socially organized themselves. Afterward, Nascimento went back to Brazil and began institutionalization of Africana studies in 1981. While at the Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo , Nascimento developed the Afro-Brazilian Studies and Research Institute (IPEAFRO). A course for professors was provided by IPEAFRO between 1985 and 1995. From the 1920s to

10260-671: The Caddo meant that few were converted. Positioned between French Louisiana and Spanish Texas, the Caddo maintained relations with both, but were closer with the French. After Spain took control of Louisiana, most of the missions in eastern Texas were closed and abandoned. The United States obtained Louisiana following the 1803 Louisiana Purchase and began convincing tribes to self-segregate from whites by moving west; facing an overflow of native peoples in Missouri and Arkansas, they were able to negotiate with

10431-564: The Caddo of Louisiana and Arkansas. Following the Texas Revolution, the Texans chose to make peace with the Indigenous people, but did not honor former land claims or agreements. The first president of Texas, Sam Houston , aimed to cooperate and make peace with Native tribes, but his successor, Mirabeau B. Lamar , took a much more hostile stance. Hostility towards Natives by white Texans prompted

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10602-558: The Caddo to allow several displaced peoples to settle on unused lands in eastern Texas. These included the Muscogee , Houma Choctaw , Lenape and Mingo Seneca , among others, who came to view the Caddoans as saviors. The temperament of Native American tribes affected the fates of European explorers and settlers in that land. Friendly tribes taught newcomers how to grow local crops, prepare foods, and hunt wild game . Warlike tribes resisted

10773-411: The Caddo, with the U.S. government trying to keep them in check. The Caddo never turned to violence because of the situation, except in cases of self-defense. By the 1830s, the U.S. had drafted the Indian Removal Act, which was used to facilitate the Trail of Tears. Fearing retribution, Indian Agents all over the eastern U.S. tried to convince all Indigenous peoples to uproot and move west. This included

10944-413: The Caddo. After Caddo resistance, the Spanish missionaries returned to Mexico. When France began settling Louisiana , in 1716 Spanish authorities responded by founding a new series of missions in East Texas. Two years later, they created San Antonio as the first Spanish civilian settlement in the area. Hostile native tribes and distance from nearby Spanish colonies discouraged settlers from moving to

11115-471: The Confederacy, Houston was deposed. While far from the major battlefields of the American Civil War , Texas contributed large numbers of soldiers and equipment. Union troops briefly occupied the state's primary port, Galveston. Texas's border with Mexico was known as the "backdoor of the Confederacy" because trade occurred at the border, bypassing the Union blockade. The Confederacy repulsed all Union attempts to shut down this route, but Texas's role as

11286-429: The Convention disbanded. The new government joined the other settlers in Texas in the Runaway Scrape , fleeing from the approaching Mexican army. After several weeks of retreat, the Texian Army commanded by Sam Houston attacked and defeated López de Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto . López de Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco , ending the war. The Constitution of

11457-497: The Mexican American community," a program that would become Chicano studies and which was built by and for Chicanos. In 1967, anthropologist Octavio Romano and Nick C. Vaca, in addition to graduate students at the University of California, Berkeley , began to publish a Chicano studies journal called El Grito: A Journal of Contemporary Mexican-American Thought . Many of the ideas surrounding the formation of later Chicano studies programs stemmed from this publication. One major idea that

11628-404: The Mexican Territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México . Hoping more settlers would reduce the near-constant Comanche raids, Mexican Texas liberalized its immigration policies to permit immigrants from outside Mexico and Spain. Large swathes of land were allotted to empresarios , who recruited settlers from the United States, Europe, and the Mexican interior, primarily the U.S. Austin's settlers,

11799-426: The Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas to the south. The Red River forms a natural border with Oklahoma and Arkansas to the north. The Sabine River forms a natural border with Louisiana to the east. The Texas Panhandle has an eastern border with Oklahoma at 100° W , a northern border with Oklahoma at 36°30' N and a western border with New Mexico at 103° W . El Paso lies on

11970-411: The Northern United States or California and to escape segregation. In 1940, Texas was 74% White , 14.4% Black, and 11.5% Hispanic. World War II had a dramatic impact on Texas, as federal money poured in to build military bases, munitions factories, detention camps and Army hospitals; 750,000 Texans left for service; the cities exploded with new industry; and hundreds of thousands of poor farmers left

12141-449: The Panamanian government, the Afro-Panamanian Studies Center hosted the Second Congress on Black Culture in the Americas. Since the 1980s, Afro-Argentine studies has undergone renewed growth. In 1980, Abdias Nascimento gave a presentation in Panama of his scholarship on Kilombismo at the 2nd Congress of Black Culture in the Americas. His scholarship on Kilombismo detailed how the economic and political affairs of Africans throughout

