Mercado de Sonora (Sonora Market) is a city-established traditional market , located just southeast of the historic center of Mexico City in the Colonia Merced Balbuena neighborhood. It was established in the 1950s with a number of other similar institutions in order to help regulate retail commerce in the city. This market has specialized in a variety of merchandise such as pottery, party items, and live animals — and the two which make it notable, herbal medicine and items related to magic and the occult .
187-510: Mercado de Sonora was one of a number of mercados públicos or public markets established by the city government on September 23rd 1957, along with others such as Mercado Jamaica and the La Merced market. It is part of a number of mercados públicos or public markets established by the government to better organize and regulate retail commerce. It is derived from the pre-Hispanic tianguis or street market tradition, which still continues. It
374-496: A pochteca was a professional merchant who travelled long distances to obtain rare goods or luxury items desired by the nobility. The system supported various levels of pochteca – from very high status through to minor traders who acted as a type of peddler to fill in gaps in the distribution system. Colonial sources also record Mayan market hubs at Acalan , Champotón , Chetumal , Bacalar , Cachi, Conil, Pole, Cozumel , Cochuah , Chauaca, Chichén Itzá , as well as markets marking
561-403: A rinconcito ("little corner"), a small area in which they collect together assorted objects, often those typically found in a household, as a material manifestation of the dead. Offerings to the dead may be placed here. Many practitioners will also enshrine their family ancestors under the bathroom sink. This location is chosen so that the ancestors can travel between the realms of the living and
748-407: A santera or santero has, the greater their aché . The "godchildren" are expected to contribute both their labor and finances to events held at the ilé and in return the santero / santera provides assistance for their needs. Within the religion, offending one's godparent is regarded as also offending the oricha that "rules the head". Practitioners express respect both to their godparent and
935-404: A santero or santera who has attracted a following. An apprentice is known as their ahijado (godson) or ahijada (goddaughter). They refer to their santero / santera as padrino (godfather) or madrina (godmother). The relationship between santeros / santeras and their "godchildren" is central to the religion's social organization, and practitioners believe that the more "godchildren"
1122-457: A secret society . For ritual purposes, the Lucumí language is often used. Sometimes referred to as la lengua de los orichas ("the language of the oricha "), it is regarded as a divine language through which practitioners can contact the deities. Although some practitioners are uncomfortable using it, most initiates know tens or hundreds of Lucumí words and phrases. Most Cubans do not understand
1309-501: A charter to local Lords to create markets and fairs for a town or village. A charter protected the town's trading privileges in return for an annual fee. Once a chartered market was granted for specific market days, a nearby rival market could not open on the same days. Fairs, which were usually held annually, and almost always associated with a religious festival, traded in high value goods, while regular weekly or bi-weekly markets primarily traded in fresh produce and necessities. Although
1496-403: A child and who is perceived as the "guardian" of the crossroads. At that point the practitioner may turn to divination to determine the precise meaning of the encounter. The information obtained from these messages may then help practitioners make decisions about their life. Santería teaches that the human head contains a person's essence, their eledá or orí . It maintains that before birth,
1683-408: A fair's primary purpose was trade, it typically included some elements of entertainment, such as dance, music, or tournaments. As the number of markets increased, market towns situated themselves sufficiently far apart so as to avoid competition, but close enough to permit local producers a round trip within one day (about 10 km). Some British open-air markets have been operating continuously since
1870-623: A few days and the quantity supplied is relatively inelastic. The second group is the short period market where the time in which the quantity supplied can be increased by improving the scale of production (adding labor and other inputs but not by adding capital). Many non-perishable goods fall into this category. The third category is the long-period market where the length of time can be improved by capital investment. Other ways to classify markets include its trading area (local, national or international); its physical format or its produce. Major physical formats of markets are: Markets may feature
2057-434: A lengthy description which paints a picture of a highly organised, vibrant operation which attracted large number of visitors from some distance away. "As for the people in the fair, they all universally eat, drink and sleep in their booths, and tents; and the said booths are so intermingled with taverns, coffee-houses, drinking-houses, eating-houses, cookshops &c, and all tents too, and so many butchers and higglers from all
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#17330854822722244-405: A market tax for the right to trade on market days. Some archaeological evidence suggests that markets and street vendors were controlled by local government. A graffito on the outside of a large shop documents a seven-day cycle of markets: "Saturn's day at Pompeii and Nuceria, Sun's day at Atella and Nola, Moon's day at Cumae", etc. The presence of an official commercial calendar suggests something of
2431-471: A means of concealing their continued worship of the former from the Spanish authorities, or as a means of facilitating social mobility by assimilating into Roman Catholic social norms. Santería's focus is on cultivating a reciprocal relationship with the oricha , with adherents believing that these deities can intercede in human affairs and help people if they are appeased. Practitioners argue that each person
2618-460: A mi (come to me), miel de amor (honey of love) and Amansa guapos (tame handsome men). Most are related to ritual use of some kind, even as simple as burning a candle. Others are more complex with a mix of occult and standard religious practice. As late as the 1990s, before medical abortion was legalized in Mexico City , one herbal remedy sought in the market was one to promote the termination of
2805-458: A mix of both. Practitioners also believe that the number and identities of these spirits can be determined through divination. It draws a distinction between evolved spirits, who can help those they are attached to, and unevolved spirits, who lack the wisdom and skill to be useful and instead cause havoc. Santería teaches that through offerings and prayers, individuals can help some of their unevolved spirits to become evolved. Santería also divides
2992-409: A more masculinist orientation, such as Palo, have often denigrated it for being dominated by women and men they consider to be "womanly". Santería is a practice-oriented religion; ritual correctness is considered more important than belief . It has an elaborate system of ritual, with its rites termed ceremonias (ceremonies). Most of its activities revolve around the oricha , focusing on solving
3179-413: A particular dance style. The dances at the toque de santo are believed to generate aché , strengthening the link between the realms of the oricha and humanity. Dancing either alone or first in front of the drums at the toque de santo is considered a privilege and is usually reserved for the most experienced initiate present. There are specific rules of engagement that are laid out for taking part in
3366-750: A particular type of produce – such as the silversmith's street or the textile district. In Tangiers , a sprawling market fills the many streets of the medina and this area is divided into two sections, known as the Grand Socco and the Petit Socco . The term ' socco ' is a Spanish corruption of the Arabic word for souk , meaning marketplace. These markets sell a large variety of goods: fresh produce, cooking equipment, pottery, silverware, rugs and carpets, leather goods, clothing, accessories, electronics, alongside cafes, restaurants and take-away food stalls. The medina at Fez
3553-418: A place to store ritual paraphernalia, kitchen facilities, and space for visitors to sleep. The ilé refers not only to the building where ceremonies take place, but also the community of practitioners who meet there. In this sense, many ilés trace a lineage back to the 19th century, with some santeros and santeras capable of listing the practitioners who have been initiated into it. In some ceremonies,
3740-468: A pregnancy. Those who sold it did not give the treatment, rather they instructed the client what to use and how. The client was responsible for preparing the mixtures and taking them in order to take on the medical and legal risks onto themselves. Medical risks were serious as the treatment always led to excessive hemorrhaging which would require medical attention. During the H1N1 flu scare in 2009 , business fell at
3927-512: A prominent role. Santería developed among Afro-Cuban communities following the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries. It formed through the blending of the traditional religions brought to Cuba by enslaved West Africans, the majority of them Yoruba , and Roman Catholicism, the only religion legally permitted on the island by the Spanish colonial government. In urban areas of West Cuba, these traditions merged with Spiritist ideas to form
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#17330854822724114-516: A range of merchandise for sale, or they may be one of many specialist markets, such as: Markets generally have featured prominently in artworks, especially amongst the Dutch painters of Antwerp from the middle of the 16th century. Pieter Aertsen was known as the "great painter of the market". Both he and his nephew, Joachim Beuckelaer , painted market scenes, street vendors and merchants extensively. Elizabeth Honig argues that painters' interest in markets
4301-403: A regular basis, and at least once a year. Given to strengthen the supernatural forces, to thank them, or as a supplication, they help form a reciprocal relationship with these entities in the hope of receiving something in return. If this fails to materialise, practitioners may resort to several explanations: that the details of the ritual were incorrect, that the priest or priestess carrying out
4488-400: A reputation for quality produce, efficient market regulation and good amenities for visitors such as covered accommodation. By the thirteenth century, counties with important textile industries were investing in purpose built halls for the sale of cloth. London's Blackwell Hall became a centre for cloth, Bristol became associated with a particular type of cloth known as Bristol red , Stroud
4675-580: A seasonal occupation, but in the first half of the 20th century, Pedro Linares conceived of making fantastic monsters of cartonería which he called alebrijes . Over time, these creations became famous, culminating in international acclaim by the 1970s, and are in demand by collectors, galleries and museums. The craft inspired a similar one in Oaxaca, Linares’ home state, made with local wood and generally much smaller, but still fantastic creatures painted in bright patterns and bold designs. In 1990, Linares received
4862-410: A seed called "deer's eye" to protect against the “ evil eye .” The market sells occult items related to magic (white and black), pre-Hispanic religious and magical traditions, Santería , the cult of Santa Muerte , shamanism , and various others which demonstrate the syncretism of beliefs and practices that exist in the city. The market is one of the city's centers for practices related to Santería and
5049-644: A sort of pleasant and wholesome, and very refreshing beer. Palm wine, acqua vita and spirits which they get from the Europeans, are kept in other shops, with restrictions on sale to prevent drunkenness and riots. Here slaves of both sexes are bought and sold, also oxen, sheep, dogs, hogs, shish and birds of all kind. Woollen cloths, linen, silks and calicoes of European and Indian manufacture, they have it in great abundance, likewise hard-ware, china and glass of all sorts; gold in dust and ingots, iron in bars, lead in sheets and everything of European, Asiatic or African production
5236-402: A specific oricha , a group of oricha , or all of the oricha . Those playing the batá are called batáleros , and have their own hierarchy separate from that of the priesthood. Santería drumming is male dominated; women are discouraged or banned from playing the batá during ceremonies, although by the 1990s some women practitioners in the U.S. had taken on the role. Practitioners explain
5423-618: A system of fresh produce hubs to serve as a platform for producers to market and distribute their produce. It is anticipated that these hubs will assist in curbing the number of sellers who take their produce to South Africa where it is placed on cold storage, only to be imported back into the country at a later date. Fresh produce markets have traditionally dominated the South African food chain, handling more than half of all fresh produce. Although large, vertically integrated food retailers, such as supermarkets, are beginning to make inroads into
5610-583: A system of markets. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that markets did not evolve in ancient Persia. Across the Mediterranean and Aegean, a network of markets emerged from the early Bronze Age. A vast array of goods were traded, including salt, lapis lazuli , dyes, cloth, metals, pots, ceramics, statues, spears, and other implements. Archaeological evidence suggests that Bronze Age traders segmented trade routes according to geographical circuits. Both produce and ideas travelled along these trade routes. In
5797-417: A systematic study of European market towns between the thirteenth and fifteenth century. Their investigation shows that in regional districts markets were held once or twice a week while daily markets were common in larger cities. Over time, permanent shops began opening daily and gradually supplanted the periodic markets, while peddlers or itinerant sellers continued to fill in any gaps in distribution. During
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5984-650: A town's or nation's cultural assets. For these reasons, they are often popular tourist destinations. The term market comes from the Latin mercatus ("market place"). The earliest recorded use of the term market in English is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 963, a work that was created during the reign of Alfred the Great (r. 871–899) and subsequently distributed, copied throughout English monasteries . The exact phrase
6171-409: A week or on less frequent specified days such as festival days and are said to be periodic markets. The form that a market adopts depends on its locality's population, culture, ambient, and geographic conditions. The term market covers many types of trading, such as market squares , market halls , food halls , and their different varieties. Thus marketplaces can be both outdoors and indoors, and in
6358-443: A year-long period, the iyaworaje ("journey of the iyawo "), during which they must observe certain restrictions, the nature of which depends on their tutelary oricha . This may for instance include abstaining from sexual intercourse, wearing only white, or not cutting their hair. The iyaworaje ends with the ebó del año ceremony. Once this is done, they may lead rituals and help initiate others. Thenceforth, they will celebrate
6545-424: Is el Día del Medio ("the middle day"), when guests—including the initiate's family and friends—pay homage to them. It includes drumming and a feast. On the seventh day of the initiation, the new initiate leaves the ilé and visits the marketplace, where they make offerings to Eleguá and steal something small, also as an offering to Eleguá. The initiate can finally take their otanes home. They may then undergo
6732-478: Is non-dualistic and does not view the universe as being divided between good and evil; rather, all things are perceived as being complementary and relative. Several academics have described Santería as having a "here-and-now" ethos distinct from that of Christianity, and the social scientist Mercedes C. Sandoval suggested that many Cubans chose Santería over Roman Catholicism or Spiritism because it emphasizes techniques for dealing with pragmatic problems in life. In
6919-431: Is "born to" a particular oricha , whether or not they devote themselves to that deity. This is a connection that, adherents believe, has been set before birth. Practitioners refer to this oricha as one that "rules the head" of an individual; it is their "owner of the head". If the oricha is male then it is described as the individual's "father"; if the oricha is female then it is the person's "mother". This oricha
7106-536: Is a location where people regularly gather for the purchase and sale of provisions, livestock, and other goods. In different parts of the world, a marketplace may be described as a souk (from the Arabic ), bazaar (from the Persian ), a fixed mercado ( Spanish ), itinerant tianguis ( Mexico ), or palengke ( Philippines ). Some markets operate daily and are said to be permanent markets while others are held once
7293-573: Is a major cosmological concept in Yoruba traditional religion and has been transferred to Santería. Aché is regarded as the organizing power of the cosmos; the Hispanic studies scholars Margarite Fernández Olmos and Lizabeth Paravisini-Gebert referred to it as "a spiritual-mystical energy or power found in varying degrees and in many forms throughout the universe". The medical anthropologist Johan Wedel described it as "life force" or "divine force", while
7480-607: Is also a section that sells live animals, from baby chicks, puppies, kittens, toucans , parrots, hamsters , full grown roosters and hens, ducks, rabbits and various species of snakes. Animals also include exotic species, including some in danger of extinction, which has cause the police to raid the market. Eggs which can be hatched are also for sale for a number of species, including peacock . 19°25′19.95″N 99°7′28.86″W / 19.4222083°N 99.1246833°W / 19.4222083; -99.1246833 Public markets A marketplace , market place , or just market ,
7667-548: Is also a very large market with over 1500 stalls and covering 4.5 ha. In Morocco , markets are known as souks , and are normally found in a city's Medina (old city or old quarter). Shopping at a produce market is a standard feature of daily life in Morocco. In the larger cities, Medinas are typically made up of a collection of souks built amid a maze of narrow streets and laneways where independent vendors and artisans tend to cluster in sections which subsequently become known for
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7854-445: Is also associated with specific songs, rhythms, colors, numbers, animals, and foodstuffs. Among the oricha are the four "warrior deities", or guerrors : Eleguá , Ogun , Ochosi , and Osun . Eleguá is viewed as the guardian of the crossroads and thresholds; he is the messenger between humanity and the oricha , and most ceremonies start by requesting his permission to continue. He is depicted as being black on one side and red on