12312-601: The Philippines'), or as provincia de los Tejas ('province of the Tejas '), later also provincia de Texas (or de Tejas ), ('province of Texas'). It was incorporated as provincia de Texas into the Mexican Empire in 1821, and declared a republic in 1836. The Royal Spanish Academy recognizes both spellings, Tejas and Texas , as Spanish-language forms of the name. The English pronunciation with /ks/

12483-541: The Pontifical Xavierian University in Colombia and African-American studies programs at historically black colleges and universities in the United States. Afro-Ecuadorians initiated the development of the Center of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies in the late 1970s, which served as a means of organizing academic questions relating to Afro-Ecuadorian identity and history. Though it dissolved in the early 1980s, by

12654-514: The Republic of Texas prohibited the government from restricting slavery or freeing slaves, and required free people of African descent to leave the country. Political battles raged between two factions of the new Republic. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar , advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans , and the expansion of the Republic to

12825-719: The Rio Grande in the western portion of the state and the Athabaskan-speaking Apache tribes lived throughout the interior. The agricultural, mound-building Caddo controlled much of the northeastern part of the state, along the Red , Sabine , and Neches River basins. Atakapan peoples such as the Akokisa and Bidai lived along the northeastern Gulf Coast; the Karankawa lived along the central coast. At least one tribe of Coahuiltecans ,

12996-558: The Rio Grande on January 13, 1846. A few months later Mexican troops routed an American cavalry patrol in the disputed area in the Thornton Affair starting the Mexican–American War . The first battles of the war were fought in Texas: the Siege of Fort Texas , Battle of Palo Alto and Battle of Resaca de la Palma . After these decisive victories, the United States invaded Mexican territory, ending

13167-587: The Texian resistance along the coast culminating in the Goliad massacre . López de Santa Anna's forces, after a thirteen-day siege , overwhelmed Texian defenders at the Battle of the Alamo . News of the defeats sparked panic among Texas settlers. The newly elected Texian delegates to the Convention of 1836 quickly signed a declaration of independence on March 2, forming the Republic of Texas . After electing interim officers,

13338-597: The U.S. After Texas's annexation, Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the United States. While the United States claimed Texas's border stretched to the Rio Grande, Mexico claimed it was the Nueces River leaving the Rio Grande Valley under contested Texan sovereignty. While the former Republic of Texas could not enforce its border claims, the United States had the military strength and the political will to do so. President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor south to

13509-520: The UC Berkeley administration on January 13, 1969. In 1969, St. Clair Drake was named the first chair of the degree granting, Program in African and Afro-American Studies at Stanford University . Many Black studies programs and departments and programs around the nation were created in subsequent years. At University of California, Santa Barbara , similarly, student activism led to the establishment of

13680-520: The United Kingdom. Texas Texas ( / ˈ t ɛ k s ə s / TEK -səss , locally also / ˈ t ɛ k s ɪ z / TEK -siz ; Spanish : Texas or Tejas , pronounced [ˈtexas] ) is the most populous state in the South Central region of the United States . It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to

13851-404: The United States at the time was "inconsistent with the values of the Chicano movement" and that Chicano studies needed to create tools for students to use in the real world and also a new type of research to solve problems. It was also important to find ways to recruit Chicano teachers and administration within the schools to support students and research. Further support for Chicano studies came in

14022-406: The United States were first created in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of inter-ethnic student and faculty activism at many universities, sparked by a five-month strike for Black studies at San Francisco State University . In February 1968, San Francisco State hired sociologist Nathan Hare to coordinate the first Black studies program and write a proposal for the first Department of Black Studies;

14193-813: The United States which can be associated with Chicana/o Studies. Black studies Black studies or Africana studies (with nationally specific terms, such as African American studies and Black Canadian studies ), is an interdisciplinary academic field that primarily focuses on the study of the history, culture, and politics of the peoples of the African diaspora and Africa . The field includes scholars of African-American , Afro-Canadian , Afro-Caribbean , Afro-Latino , Afro-European , Afro-Asian , African Australian , and African literature, history, politics, and religion as well as those from disciplines, such as sociology , anthropology , cultural studies , psychology , education , and many other disciplines within

14364-404: The United States. With a growing base of industry, the state leads in many industries, including tourism , agriculture , petrochemicals , energy , computers and electronics , aerospace , and biomedical sciences . Texas has led the U.S. in state export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product . The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex and Greater Houston areas are

14535-444: The United States. However, illegal immigration from the United States into Mexico continued to increase the population of Texas. New laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties angering native Mexican citizens ( Tejanos ) and recent immigrants alike. The Anahuac Disturbances in 1832 were the first open revolt against Mexican rule, coinciding with a revolt in Mexico against the nation's president. Texians sided with

14706-536: The University of Southern California and chair of the Mexican American Political Association's (MAPA) Education Committee, reported on "serious discriminatory policies and practices" at his university in relation to hiring Mexican Americans, especially considering that there had been an increase in the number of Mexican American students. According to scholar Rodolfo Acuña, serving Mexican American students without providing Mexican American faculty