8041-655: Is also held daily in the Jemaa el-Fnaa (main square) where roaming performers and musicians entertain the large crowds that gather there. Marrakesh has the largest traditional Berber market in Morocco. Namibia has been almost entirely dependent on South Africa for its fresh produce. Dominated by rolling plains and long sand dunes and an unpredictable rainfall, many parts of Namibia are unsuited to growing fruit and vegetables. Government sponsored initiatives have encouraged producers to grow fresh fruit, vegetables, legumes and grains The Namibian Ministry of Agriculture has recently launched
8228-648: Is also interspersed with cheaper glass items as well. Another traditional area sells toys and party favors. Traditional wooden, cloth and clay toys can still be found, although they are slowly being replaced with cheaper plastic ones. These include dolls, tops, yo yos , cup-and-ball and many more. This area also carries party supplies such as hats, decorations and piñatas , mostly for children's events. The area also contains costumes for children, such as animals like rabbits and bears as well as princesses and ballerinas . There are also traditional “indito” (little Indian) outfits mostly used in schools on Corpus Christi . There
8415-643: Is an Afro-Caribbean religion, and more specifically an Afro-Cuban religion. In Cuba it is sometimes described as "the national religion", although it has also spread abroad. Santería's roots are in the traditional religions brought to Cuba by enslaved West Africans, the majority of them Yoruba, between the 16th and 19th centuries. In Cuba, these religions mixed with the Roman Catholicism introduced by Spanish colonialists . Roman Catholic saints were conflated with West African deities, while enslaved Africans adopted Roman Catholic rituals and sacramentals . In
8602-511: Is an Afro-Caribbean religion that developed in Cuba during the late 19th century. It arose amid a process of syncretism between the traditional Yoruba religion of West Africa, the Roman Catholic form of Christianity , and Spiritism . There is no central authority in control of Santería and much diversity exists among practitioners, who are known as creyentes ("believers"). Santería teaches
8789-476: Is appointed by the King for the inspection of goods, to hear and determine all grievances, complaints and disputes ... The market place is surrounded by butlers and booths, and places of refreshment for the conveniency of the people. They are only permitted to sell certain sorts of meats, pork, goats, beef and dog flesh. Other booths are kept by women who sell maize, millet, rice and corn bread. Other shops sell Pito ,
8976-473: Is associated with lagoons. Agagyú is the oricha of volcanoes and the wasteland. Some oricha are deemed antagonistic to others; Changó and Ogun are for instance enemies. Although in Santería the term santo is regarded as a synonym of oricha and is not a literal reference to Christian saints, the oricha are often conflated with one or more Roman Catholic saints based on similar attributes. For instance,
9163-497: Is busiest, these vendors overflow from the parking lot onto the surrounding narrow streets. These and various trucks and other vehicles block traffic, effectively closing the streets. The scene is noisy, filled with shouts of vendors and music blaring from stands selling CDs. However, this is also the time to find the widest variety of merchandise, such as nopal cactus and fresh corn from Milpa Alta , flower pots and soil from Xochimilco , and medicinal herbs from Puebla , Morelos and
9350-466: Is common. Today, markets can also be accessed electronically or on the internet through e-commerce or matching platforms. In many countries, shopping at a local market is a standard feature of daily life. Given the market's role in ensuring food supply for a population, markets are often highly regulated by a central authority. In many places, designated marketplaces have become listed sites of historic and architectural significance and represent part of
9537-439: Is deemed responsible for helping to mould humanity. Babalú Ayé is the oricha associated with disease and its curing, while Osain is linked to herbs and healing. Orula is the oricha of divination, who in Santería's mythology was present at the creation of humanity and thus is aware of everyone's destiny. Ibeyi takes the form of twins who protect children. Olokún is the patron oricha of markets, while his wife Olosá
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#17330854822729724-400: Is deemed to influence the individual's personality, and can be recognised through examining the person's personality traits, or through divination. To gain the protection of a particular oricha , practitioners are encouraged to make offerings to them, sponsor ceremonies in their honor, and live in accordance with their wishes, as determined through divination. Practitioners are concerned at
9911-495: Is deemed to prefer a particular color and number of otanes in sopera devoted to them; Changó has six or ten black stones, Obatala has eight white stones, while Ochún favors five yellow stones. New otanes undergo a bautismo ("baptism") rite, entailing them being washed in osain , a mixture of herbs and water, and then "fed" with animal blood. When an initiate receives their stones, they take an oath to protect them and feed them at least annually. Other material placed inside
10098-564: Is here found at reasonable prices. In the Kingdom of Benin (modern Benin City ), he commented on the exotic foods available for sale at a market there: Besides the dry merchandise of which the markets of Benin abound, they are also well stocked with eatables, a little particular in kind. Here they expose dogs to sale for eating, of which the negroes are very fond. Roasted monkeys, apes and baboons are every where to be seen. Bats, rats and lizards dried in
10285-401: Is known as kariocha , "making ocha ", or "making santo ". A charge is levied for initiation; this varies depending on the client, but is often equivalent to a year's wage. Each initiation varies in its details, which are often concealed from non-initiates. The initiate is known as an iyabó or iyawó , a term meaning both "slave of the oricha " and "bride of the oricha ". As well as
10472-543: Is located in the Colonia Merced Balbuena neighborhood of the Venustiano Carranza borough . This site is traditionally commercial, located near an old fire station. The area used to contain exclusively narrow, haphazard streets, but around the same time as the market, a number of main thoroughfares (called ejes ) were built and now surround most of the complex. However, the areas behind the market still contain
10659-424: Is no strict orthodoxy on this issue and thus interpretations differ. Practitioners often believe that everyone has a specific destiny , their destino (destiny) or camino (road), although their fate is not completely predetermined. Ancestor veneration is important in Santería. The religion entails propitiating the spirits of the dead, known as egun , espíritus , or muertos . Practitioners believe that
10846-407: Is not a baptised Roman Catholic —and others consider themselves to be Spiritists, Hindus , Vodouists, or Jews . Different vocabulary indicates the level of a practitioner's involvement, with the various terms sometimes reflecting different political and social agendas. Practitioners of both Santería and other Afro-Cuban religions are called creyentes ("believers"). Some people external to
11033-452: Is often cited as the world's oldest continuously operating, purpose-built market; its construction began in 1455. Dating the emergence of marketplaces in China is difficult. According to tradition, the first market was established by the legendary Shennong or the "Divine Farmer" who arranged for markets to be held at midday. In other ancient sayings, markets originally developed around wells in
11220-399: Is permitted entry. The initiate is given their own otanes , as well as objects representing the warrior oricha . They are also given beaded necklaces, known as collares or elekes ( ilekes ). Each necklace is a different color associated with a specific deity. During the prendición ("pinning") ritual, a heavy necklace known as the collar de mazo is placed on the initiate. During
11407-440: Is present in both the visible and invisible world. It is nevertheless deemed to sometimes congregate more densely, for instance in the forces of nature, specific locales, and in certain human individuals; initiates are believed to attract more of it than other humans. Santería holds that aché can emanate from the human body via speech, song, dance, and drumming, and can be transmitted through such acts as singing praise songs for
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#173308548227211594-663: Is regarded as the creator of all beings, while Olofi dwells in all creation. In taking a triplicate form, this deity displays similarities with the Christian Trinity . Santeria is polytheistic , revolving around deities called oricha , ocha , or santos ("saints"). The term oricha can be both singular and plural, because Lucumí, the ritual language of Santería, lacks plural markers for nouns. Practitioners believe that some oricha were created before humanity, while others were originally humans who became oricha through some remarkable quality. Some practitioners perceive
11781-446: Is the toque de santo , in which practitioners drum, sing, and dance to encourage an oricha to possess one of their members and thus communicate with them. Several forms of divination are used, including Ifá , to decipher messages from the oricha . Offerings are also given to the spirits of the dead, with some practitioners identifying as spirit mediums . Healing rituals and the preparation of herbal remedies and talismans also play
11968-415: Is the oldest, having been founded in the 9th century. The medina at Fez has been named a UNESCO World Heritage site. Today it is the main fresh produce market and is noted for its narrow laneways and for a total ban on motorized traffic. All produce is brought in and out of the marketplace by donkey or hand-cart. In Marrakesh , the main produce markets are also to be found in the medina and a colourful market
12155-657: Is understood to "rule over" a particular aspect of the universe, and they have been described as personifications of different facets of the natural world. They live in a realm called orún , which is contrasted with ayé , the realm of humanity. Oricha each have their own caminos ("roads"), or manifestations, a concept akin to the Hindu concept of avatars . The number of caminos an oricha has varies, with some having several hundred. Practitioners believe that oricha can physically inhabit certain objects, among them stones and cowrie shells, which are deemed sacred. Each oricha
12342-520: Is used for removing malevolent influences and in ceremonies for baptising ritual tools. Santería's animal sacrifice has been a cause of concern for many non-practitioners. It has sometimes brought adherents into confrontation with the law, as with the 1993 case of Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah , in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that animal cruelty laws targeted specifically at Santería were unconstitutional. Initiation
12529-421: Is vast and include avocado leaves for inflammations, chiranthodendron for the heart, jacaranda flowers for the stomach and more. There is also dried rattlesnake , which is considered a medicine against cancer, dried skunk to “strengthen the blood,” and starfish . Plant items more strongly associated with magic and religion include crosses of ocote wood for good luck, chains of garlic to ward off evil and
12716-869: The Arsi zone , Bahir Dar and Bure in the Gojjam zone, Dessie and Kombolcha in the Wollo zone, Mekele in the Tigray region , Dire Dawa and Harar in the Oromia region , and Addis Ababa. Some of the major retail markets in Ethiopia include: Addis Mercato in Addis Ababa, the largest open air market in the country; Gulalle and Galan, both in Addis Ababa; Awasa Lake Fish Market in Awasa, the Saturday market Harar , and
12903-557: The European West and the East or Orient ; us and the other . Europeans often saw Orientals as the photographic negative of Western civilisation; the peoples could be threatening – they were "despotic, static and irrational whereas Europe was viewed as democratic, dynamic and rational". At the same time, the Orient was seen as exotic, mysterious, a place of fables and beauty. This fascination with
13090-626: The Holy Infant of Atocha , a depiction of Christ as a child, is conflated with Eleguá, who is seen as having a childlike nature. Babalú Ayé, who is associated with disease, is often identified with the Catholic Saint Lazarus , who rose from the dead, while Changó is conflated with Santa Barbara because they both wear red. Cuba's patron saint , Our Lady of Charity , is equated with Ochún. It has been argued that Yoruba slaves initially linked their traditional deities with Christian saints as
13277-640: The Middle East - respectively extending to Northern Africa - as regards to numerous areas from retail towards resources, with trade amongst merchants commonplace, likewise with bartering amongst participants. They are often described as economic and cultural hubs within cities across the Islamic world , and are generally the most bustling areas within urban localities. Given such dense activity, bazaars became an attraction for foreigners in exchanging resources, such as spices , textiles , labour , et cetera, drawing
13464-689: The State of Mexico . However, the mass of street peddlers outside and the lack of maintenance of the building proper has deteriorated the condition of the market greatly. The peddlers nearly hide the market proper and promote a lack of security and cleanliness. The building also has not been well maintained since it was built. The lack of maintenance has led to leaky roofs, ramps and floors in very poor condition and problems with hygiene. Market representatives state that these problem are mostly due to corruption of borough authorities, who are also known to extort money from market merchants. There have been attempts to clear
13651-533: The caravanserai typically situated just outside the city walls. However, when the marketplace began to become integrated into city structures, it was transformed into a covered area where traders could buy and sell with some protection from the elements. Markets at Mecca and Medina were known to be significant trade centres in the 3rd century (CE) and the nomadic communities were highly dependent on them for both trade and social interactions. The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul
13838-630: The egun to placate and please them. Especially propitiated are those egun regarded as ancestors; these ancestors can include both hereditary forebears or past members of one's congregation, with practitioners believing that a creyente becomes an ancestor when they die. Adherents believe that everyone has a cuadro espiritual ("spiritual portrait" or "spiritual picture") of egun who protect them. Individuals can have as many as 25 protectores , or protective spirits. The religion maintains that all people have multiple egun accompanying them at all times, and that these can be benevolent, malevolent, or
14025-442: The eledá goes before Olodumare, where it is given its essential character, and forms a link with the oricha who becomes "the owner of the head". The concept of the eledá derives from Yoruba traditional religion, where it is seen as a person's "spiritual double". In Santería, this concept idea has syncretised with Roman Catholic beliefs about guardian angels and Spiritist notions of the protecciones or protector spirits. There
14212-633: The fundamentos are stones termed otanes (sing. otán ), which are regarded as the literal and symbolic representation of the oricha , and thus living entities. They are deemed to be sources of aché , with older otanes having more aché than younger ones. Practitioners will collect stones from the landscape and then use divination to determine which ones contain an oricha and, if so, which oricha it is. Specific otanes sometimes display traits linking them to particular oricha ; for example ocean stones are linked with Yemaya, river pebbles with Ochún, and meteorite fragments with Changó. Each oricha
14399-406: The igbodu ("sacred grove of the festival"), where the most important rituals take place. There will also be an eyá aránla or sala , often a living room, where semi-private rites can be conducted. Another space, the iban balo , or patio , will be used for public occasions, as well as for the cultivation of plants and the housing of animals due to be sacrificed. The ilé will typically include
14586-435: The iyá is the largest, the itótele is smaller, and the okónkolo is the smallest. For ceremonial purposes, these drums must be wooden; adding metal elements could offend Changó, who is associated with wooden artefacts, because of their links with his enemy, Ogun. They may however have brass bells associated with Ochún, known as chaworo , affixed to their rim. Each ceremonial drum has to be "born" from an existing example,
14773-472: The lavatorio ("washing"), the initiate's head is bathed in omiero , designed to rid them of any malevolent spirits attached to them. Often, their hair will be shaved off. On the día del itá ("day of history"), usually the third day, the initiate will undergo the itá , a session with a diviner. The diviner will reveal the initiate's Lucumí ritual name, a praise name of the oricha that rules their head. This name often incorporates elements indicating
14960-408: The oricha as facets of Olodumare, and thus think that by venerating them they are ultimately worshipping the creator god. Certain oricha are female, others male. They are not regarded as wholly benevolent, being capable of both harming and helping humans, and displaying a mix of emotions, virtues, and vices. Origin myths and other stories about the oricha are called patakíes . Each oricha
15147-430: The oricha or sacrificing an animal. Among practitioners, aché is sometimes described as conveying notions of luck, health, and prosperity, and has the power to fortify a person's health. Santería has standards for behavior expected of practitioners, encouraging behaviors influenced by the mythological stories about the oricha . The religion presents strict rules regarding how to interact with other people and with
15334-409: The oricha or the egun . Next comes the ceremonia del río ("ceremony of the initiate"), in which offerings are given to Ochún, and the rompimiento ("breaking"), in which the oyubona takes the initiate to purify themselves in a river. The rest of the initiation takes place in the igbodu , where the initiate sleeps upon a mat on the floor for the seven days. No one uninvolved in the initiation
15521-520: The oricha via a ritual prostration, the moforibale , in which they bow their head to the floor. The precise form of the moforibale differs depending on whether the individual's personal oricha is male or female. Altars or shrines to the oricha are typically found both within the igbodu and in practitioners' homes. Central to these altars are sacred objects, termed fundamentos ("fundamentals"), which are contained within porcelain vessels, often tureens , called sopera . The most important of
15708-466: The oricha . Once killed, the animals' severed heads may be placed on top of the sopera belonging to the oricha to which the sacrifice has been directed. After the carcass has been butchered, some of the organs—known as acheses —may be cooked and offered to the oricha ; other parts will be eaten by practitioners. Some of the blood may be collected and added to omiero , an infusion of herbs and water. Believed to contain much aché , this liquid
15895-479: The santero or santera overseeing the initiation ceremony, the event may be attended by an oyubona or oyugbona ("one who witnesses"), who acts as a secondary godparent to the new initiate. The initiation process takes seven days, plus two days of preparatory rituals. During this preparation, a misa espiritual ("spiritual mass") will typically take place to gain the blessings of the ancestral egun , and an ebó de entrada ("opening sacrifice") will be made to