14877-445: The administration with a set of demands. Such efforts led to the eventual creation of the Black studies department and the Center for Black Studies. Similar activism was happening outside of California. At Yale University , a committee, headed by political scientist , Robert Dahl , recommended establishing an undergraduate major in African-American culture, one of the first of such at an American university. When Ernie Davis , who

15048-514: The agreement. Several filibusters raised armies to invade the area west of the Sabine River. Marked by the War of 1812 , some men who had escaped from the Spanish, held (Old) Philippines had immigrated to and also passed through Texas (New Philippines) and reached Louisiana where Philippine exiles aided the United States in the defense of New Orleans against a British invasion, with Filipinos in

15219-561: The area. It was one of New Spain's least populated provinces. In 1749, the Spanish peace treaty with the Lipan Apache angered many tribes, including the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai. The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785 and later helped to defeat the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes. With numerous missions being established, priests led a peaceful conversion of most tribes. By

15390-659: The body of scholarship is undergoing growth. There have been efforts to organize the elements of Afro-Peruvian studies in Peru, such as by LUNDU, which organized an international conference for Afro-Peruvian studies in Peru on November 13, 2009. During this LUNDU-organized conference, Luis Rocca, who co-founded the National Afro-Peruvian Museum , and is also a historian, presented on his research regarding Afro-Peruvians . A university student group focused on Afro-Peruvian studies

15561-401: The cattle industry became less lucrative. Ultimately, the discovery of major petroleum deposits ( Spindletop in particular) initiated an economic boom that became the driving force behind the economy for much of the 20th century. Texas developed a diversified economy and high tech industry during the mid-20th century. As of 2022 , it has the most Fortune 500 company headquarters (53) in

15732-493: The civil rights movement, emphasizing a focus on the African American experience and the struggle for racial equality. In contrast, more contemporary terms like "Africana Studies" and "Pan-African Studies" reflect a broader engagement with the global Black experience, including connections across the African diaspora and an acknowledgment of transnational influences. In 1991, the national chair for Black Canadian Studies, which

15903-591: The civil rights movement. The students at the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) were witnesses to the Civil Rights Movement , and by 1964, they were thrust into activism. On October 1, 1964, Jack Weinberg , a former graduate student, was sitting at a table where the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was distributing literature encouraging students to protest against institutional racism . Police asked Weinberg to produce his ID to confirm that he

16074-508: The colony of Fort Saint Louis at Matagorda Bay rather than along the Mississippi River . The colony lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives. A small band of survivors traveled eastward into the lands of the Caddo, but La Salle was killed by disgruntled expedition members. In 1690 Spanish authorities, concerned that France posed a competitive threat, constructed several missions in East Texas among

16245-575: The course must be disbanded instead of relinquishing state funding. Thus, in January 2012, the TUSD school board came to a 4-1 decision that the program was to be disbanded as to not lose state funding for the district. Furthermore, HB 2281 facilitated more challenges and limitations on classes teaching Chicana/o studies not just in Arizona, but across the United States. This is an abbreviated list of programs throughout

16416-408: The definition for his newly adopted term, "Africology". Systematic Africology, which is a research method in the field of Black studies that was developed by Asante, utilizes the theory of Afrocentricity to analyze and evaluate African phenomena. In an effort to shift Black studies away from its interdisciplinary status toward disciplinary status, Asante recommended that Afrocentricity should be

16587-567: The department was created in September 1968 and gained official status at the end of the five-month strike in the spring of 1969. Hare's views reflected those of the Black Power movement, and he believed that the department should empower Black students. The creation of programs and departments in Black studies was a common demand of protests and sit-ins by minority students and their allies, who felt that their cultures and interests were underserved by

16758-600: The desert and mountains of the Big Bend . The name Texas , based on the Caddo word táy:shaʼ ( /tə́jːʃaʔ/ ) 'friend', was applied, in the spelling Tejas or Texas , by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, specifically the Hasinai Confederacy. During Spanish colonial rule , in the 18th century, the area was known as Nuevas Filipinas (' New Philippines ') and Nuevo Reino de Filipinas ('New Kingdom of

16929-523: The development of Afro-Colombian studies in the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1960s, as social science programs became incorporated into university institutions, contributions from anthropologists and social scientists added to its emergence. Following the promulgation of the Colombian Constitution , particularly Article 55 , in 1991, Law 70 in 1993, and Decree 804 by the Ministry of Education in 1995,

17100-652: The development of Black studies at the University of the West Indies campuses in Barbados , Jamaica , and Trinidad . During the early 1900s, Fernando Ortiz pioneered the emerging field of Afro-Cuban studies. On January 16, 1937, the Society for Afro-Cuban Studies was established. Afro-Cuban Studies (Estudios Afrocubanos) is the academic journal for the Society for Afro-Cuban Studies (SEAC/Sociedad de Estudios Afrocubanos). In 1939, Rómulo Lachatañeré 's academic work appeared in