16082-400: The sopera includes cowrie shells; usually 18 are added although the precise number differs depending on which oricha the sopera is devoted to. The sopera will often be covered by a cloth known as a pañuelo that is colored in accordance with the oricha in question. Often laid over the sopera are necklaces known as collares , again representing a particular oricha . On the altar,
16269-431: The sopera will be arranged in a descending hierarchy depending on which oricha each is dedicated to, with that of Obatala at the top. Many altars contain few or no anthropomorphic depictions of the oricha , although will often include objects associated with them; a wooden axe for Changó or a fan for Ochún, for instance. Creating these altars is deemed expensive and time-consuming. Material may be selected based on
16456-454: The toque de santo ; dancing poorly at the ritual is considered an insult to the oricha . Possession is important in Santería, and the purpose of the toque de santo is to call down an oricha to possess one of the participants. The possessed individual is referred to as the "horse", with the oricha having "mounted" them. According to practitioners, becoming possessed by an oricha requires an individual giving up their consciousness to
16643-582: The "Belly of Paris", and was so named by author, Émile Zola in his novel Le Ventre de Paris , which is set in the busy 19th century marketplace of central Paris. Les Halles, a complex of market pavilions in Paris, features extensively in both literature and painting. Giuseppe Canella (1788 - 1847) painted Les Halles et la rue de la Tonnellerie. Photographer, Henri Lemoine (1848–1924), also photographed Les Halles de Paris. Markets have been known in parts of Africa for centuries. An 18th century commentator noted
16830-516: The 12th century. A pattern of market trading using mobile stalls under covered arcades was probably established in Italy with the open loggias of Mercato Nuovo (1547) designed and constructed by Giovanni Battista del Tasso (and funded by the Medici family ); Mercato Vecchio , Florence, designed by Giorgio Vasari (1567); and Loggia del Grano (1619) by Giulio Parigi . Braudel and Reynold have made
17017-547: The 19th century, elements from Spiritism —a French variant of Spiritualism —were drawn into the mix, with Santería emerging as a distinct religion in western Cuba during the late 19th century. Although Santería is the best known of the Afro-Cuban religions, and the most popular, it is not the only one. Others include Palo , which derives from practices originating in the Congo Basin , and Abakuá , which has its origins among
17204-499: The Americas which collectively form the "Orisha religion", "Orisha Tradition", or "Orisha worship." These include Haitian Vodou and Brazilian Candomblé , sometimes characterized as "sister religions" of Santería due to their shared origins in Yoruba traditional religion. [Santería] in Cuba was not just a continuation of Yoruba religious and cultural practices but something new, born from
17391-428: The Americas, such as Haitian Vodou and Brazilian Candomblé . Since the late 20th century, some practitioners have emphasized a "Yorubization" process to remove Roman Catholic influences and created forms of Santería closer to traditional Yoruba religion. Practitioners of Santería are primarily found in Cuba's La Habana and Matanzas provinces, although communities exist across the island and abroad, especially among
17578-512: The Cuban diasporas of Mexico and the United States. The religion remains most common among working-class Afro-Cuban communities although is also practiced by individuals of other class and ethnic backgrounds. The number of initiates is estimated to be in the high hundreds of thousands. These initiates serve as diviners and healers for a much larger range of adherents of varying levels of fidelity, making
17765-525: The European age of discovery, goods were imported from afar – calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South-East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from the New World. Across the boroughs of England, a network of chartered markets sprang up between the 12th and 16th centuries, giving consumers reasonable choice in the markets they preferred to patronise. A study on
17952-460: The Lucumí language, barring a few words that have filtered into Cuban Spanish . Lucumí derives from the Yoruba language, although it has become "increasingly fragmented and unintelligible" since the 19th century. As Yoruba transitioned into Lucumí, the Yoruba pronunciations of many words were forgotten, and in the early 21st century some practitioners have studied the Yoruba language to better understand
18139-519: The Middle Ages, the physical market was characterised by transactional exchange. Shops had higher overhead costs, but were able to offer regular trading hours and a relationship with customers and may have offered added value services, such as credit terms to reliable customers. The economy was primarily characterised by local trading in which goods were traded across relatively short distances. Beach markets, which were known in north-western Europe, during
18326-468: The Middle East, documentary sources suggest that a form of bazaar first developed around 3000 BCE. Early bazaars occupied a series of alleys along the length of the city, typically stretching from one city gate to a different gate on the other side of the city. The bazaar at Tabriz, for example, stretches along kilometers of street and is the longest vaulted bazaar in the world. Moosavi argues that
18513-740: The Middle Eastern bazaar evolved in a linear pattern, whereas the market places of the West were more centralised. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that in Egypt, roles were reversed compared with other cultures, and Egyptian women frequented the market and carried on trade, while the men remained at home weaving cloth. He also described the Babylonian marriage market, an account that inspired an 1875 painting by Edwin Long . In antiquity, markets were typically situated in
18700-518: The Roman world, the central market primarily served the local peasantry. Market stall holders were primarily local primary producers who sold small surpluses from their individual farming activities and also artisans who sold leather goods, metalware and pottery. Consumers were made up of several different groups; farmers who purchased minor farm equipment and a few luxuries for their homes and urban dwellers who purchased basic necessities. Major producers such as
18887-555: The Saturday market in Axum . Ghanaian markets have survived in spite of sometimes brutal measures to eradicate them. In the late 1970s, the Ghanaian government used market traders as a scapegoat for its own policy failures which involved food shortages and high inflation. The government blamed traders for failing to observe pricing guidelines and vilified "women merchants". In 1979, the Makola market
19074-531: The Tang Dynasty, a metal market was known. Outside the city walls were sheep and horse markets. Marco Polo 's account of 13th century markets specifically mentions a silk market. He was also impressed by the size of markets. According to his account, the ten markets of Hangzhou , primarily a fish market, attracted 40,000 to 50,000 patrons on each of its three trading days each week. In China, negative attitudes towards mercantile activity developed; merchants were
19261-526: The U.S., some African American adherents have contrasted what they regard as the African-derived ethos of Santería with the non-African origins of Christianity, thus adopting it as a religion readily combined with black nationalism . The scholar of religion Mary Ann Clark labelled Santería a "female oriented and female normative" religion, arguing that all of its practitioners are expected to take on "female gender roles" during its rituals. Women can hold
19448-583: The Viking period, were primarily associated with the sale of fish. From around the 11th century, the number and variety of imported goods sold at beach markets began to increase. giving consumers access to a broader range of exotic and luxury goods. Throughout the Medieval period, markets became more international. The historian, Braudel, reports that in 1600, grain moved just 5–10 miles; cattle 40–70 miles; wool and wollen cloth 20–40 miles. However, following
19635-594: The agora. At the agora in Athens, officials were employed by the government to oversee weights, measures, and coinage to ensure that the people were not cheated in market place transactions. The rocky and mountainous terrain in Greece made it difficult for producers to transport goods or surpluses to local markets, giving rise to the kapēlos , a specialised type of retailer who operated as an intermediary purchasing produce from farmers and transporting it over short distances to
19822-441: The annual anniversary of their initiation, their cumpleaños de santo ("birthday in the saint"). Although a largely orally-transmitted tradition, santeros and santeras often emphasise teaching in a non-verbal manner, encouraging their initiates to learn through taking part in the ritual activities. Since at least the 20th century, some initiates have kept libretas , notebooks in which they have written down material relevant to
20009-447: The area around it are also known for the making of large and small paper sculptures called cartonería . This is a tradition that goes back hundreds of years, creating figures and other decoration for use in community festivals. The busiest times for cartonería artists is Day of the Dead, when the demand for decorations, especially skeletons is highest, and Holy Week , when there is demand for
20196-536: The attention of Arabs, Turks , Greeks , Persians , Jews as well as Indians , not to mention Westerners since the late-16th to early-17th centuries. In the modern era, bazaars remain a vital economic hub in numerous Arab nations. In Mesoamerica, a tiered system of traders developed independently. Extensive trade networks predated the Aztec empire by at least hundreds of years. Local markets where people purchased their daily necessities were known as tianguis , while
20383-538: The city markets. In ancient Rome , trade took place in the forum . Rome had two forums: the Forum Romanum and Trajan's Forum . Trajan's Market at Trajan's forum, built around 100–110 CE, was a vast expanse, comprising multiple buildings with shops on four levels. The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shopfront. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling via merchants or peddlers and bartering systems were commonplace. In
20570-485: The color is associated with health and purity. Mercado de Sonora is one of the traditional markets for purchasing items related to Day of the Dead in Mexico City on 2 November. During this time, the aisles fill with items such as sugar skulls, papel picado (crepe paper cut into designs and hung like flags), representations of skeletons and more. There is Halloween influence as well, with items made to resemble witches , ghosts , Jack-o'-lanterns , etc. The market and
20757-465: The dead must be treated with respect, awe, and kindness; they are consulted at all ceremonies. Although the dead are not deemed as powerful as the oricha , they are still thought capable of assisting the living, with whom they can communicate through dreams, intuition, and spirit possession. Santería teaches that a person can learn to both see and communicate with the dead . Practitioners will often provide offerings, typically seven glasses of water, to
20944-422: The dead via the water in the pipes. Offerings are called ebbó (or ebó ), and are given to the oricha , ancestral spirits, to a person's own ori , and sometimes to the earth. These offerings can consist of fruit and other foodstuffs, liquor, flowers, candles, money, or slaughtered animals. Divination is often used to determine the exact nature of the offering; initiates are supposed to provide offerings on
21131-425: The deity, and accordingly they often claim no memory of the events that occurred during the possession. Some have stated that reaching the mental state whereby an individual can become possessed takes much practice. The onset of the trance is marked by body spasms, termed arullarse . Once an individual is possessed, they may be taken into an adjacent room where they are dressed in the ritual clothing pertaining to
21318-556: The depiction of evil called “Judas” which is burned in effigy. The Judas figures are inspired by the disciple that betrayed Jesus , but traditionally is depicted as a devil. However, other unliked figures can also substituted. These include political figures, especially those who have been involved in a recent corruption scandal . The best-known of the cartonería artists is the Linares family, which has been creating figures for five generations. For this family, like most others, it began as
21505-645: The distinguished National Award for Science and Art from the Mexican government. The Linares family continues to make alebrijes and more traditional figures in their workshops located just behind the Mercado de Sonora. The other aisles of the market are also dedicated to a number of specialties. Some areas are dedicated to pottery and dishes for everyday use, much of which is from the state of Guanajuato. These include plates, bowls, jars for atole , coffee cups, large platters and more. While traditional pottery still dominates, it
21692-427: The drum. Practitioners believe that the consecrated batá contain a substance called añá , itself an avatar of Ochún, and a manifestation of aché . Many drummers avoid mentioning the añá in public and may not refer to it by name. Drums which have not been baptised are not viewed as containing añá , and are called tambores judìos ("Jewish drums"). Particular rhythms played on the drums may be associated with
21879-692: The earliest ilés during the late 19th century. After the Cuban War of Independence resulted in an independent republic in 1898, its new constitution enshrined freedom of religion . Santería nevertheless remained marginalized by Cuba's Roman Catholic, Euro-Cuban establishment, which typically viewed it as brujería (witchcraft). In the 1960s, growing emigration following the Cuban Revolution spread Santería abroad. The late 20th century saw growing links between Santería and related traditions in West Africa and
22066-499: The edges of Yucatecan canoe trade such as Xicalanco and Ulua . The Spanish conquerors commented on the impressive nature of the local markets in the 15th century. The Mexica ( Aztec ) market of Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas and said to be superior to those in Europe. There are many different ways to classify markets. One way is to consider the nature of the buyer and
22253-454: The emergence of a bazaar. Middle Eastern bazaars were typically long strips with stalls on either side and a covered roof designed to protect traders and purchasers from the fierce sun. In Europe, informal, unregulated markets gradually made way for a system of formal, chartered markets from the 12th century. Throughout the medieval period , increased regulation of marketplace practices, especially weights and measures, gave consumers confidence in
22440-417: The encounter of the diverse Yoruba tribes with one another, with non-Yoruba Africans, and with the Europeans in a new environment and a new social order governed by [a] set of institutions different from those of Africa. Santería is a flexible and eclectic tradition, with considerable variation in how it is practiced. There is no strict orthodoxy, no key sacred text , and no central authority in control of
22627-708: The entire religion. It has absorbed elements from many cultures that it has encountered, such as that of the Chinese migrants who came to Cuba in the 19th century, while in continental North America, Santería has also incorporated influences from Central American and Mexican religions as well as from New Age and modern Pagan practices. As well as it being common for Cubans to idiosyncratically blend ideas from different religions, many of Santería's practitioners claim multiple religious allegiances. Santería's adherents often consider themselves to be Roman Catholics —some priests and priestesses of Santería refuse to initiate anyone who
22814-662: The evening market. The marketplace also became the place were executions were carried out, rewards were published and decrees were read out. During the Qin empire and the Han dynasty which followed it, markets were enclosed with walls and gates and strictly separated from residential areas. Vendors were arranged according to the type of commodity offered, and markets were strictly regulated with departments responsible for security, weights and measures, price-fixing, and certificates. Over time, specialised markets began to emerge. In Luoyang, during
23001-406: The existence of a transcendent creator divinity, Olodumare , under whom are spirits known as oricha . Typically deriving their names and attributes from traditional Yoruba deities, these oricha are equated with Roman Catholic saints and associated with various myths. Each human is deemed to have a personal link to a particular oricha who influences their personality. Olodumare is believed to be
23188-424: The existence of an overarching divinity, known as Olodumare , Olofi , or Olorun . Practitioners believe that this divinity created the universe but takes little interest in human affairs. As this creator deity is inaccessible to humanity, no major offerings are dedicated to it. The three facets of this divinity are understood slightly differently; Olodumare represents the divine essence of all that exists, Olorun
23375-779: The fish from where it is immediately preserved using traditional methods and prepared for distribution to other West African countries; The Woodcarvers Market in Brikama which boasts the largest concentration of woodcarvers in the country; the Pottery Market in Basse Santa ; the Atlantic Road Craft Market at Bakau and the Senegambia Craft Market at Bakau. Produce markets in Asia are undergoing major changes as supermarkets enter
23562-449: The folklorist Michael Atwood Mason called aché the "ritual generative power". The ethnomusicologist Katherine Hagedorn described aché as "the realized and inherent divine potential in all aspects of life, even in apparently inert objects." She added that " Aché is neither good nor bad; rather, aché is motion". While deeming Olodumare the ultimate embodiment of aché , practitioners believe that aché permeates all life, and
23749-417: The great estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm gates, obviating the producers' need to attend local markets. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved importing and exporting. The nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case studies. At Pompeii , multiple markets served
23936-474: The growth of the town. The Domesday Book of 1086 lists 50 markets in England; however, many historians believe this figure underestimates the actual number of markets in operation at the time. In England, some 2,000 new markets were established between 1200 and 1349. By 1516, England had some 2,464 markets and 2,767 fairs, while Wales had 138 markets and 166 fairs. From the 12th century, English monarchs awarded
24123-449: The highest leadership positions, although restrictions are placed on them while menstruating. Similar restrictions are also placed on homosexual males, traditionally prohibiting them from taking part in certain forms of divination and ritual drumming. Many gay men are nevertheless santeros , and some santeras are lesbians. A stereotype exists that all male Santería priests are homosexual, and members of other Afro-Cuban traditions with