17271-504: The direction of the historian Juan Gomez-Quiñones , the journal supported and sustained a culture of activism. Chicano scholars in 1970 also wrote papers for the Chicano Studies Institute which were later published in the journal, Epoca . These papers addressed topics such as Chicano curriculum, goals of the educational program and how to achieve academic recognition. In 1973, the University of California, Berkeley recognized

17442-471: The discipline of African American studies. Rather, the academics, and the scholarship they have produced about African American studies, has been characterized as bearing an "Aryan hegemonic worldview." It has been argued that due to a staffing shortage in the field of African American studies, academics in the field, who are trained in traditional fields, carry with them presumptions of the primacy of their field of training's viewpoints, which tends to result in

17613-1033: The discipline" remains "unsettled" (Asante & Karenga, 2006, p. 421). This remark came as a result of an extensive survey of existing Black Studies programs, which led to the editors identifying a multiplicity of names for the discipline: Africana Studies, African and African Diaspora Studies, African/Black World Studies, Pan-African Studies, Africology, African and New World Studies, African Studies–Major, Black World Studies, Latin American Studies, Latin American and Caribbean Studies, Black and Hispanic Studies, Africana and Latin American Studies, African and African-American Studies, Black and Hispanic Studies, African American Studies, Afro-American Studies, African American Education Program, Afro-Ethnic Studies, American Ethnic Studies, American Studies–African-American Emphasis, Black Studies, Comparative American Cultures, Ethnic Studies Programs, Race and Ethnic Studies. Okafor (2014) clarifies: What appears to drive these distinctive names

17784-441: The discipline's evolution in response to historical contexts and societal needs. The first stage, from the 1890s until World War II, was marked by grassroots organizations that sought to illuminate the rich histories and cultures of African peoples. This foundational work laid the groundwork for future scholarship by challenging prevailing narratives that often marginalized or misrepresented Black experiences. The second stage shifted

17955-525: The early 1980s and late 1990s, Black studies in the United States reinvigorated Black Critical Thought in the United Kingdom . Kehinde Andrews , who initiated the development of the Black Studies Association in the United Kingdom as well as the development of a course in Black studies at Birmingham City University , continues to advocate for the advancement of the presence of Black studies in

18126-529: The early months of Reconstruction . Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Galveston by General Gordon Granger, almost two and a half years after the original announcement. President Johnson, in 1866, declared the civilian government restored in Texas. Despite not meeting Reconstruction requirements, Congress resumed allowing elected Texas representatives into

18297-583: The east, seeking a route to Mexico. They passed through the Caddo lands but turned back after reaching the River of Daycao (possibly the Brazos or Colorado), beyond which point the Native peoples were nomadic and did not have the agricultural stores to feed the expedition. European powers ignored the area until accidentally settling there in 1685. Miscalculations by René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle resulted in his establishing

18468-474: The economy. Amid a rise in COVID-19 cases in autumn 2020, Abbott refused to enact further lockdowns. In November 2020, Texas was selected as one of four states to test Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine distribution. As of February 2, 2021, there had been over 2.4 million confirmed cases in Texas, with at least 37,417 deaths. During February 13–17, 2021, the state faced a major weather emergency as Winter Storm Uri hit

18639-675: The elements for Afro-Colombian studies began to come together, and historic discrimination of Afro-Colombians was able to begin being addressed, with the development of national educational content about Afro-Colombians and Africa . At the University City of Bogotá , of the National University of Colombia , the Afro-Colombian Studies Group developed and established a training program in Afro-Colombian studies for primary and secondary school teachers. In February 2002,

18810-470: The end of the 18th century only a few nomadic tribes had not converted. When the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803, American authorities insisted the agreement also included Texas. The boundary between New Spain and the United States was finally set in 1819 at the Sabine River , the modern border between Texas and Louisiana. Eager for new land, many U.S. settlers refused to recognize

18981-423: The establishment of formal academic programs labeled as Black Studies, which further institutionalized the discipline within higher education. These programs aimed to create a rigorous academic framework for studying the Black experience, often incorporating interdisciplinary approaches that draw from history, sociology, literature, and the arts. This formalization not only legitimized the field but also contributed to

19152-612: The federal government for their opposition to U.S. involvement in World War I . The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl dealt a double blow to the state's economy, which had significantly improved since the Civil War. Migrants abandoned the worst-hit sections of Texas during the Dust Bowl years. Especially from this period on, Black people left Texas in the Great Migration to get work in

19323-498: The federal government in 1870. Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues. Like most of the South, the Texas economy was devastated by the War. However, since the state had not been as dependent on slaves as other parts of the South, it was able to recover more quickly. The culture in Texas during the later 19th century exhibited many facets of

19494-446: The field of African American studies that they are entering into. Furthermore, such academics, who would also recognize themselves as experts in the discipline of African American studies, would also attempt to assess the legitimacy of Africology – done so, through analysis based on critical rhetoric rather than based on pensive research. Following the Black studies movement and Africana studies movement, Molefi Kete Asante identifies

19665-476: The field of Chicano studies. Acuña frames the quest for institutionalization as a gritty battle to be waged by students and faculty. Perspectivism is another ideological approach to Chicano studies. This ideology emphasizes intellectualism, introspection, and academic expertise. This ideology neglects the needs for social change and, instead, exclusively focuses on engagement with relevant scholarship. Perspectivists believe individual ambition, pursuit of respect, and

19836-406: The fields for much better-paying war jobs, never to return to agriculture. Texas manufactured 3.1 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking eleventh among the 48 states. Texas modernized and expanded its system of higher education through the 1960s. The state created a comprehensive plan for higher education, funded in large part by oil revenues, and

20007-589: The fighting in Texas. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the two-year war. In return for US$ 18,250,000, Mexico gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, ceded the Mexican Cession in 1848, most of which today is called the American Southwest, and Texas's borders were established at the Rio Grande. The Compromise of 1850 set Texas's boundaries at their present position: Texas ceded its claims to land which later became half of present-day New Mexico ,

20178-493: The first Europeans in what is now Texas. Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528, when the Spanish landed in the area, "half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us." Cabeza de Vaca also made observations about the way of life of the Ignaces Natives of Texas. Francisco Vázquez de Coronado described another encounter with native people in 1541. The expedition of Hernando de Soto entered into Texas from

20349-413: The focus to African Americans, reflecting the urgent need to address the unique historical and cultural contributions of this community, particularly in the wake of the civil rights movement. This period emphasized the significance of African American history, culture, and identity within a broader American context, fostering a greater understanding of systemic racism and social justice. The third stage saw

20520-506: The form of protests, activism or just taking part in el movimiento , also known as the Chicano movement . Chicano studies was seen as a way to advance Mexican American perspectives on culture, history and literature. The major push for universities and colleges to include Chicano studies came within the context of the African-American civil rights struggle. During the 1960s, Mexican American educators demanded that colleges and universities address

20691-556: The form of the National Association of Chicana and Chicano Studies (NACCS) which was created in 1972 in San Antonio, Texas . The NACCS allows scholars in Chicano studies to exchange ideas, share research, communicate, and it also has an annual conference. The conferences were important to help bring together scholars and legitimize Chicano studies, since other disciplines have similar annual conferences. Through these conferences and

20862-569: The formal political process. The number of voters dropped dramatically, and the Democrats crushed competition from the Republican and Populist parties. The Socialist Party became the second-largest party in Texas after 1912, coinciding with a large socialist upsurge in the United States during fierce battles in the labor movement and the popularity of national heroes like Eugene V. Debs . The socialists' popularity soon waned after their vilification by

21033-492: The gaps in traditional educational narratives, this field of study aims to contribute to a more equitable and inclusive understanding of history and culture. In the United States, the 1960s is known as the " Turbulent Sixties ." During this time period, the nation experienced great social unrest, as citizens challenged the social order in radical ways. Many movements took place in the United States during this time period, including women's rights movement, labor rights movement, and

21204-580: The greater American educational system can be separated into two categories, positive and negative. Those who see the programs and studies as positive believe that Chicano studies create positive academic changes in Chicano students. For example, Chicano educator Curtis Acosta noted the shift in Chicano students' minds after they were exposed to literature that was written by Chicanos and intended for Chicanos. For according to Acosta, Chicanos often felt excluded by traditional educational systems, and felt as if they are not meant for educational success, or that success

21375-547: The greater Latino community, were represented negatively in American history. An example where Mexican Americans were portrayed negatively in American history is during the 19th century, when the territories of New Mexico and Arizona were not allowed to become states until there were more people of European descent living there to balance out the Mexican Americans, who were thought of as lazy, talentless idlers. It also must be noted that these stereotypes have continued throughout

21546-423: The grouping of classes based on academic performance is still permissible. Course curriculum concerning the history of a specific ethnic group or about controversial history which is available to all students is acceptable, as well. Another provision of the law stated that any school district or charter school breaching its stated provisions would be liable to lose state funding as a public institution. Subsequently,

21717-419: The historical and cultural issues of Africa and its descendants, while Black studies was designed to deal with the uplift and development of the black (African-American) community in relationship to education and its "relevance" to the black community. The adaptation of the term, "Africana studies", appears to have derived from the encyclopedic work of W. E. B. Du Bois and Carter G. Woodson . James Turner , who

21888-437: The historical and cultural issues of Africanity within a professorial interpretation of the interactions between these fields and college administrations. Thus, Africana studies reflected the mellowing and institutionalization of the Black studies movement in the course of its integration into the mainstream academic curriculum. Black studies and Africana studies differ primarily in that Africana studies focuses on Africanity and

22059-444: The inheritors of what is undoubtedly one of the most challenging, and threatening set of social circumstances that has ever fallen upon a generation of young people in history." Everyone learns differently and teaching only one way is a cause for students to not want to learn, which eventually leads to dropping out. All students have their specialties, but teachers don't use that to help them in their learning community. Instead, they use

22230-464: The institution. Therefore, another reason Chicano studies was implemented at colleges and universities was to ensure diversity in the faculty of higher education and to demonstrate to Chicano students that professional careers surrounding education can be an option for them as well. Many Chicano scholars agree that Chicano studies came about as a result of the Chicana@ student movements, whether they were in

22401-540: The level of inclusion of Afro-Costa Ricans in Costa Rica . Christopher H. Lutz authored, Santiago de Guatemala, 1541–1773 , which is considered to be one of the foundational literatures of Afro-Guatemalan studies. Due to a history of scarce resources and anti-black racism, Afro-Hondurans have largely been excluded from academic publications about Honduras ; consequently, Afro-Honduran studies has remained limited in its formal development. In March 1980, along with

22572-550: The little material the European-American community was taught about Mexican Americans was framed in the context of European-American narratives, in other words meaning that the historical focus was not placed on Mexican Americans and Mexican Americans were often portrayed negatively. For that reason, Chicano studies was created to combat traditional education that excludes Mexican-American history and furthers harmful stereotypes about Mexican Americans. Furthermore, Chicano studies

22743-420: The many differences within the group. In 1981, the Mexican American Studies and Research Center (MASRC) at the University of Arizona was established. In 2009, MASRC became a department and continued public policy research and addressing issues of concern to Mexican American communities. As of 2019, MASRC is now known as the Department of Mexican American Studies and offers bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, and

22914-468: The many other initiatives organized by Chicano students and educators, many Chicano studies programs were in place at major universities by 1975. Chicano studies went through structural shifts in its message and mission during the late 1970s and 1980s. During this period, Chicano studies began to include women, the LGBTQ+ community, and other minority groups under the umbrella of "Chicano" while also acknowledging

23085-456: The marginalization of the African phenomena that are the subjects of study and even the field of African American studies at-large. Consequently, matters of development of theory as well as the development of historical and African consciousness frequently go overlooked. As the focus of African American studies is the study of the African diaspora and Africa, including the problems of the African diaspora and Africa, Conyers claims that this makes

23256-417: The meta-paradigm for Black studies and that the new name for Black studies should be Africology; this is intended to shift Black studies away from having a "topical definition" of studying African peoples, which is shared with other disciplines, toward having a "perspectival definition" that is unique in how African peoples are studied – that is, the study of African peoples, through a centered perspective, which

23427-411: The mid 1990s, however, a study found that most Chicano studies programs were still very non-uniform. Part of the reason that many Chicano studies programs were not consistent in what was studied is that a core curriculum had not yet been formally published. The first primer of Chicano studies was published in 1980 by Diego Vigil, called From Indians to Chicanos: A Sociocultural History . In addition, there

23598-683: The movement of most Native populations north into what would become Indian Territory (modern Oklahoma). Only the Alabama-Coushatta would remain in the parts of Texas subject to white settlement, though the Comanche would continue to control most of the western half of the state until their defeat in the 1870s and 1880s. The first historical document related to Texas was a map of the Gulf Coast , created in 1519 by Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda . Nine years later, shipwrecked Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his cohort became

23769-558: The nation's fourth and fifth-most populous urban regions respectively. Its capital city is Austin . Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault , Texas contains diverse landscapes common to both the U.S. Southern and the Southwestern regions . Most population centers are in areas of former prairies , grasslands , forests, and the coastline . Traveling from east to west, terrain ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods , to rolling plains and rugged hills, to

23940-424: The need to have necessary programming that restructures the way in which Mexican-Americans are perceived in American education. Another reason for Chicano studies was that traditionally Mexican Americans had been exposed to "Western" culture and European history through the standard educational system, but those of European descent had never had to learn Mexican history or the history of Mexican Americans. Additionally,

24111-426: The need to provide quality library materials to support the Chicano studies programs, and in a more general sense to have academic spaces for Chicano studies and Chicano students. Researchers began to study the impact that these new programs had on students, finding that Mexican-American students responded positively to Chicano studies and also to bilingual classes. Many scholars felt that the philosophy of education in

24282-537: The newly created Confederate States of America on March 4, 1861, ratifying the permanent C.S. Constitution on March 23. Not all Texans favored secession initially, although many of the same would later support the Southern cause. Texas's most notable Unionist was the state governor, Sam Houston . Not wanting to aggravate the situation, Houston refused two offers from President Lincoln for Union troops to keep him in office. After refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to

24453-562: The north or east during the colonial period, such as the Choctaw , Alabama-Coushatta, and Delaware . The region was primarily controlled by the Spanish until the Texas Revolution . They were most interested in relationships with the Caddo, who were—like the Spanish—a settled, agricultural people. Several Spanish missions were opened in Caddo territory, but a lack of interest in Christianity among

24624-462: The north, New Mexico to the west, and an international border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas to the south and southwest. Texas has a coastline on the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast. Covering 268,596 square miles (695,660 km ), and with over 30 million residents as of 2023, it is the second-largest state by both area and population . Texas

24795-517: The over politicization of Chicano issues. He identifies the argument that it creates a forum focused on "separatist politics" and neglects the furtherance of the institutionalization of the field of study. In other words, the ideology fails to fulfill the aim of integrating Chicano studies into the US educational system and, instead, places exclusive focus on the political issues surrounding ethnicity. However, Sarita E. Brown et al. argue that political mobilization

24966-399: The pedagogical needs of Mexican American students. Scholar Rodolfo Acuña noted that this was especially important because Mexican American student populations grew significantly in the 1960s. In addition, many young people and students were becoming very politically active and began to organize for political causes. A student organization that grew out of the civil rights movements of the '60s

25137-518: The plan emphasizes the need for education, and especially higher education to enact Chicano community empowerment. The Plan helped to "establish Chicana/o studies as an entity incorporated into the structures of academia." However, while the Plan articulated a need for education, it did not specify how to create a program of study. The Plan did, however, lead to the creation of the Chicano Studies Institute in 1969. Another important document in Chicano studies

25308-485: The port at Galveston as commerce expanded. The lumber industry quickly expanded and was Texas' largest industry prior to the 20th century. In 1900, Texas suffered the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history during the Galveston hurricane . On January 10, 1901, the first major oil well in Texas, Spindletop , was found south of Beaumont . Other fields were later discovered nearby in East Texas , West Texas , and under

25479-557: The program became the Department of African American Studies , offering degrees within the College of Arts and Sciences. Unlike the other stages, Black studies grew out of mass rebellions of black college students and faculty in search of a scholarship of change. The fourth stage, the new name "Africana studies" involved a theoretical elaboration of the discipline of Black studies according to African cultural reclamation and disparate tenets in

25650-429: The settlers. Prior treaties with the Spanish forbade either side from militarizing its native population in any potential conflict between the two nations. Several outbreaks of violence between Native Americans and Texans started to spread in the prelude to the Texas Revolution. Texans accused tribes of stealing livestock. While no proof was found, those in charge of Texas at the time attempted to publicly blame and punish

25821-568: The state, as well as most of the Southeastern and Midwestern United States. Historically high power usage across the state caused the state's power grid to become overworked and ERCOT (the main operator of the Texas Interconnection grid) declared an emergency and began to implement rolling blackouts across Texas, causing a power crisis . Over 3 million Texans were without power and over 4 million were under boil-water notices. Texas

25992-474: The studying of relevant Chicano issues will lead to the institutionalization of Chicano studies. Additionally, the creation of intellectual communities, research centers, and other forums for academe further validate the field of Chicano studies. This validation continues to help facilitate the institutionalization of the discipline. In addition, Michael Soldatenko, the former chair of the Department of Chicano Studies at California State University, Los Angeles, and

26163-545: The supporters) in the continued conversation surrounding Chicano studies. On May 11, 2010, the Governor of Arizona , Jan Brewer , signed House Bill 2281, or HB 2281. This bill prohibits course curricula within a school district or charter school from advocating ethnic solidarity or promoting insurgency, racism, or classism. Additionally, the course curriculum may not be designed exclusively for one ethnicity. However, Native American classes still comply with federal law. In addition,

26334-449: The theory of Afrocentricity increasingly relevant. The National Council for Black Studies has also recognized the problem of academics, who have been trained in fields such as education, economics, history, philosophy, political science, psychology, and sociology – fields outside of African American studies – and are committed to their disciplinary training, yet are not able to recognize the shortcomings of their training, as it relates to

26505-414: The traditional academic structures. Black studies departments, programs, and courses were also created in the United Kingdom , the Caribbean , Brazil , Canada , Colombia , Ecuador , and Venezuela . The academic discipline is known by various names. Mazama (2009) expounds: In the appendix to their recently published Handbook of Black Studies , Asante and Karenga note that "the naming of

26676-441: The university instituted its Educational Opportunity Program (EOP), facilitated the increased minority student enrollment, and offered financial aid to minority students with high potential. By 1970, there were 1,400 EOP students. As the minority student population increased, tension between activists clubs and minorities rose because minorities wanted the reigns of the movement that affected them directly. One student asserted that it

26847-534: Was "backward to educate white people about Black Power when many black people are still uneducated on the matter. "The members of the Afro-American Student Union (AASU) proposed an academic department called "Black Studies" in April 1968. "We demand a program of 'Black Studies', a program that will be of and for black people. We demand to be educated realistically and that no form of education which attempts to lie to us, or otherwise mis-educate us will be accepted." AASU members asserted: "The young people of America are

27018-400: Was a lack of Chicano faculty with only 1.2% of faculty at U.S. colleges and universities having any "Hispanic" ethnicity at all in 1985. Many of the faculty teaching Chicano studies didn't feel that their own programs were "qualitatively sound." In 2017, scholar S. M. Contreras noted a change in the language surrounding Chicano people, as they have begun to add an "X" or an "@" in place of

27189-429: Was a student, but he refused to do so and was, therefore, arrested. In support of Weinberg, 3,000 students surrounded the police vehicle, and even used the car as a podium, from where they spoke about their right to engage in political protest on campus. This impromptu demonstration was the first of many protests, culminating in the institutionalization of Black studies. Two months later, students at UC Berkeley organized

27360-422: Was also created near San Juan de Lurigancho , Lima , Peru . Additionally, there has been some scholarship in Afro-Peruvian studies developed in the United States and a panel on Afro-Peruvian studies at a conference hosted on December 11, 2019, by the Hutchins Center for African and African American Research in the United States. Since 1996, the amount of scholarship of Afro-Uruguayan studies has increased as

27531-459: Was also produced in 1969. In March 1969, the Chicano Youth Conference held in Denver produced a plan written by Chicano poet, Alurista . It was called El Plan Espiritual de Aztlán ( The Spiritual Plan of Aztlán ) and it contains a concept of "ethnic nationalism and self-determination ." The idea of the mythic homeland of the Aztec people, Aztlán , is one that unifies the United States and Mexico and correspondingly, united Mexican Americans with

27702-408: Was captured twice and Texans were defeated in battle in the Dawson massacre . Despite these successes, Mexico did not keep an occupying force in Texas, and the republic survived. The cotton price crash of the 1840s depressed the country's economy. Texas was finally annexed when the expansionist James K. Polk won the election of 1844 . On December 29, 1845, the U.S. Congress admitted Texas to

27873-471: Was considered a sort of colonialism and cultural assimilation. In addition, many Mexican American students were put at a disadvantage because speaking Spanish (even outside of class) was considered "degrading" or "un-American." Opportunities such as the Educational Opportunity Program (EOP) helped increase the number of minorities entering colleges and universities. Educators and students alike began to visualize "an academic program that could serve and transform

28044-411: Was created to ensure Chicano students have access to Chicano education that is taught by Chicanos. In addition to the exclusion of Mexican-American narratives in American education and the negative perceptions of Mexican Americans, professors and educators in higher education were rarely Chicano. Even at the nascency of Chicano studies, the first teachers of this material were the only Chicano professors at

28215-582: Was from Syracuse University , became the first African American to win the Heisman Trophy in college football, it renewed debates about race on college campuses in the country. Inspired by the Davis win, civil rights movement, and nationwide student activism, in 1969, black and white students, led by the Student African American Society (SAS), at Syracuse University , marched in front of the building at Newhouse and demanded for Black studies to be taught at Syracuse. It existed as an independent, underfunded non-degree offering program from 1971 until 1979. In 1979,

28386-409: Was given to Afro-Ecuadorian Etnoeducación. Juan Garcia, who was one of the founders of the Center of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies, is a leading scholar in Afro-Ecuadorian studies and has contributed considerably to the development of the programs in Chota Valley and Quito. In 1971, Carvalho Neto authored, Afro-Paraguayan studies . While the presence of Afro-Peruvian studies may not be strong in Peru,

28557-410: Was initially rebuffed. This status, and Mexican diplomacy in support of its claims to the territory, also complicated Texas's ability to form foreign alliances and trade relationships. The Comanche Indians furnished the main Native American opposition to the Texas Republic, manifested in multiple raids on settlements . Mexico launched two small expeditions into Texas in 1842. The town of San Antonio

28728-518: Was named after James Robinson Johnston , was created at Dalhousie University for the purpose of advancing the development and presence of Black studies in Canada . Aleksandr Sergeevich Pushkin was studied by the Black Canadian Studies chairman, John Barnstead. Through development of the publication, The black population in Mexico (1946), Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán made way for the development of Afro-Mexican studies. The development of Africana studies, as outlined by Robert Harris Jr., underscores

28899-415: Was put forth in El Grito by its editors was that Mexican Americans, in contrast to other ethnic groups, have kept their Mexican-American culture intact and have "refused to disappear into The Great American Melting Pot." The consequence of this, said the editors, was that Mexican Americans were kept in an economically and politically impoverished state. Also in 1967, political scientist Ralph Guzmán conducted

29070-418: Was recruited from graduate school at Northwestern on the heels of the student rebellions of 1969, first used the term to describe a global approach to Black studies and name the " Africana Studies and Research Center " at Cornell , where he acted as the founding director. Studia Africana , subtitled "An International Journal of Africana Studies", was published by the Department for African American Studies at

29241-443: Was the Mexican American Youth Organization (MAYO), which began to work towards educational reform. MAYO was very active in promoting student walkouts in Texas and California to highlight problems that Mexican American students faced. As students became more organized, they began to develop "experimental colleges" where informal classes on topics important to the Chicano movement were taught. In 1963, Manuel H. Guerra, professor at

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