24310-571: The initiate's tutelary oricha ; devotees of Yemajá for instance usually include omí ("water"), while those of Changó often have obá ("king"). Next comes the asiento ("seating"), or coronación ("coronation"), which marks the point when the aché of the tutelary oricha is believed to literally enter the initiate's cranium. The otanes of several oricha are placed to the initiate's head, culminating in those of their tutelary oricha . An animal sacrifice usually follows, involving at least five four-legged animals and 25 birds. The following day
24497-460: The killing of animals as an acceptable substitute to human sacrifice , and in Cuba there have been persistent rumours of children being sacrificed in Santería rites. The oricha and egun are believed to "eat" the blood of the victim; the latter's lifeforce is deemed to transfer to the oricha , thus strengthening its aché . An animal that struggles to avoid being killed is sometimes understood as having particular strength which will then pass to
24684-743: The larger towns. Notable markets include: the Serekunda Market in Gambia's largest city, Serekunda , which opens from early morning to late at night 7 days a week and trades in produce, live animals, clothing, accessories, jewellery, crafts, second hand goods and souvenirs; The Albert Market in the capital, Banjul , which sells fresh produce, colourful, locally designed fabrics, musical instruments, carved wooden masks and other local products. Other interesting markets include: Bakau Fish Market in Bakau ; Tanji Fish Market, Tanji, where brightly painted fishing boats bring in
24871-405: The latter constituting its "godfather," and in this way they form lineages. Before being used in ceremonies, these drums are baptized, after which they are referred to as a tambor de fundamento . This baptism entails washing the drums in omiero , making sacrifices to Osain, and affixing an afoubo , a small leather bag containing items including a parrot feather and glass beads, to the interior of
25058-609: The local level. The Charter of Worcester, written between 884 and 901 provided for fines for dishonest trading, amongst other things. Such local regulations were codified in 13th century England in what became known as the Statute of Winchester . This document outlined the assizes for 16 different trades, most of which were associated with markets – miller, baker, fisher, brewer, inn-keeper, tallow-chandler, weaver, cordwainer, etc. For each trade, regulations covered such issues as fraud, prices, quality, weights, and measures and so on. The assize
25245-427: The lowest class of society. High officials carefully distanced themselves from merchant classes. In 627, an edict prohibited those of rank five or higher from entering markets. One anecdote from the time of Empress Wu relates the tale of a fourth rank official who missed out on the opportunity for promotion after he was seen purchasing a steamed pancake from a market. Since circa 3000 BCE, bazaars have dominated
25432-650: The many markets he visited in West Africa . He provided a detailed description of market activities at Sabi, in the Wydah (now the part of the Republic of Benin): Their fairs and markets are regulated with so much care and prudence, that nothing contrary to law is ever committed. All sorts of merchandise here are collected, and those who have brought goods are permitted to take what time they please to dispose of them, but without fraud or noise. A judge, attended by four officers armed,
25619-409: The market about 50%. However, for herbal medicine sellers, demand for a 10-herb blend designed to prevent and treat the flu kept a number of vendors solvent. The remedy includes eucalyptus , bougainvillea and tejocote fruit, selling for 80 pesos per kilo. During the same time period, merchants selling Santa Muerte paraphernalia reported selling a significant number of white dresses for the images, as
25806-454: The market's importance to community life and trade. Markets were also important centres of social life. In early Western Europe, markets developed close to monasteries, castles or royal residences. Priories and aristocratic manorial households created considerable demand for goods and services, both luxuries and necessities, and also afforded some protection to merchants and traders. These centres of trade attracted sellers which would stimulate
25993-461: The market's place within the distribution system. This leads to two broad classes of market, namely retail market or wholesale markets . The economist, Alfred Marshall classified markets according to time period. In this classification, there are three types of market; the very short period market where the supply of a commodity remains fixed. Perishables, such as fruit, vegetables, meat, and fish fall into this group since goods must be sold within
26180-515: The markets. Some of these early markets have been the subject of archaeological surveys. For instance, the market at Yong, the capital of the Qi state, measured 3,000 square metres and was an outdoor market. According to the Rites of Zhou , markets were highly organized and served different groups at different times of day; merchants at the morning market, every day people at the afternoon market and peddlers at
26367-452: The modern world, online marketplaces . Markets have existed for as long as humans have engaged in trade. The earliest bazaars are believed to have originated in Persia, from where they spread to the rest of the Middle East and Europe . Documentary sources suggest that zoning policies confined trading to particular parts of cities from around 3000 BCE, creating the conditions necessary for
26554-413: The most popular oricha , Changó or Shango is associated with lightning and fire. Another prominent oricha is Yemaja , the deity associated with maternity, fertility, and the sea. Ochún is the oricha of rivers and of romantic love, while Oyá is a warrior associated with wind, lightning, and death, and is viewed as the guardian of the cemetery. Obatalá is the oricha of truth and justice and
26741-650: The names of these individuals, who are regarded as the ancestors of the house, are recited in chronological order. Although members of different houses often interact, each ilé is largely autonomous, allowing for variation in their practices. In Cuba, it is common for Santería practitioners to meet with each other regularly, and to regard each other as being akin to a family: the familia de santo . Conversely, in an area like Veracruz in Mexico, many practitioners attend group rituals and then leave, sometimes never seeing their co-practitioners again. Most ilés are established by
26928-493: The neighbouring counties come in to the fair every morning, with beef, mutton, fowls, bread, cheese, eggs, and such things; and go with them from tent to tent and from door to door, that there is no want of provision of any kind, either dress'd or undress'd." In the Asia Minor, prior to the 10th century, market places were situated on the perimeter of the city. Along established trade routes, markets were most often associated with
27115-511: The north of the country, but that was largely unsuccessful and most commercial buyers travel to Johannesburg or Tshwane for supplies. Ethiopia is a major producer and exporter of grains and a number of wholesale markets assist with the distribution and export of such products. Important wholesale markets include: Nekemte in the East Welega zone , Jimma in the Jimma zone , Assela and Sagure in
27302-402: The old, narrow streets. The building consists of a single large nave mostly constructed of metal. Inside, there are a number of narrow aisles containing stalls owned or rented by individual merchants. Most merchants are grouped by the type of merchandise they sell, such as party supplies, dishes, and pets. What little parking lot is left is filled by street vendors . On Saturday, when the market
27489-406: The opening verse of the song, the akpwón may break into a personal prayer. The akpwón can switch from song to song quickly, with the drummers having to adapt their rhythm accordingly. A chorus of singers will respond to the akpwón , often while swaying back and forth. These choral responses may split into a two or three-part harmony. Dancing also takes place, with each oricha associated with
27676-462: The original meaning of Lucumí words. Rituals take place in the ilé ("house"), sometimes called the ilé-oricha ("house of the oricha "), casa templo ("house of worship"), casa de santos ("house of saints"), or casa de religión ("house of religion"). The ethnomusicologist María Teresa Vélez called this the "house-temple", with the ilé usually being the personal home of a santero or santera . It will typically have an inner room,
27863-399: The other gave rise to a genre of painting known as Orientalism . Artists focussed on the exotic beauty of the land – the markets and bazaars, caravans and snake charmers. Islamic architecture also became favourite subject matter, and the high vaulted market places features in numerous paintings and sketches. Individual markets have also attracted literary attention. Les Halles was known as
28050-446: The other, and practitioners will frequently place a cement head decorated with cowrie shells that represents Eleguá behind their front door, guarding the threshold to the street. The second guerro is Ogun, viewed as the oricha of weapons and war, and also of iron and blacksmiths. The third, Ochosi, is associated with woods and hunting, while the fourth, Osun, is a protector who warns practitioners when they are in danger. Perhaps
28237-459: The participants. It is believed that the collective energy built up by the group is necessary in achieving this. In turn, the oricha are believed capable of soothing the grieving, healing the sick, blessing the deserving, and rebuking those who have behaved badly. The toque de santo uses double-headed drums called batá ; these are deemed sacred, and are sometimes regarded as the central symbol of Santería. There are multiple types of batá:
28424-460: The population of approximately 12,000. Produce markets were located in the vicinity of the Forum, while livestock markets were situated on the city's perimeter, near the amphitheatre. A long narrow building at the north-west corner of the Forum was some type of market, possibly a cereal market. On the opposite corner stood the macellum , thought to have been a meat and fish market. Market stall-holders paid
28611-521: The possessing oricha , after which they are returned to the main room. As well as speaking in the Lucumí language, those possessed may then display gestures associated with a particular oricha ; for instance, those believing themselves possessed by Ochún may wipe their skirt over other people, representing the waves of the ocean, while those regarding themselves as being possessed by Eleguá may steal from assembled participants. The possessed individual will then provide healing or dispense advice; sometimes
28798-417: The practice of Santería. These may be shared with their own initiates or kept private. Santería's main public ritual is a drumming ceremony called the toque de santo , or tambor . Lasting for up to several hours, this is usually seen as an offering to the oricha , performed to gain their favor. The goal of the rhythms and songs is to summon the oricha to earth, at which point they can possess one of
28985-421: The precise numbers of those involved in Santería difficult to determine. Many of those involved also identify as practitioners of another religion, typically Roman Catholicism. The term Santería translates into English as the "way of the saints". This term was first used by scholarly commentators in the 1930s and later spread among the religion's practitioners themselves. It has become the most popular name for
29172-420: The problems of everyday life. Practitioners usually use the term "work" in reference to ritual activity; thus "working ocha " describes its rites. Santería is an initiatory religion, one which is organized around a structured hierarchy. An ethos of secrecy pervades many of its practices, with initiates often refusing to discuss certain topics with non-initiates. For this reason, Mason described Santería as
29359-419: The prospect of offending the oricha . Creyentes believe that the oricha can communicate with humans through divination, prayers, dreams, music, and dance. Many practitioners also describe how they "read" messages from the oricha in everyday interactions and events. For instance, a practitioner who meets a child at a traffic intersection may interpret this as a message from Eleguá, who is often depicted as
29546-536: The purchasing habits of the monks and other individuals in medieval England suggests that consumers of the period were relatively discerning. Purchase decisions were based on purchase criteria such as the consumer's perceptions of the range, quality, and price of goods. Such considerations informed decisions about where to make purchases and which markets to patronise. As the number of charters granted increased, competition between market towns also increased. In response to competitive pressures, towns invested in developing
29733-446: The quality of market goods and the fairness of prices. Around the globe, markets have evolved in different ways depending on local ambient conditions, especially weather, tradition, and culture. In the Middle East, markets tend to be covered, to protect traders and shoppers from the sun. In milder climates, markets are often open air. In Asia , a system of morning markets trading in fresh produce and night markets trading in non-perishables
29920-465: The religion have referred to its practitioners as "santerians" although this is not used by adherents themselves. A non-initiate, including those who may attend public Santería ceremonies, is an aleyo ("stranger"); these non-initiates make up the majority of people involved in the religion. Initiates are known as santero if male, and santera if female, although these two terms have sometimes been used for anyone, initiate or not, who participates in
30107-521: The religion, although some practitioners find it offensive. A common alternative is Regla de Ocha , meaning "the rule of ocha", ocha being a term for the religion's deities. Some adherents regard this as the religion's "official" name. The tradition has also been called Lucumí , in reference to the colonial Spanish term for the Yoruba people , or alternatively La Religión Lucumí ("the Lucumí religion") or Regla Lucumí ("the rule of Lucumí"). Santería
30294-407: The religion. Alternative terms for an initiate are babalocha or babaloricha ("father-deity") if male and an iyalocha or iyaloricha ("mother-deity") if female. Those who have a sustained engagement with the religion are also referred to as omoricha ("children of the oricha"), aboricha ("one who worships the oricha"), and an oloricha ("one who belongs to the oricha"). Santería teaches
30481-531: The retail scene and the growing middle classes acquire preferences for branded goods. Many supermarkets purchase directly from producers, supplanting the traditional role of both wholesale and retail markets. In order to survive, produce markets have been forced to consider value adding opportunities and many retail markets now focus on ready-to-eat food and take-away food. Santer%C3%ADa Santería ( Spanish pronunciation: [santeˈɾi.a] ), also known as Regla de Ocha , Regla Lucumí , or Lucumí ,
30668-529: The rite lacked sufficient aché , or that the wrong ebbó was provided for the situation. Animal sacrifice is called matanza , with the person carrying it out termed the matador . This is usually a man, with menstruating women prohibited from involvement. Birds—including guinea fowl , chickens, and doves—are commonly sacrificed, usually by having their throats slit or their heads twisted and ripped off. For rituals of greater importance, sacrifices are often of four-legged animals. Some practitioners describe
30855-529: The secret male societies practiced among the Efik-Ibibio . Many practitioners of Palo and Abakuá also follow Santería. Another Afro-Cuban religion is Arará , which derives from practices among the Ewe and Fon ; although its origins are not Yoruba, it is sometimes considered a branch of Santería rather than a separate system. Santería also has commonalities with other West African and West African-derived traditions in
31042-475: The spirits into categories that each exhibit different traits, reflecting stereotypes about different social groups, with such spirits often portrayed as African, Haitian, Gypsy, Arab, or Plains Indian . The gitano (gypsy) spirits for instance are believed capable of foreseeing impending troubles and diagnosing illnesses while the congo spirits of Africa are perceived as strong-willed, powerful, and adept at guiding people through hostile circumstances. Aché
31229-511: The spirits of the dead. These typically consist of a white-covered table known as a bóveda , something derived from the White Table of Spiritism. Bóveda often feature photographs of deceased relatives, to whom offerings are given; popular offerings for the spirits of the dead include seven glasses of water, a cafecito coffee, and the aguardiente liquor. Alternatively, many practitioners of Santería—like those who follow Palo—will have
31416-665: The street vendors from the parking areas of the market, with the last sweep occurring in 2002. What makes this market different and famous are the aisles dedicated to medicinal plants , magic and the occult , which are only two located in the back of the large nave . This part of the market attracts customers from most socioeconomic levels, as well as tourists. as it is promoted in various guide books. The two types of products, herbal medicines and magical/occult items, are not completely separate, as for centuries traditional Mexican herbal medicine has been strongly linked with religious and magic practices. The variety of medicinal plants sold
31603-569: The sun, palm wine and fruit, form the must luxurious entertainments, and stand continually for sale in the streets. In Botswana , the sale of agricultural produce to the formal market is largely controlled by large corporations. Most small, local farmers sell their produce to the informal market, local communities and street vendors. The main wholesale market is the Horticultural market in Gaborone . The government made some attempts to build markets in
31790-513: The supernatural, for instance placing emphasis on respect for elders and superiors. A general attitude in Santería is that if an individual maintains good character, the oricha will aid them. Practitioners generally take socially conservative stances, having high regard for traditional family structures, marriage, fidelity, and child-rearing; adherents in the United States often adopt more progressive stances on issues surrounding gender and sexuality than their counterparts in Cuba. The religion
31977-522: The supply chain, traditional hawkers and produce markets have shown remarkable resilience. The main markets in Johannesburg are: Jozi Real Food Market, Bryanston Organic Market, Pretoria Boeremark specialising in South African delicacies, Hazel Food Market, Panorama Flea Market, Rosebank Sunday Market, Market on Main (a periodic arts market), and neighbourhood markets. The " Gambia is Good" initiative
32164-419: The taboo with the view that menstrual blood can weaken the drum's añá , or that the drum's desire for blood would drain the woman, causing her harm, or in some cases infertility. Praise songs are sung for the oricha , with specific songs associated with particular deities. These may be sung a cappella or with instrumental accompaniment. The lead singer at such ceremonies is known as an akpwón . During
32351-437: The tastes of the adherent; anthropologists have observed practitioners who have included Taoist figurines or statues of wizards , on their altars. Food and flowers are often placed on the altar as offerings. Although rarely included on their altars, practitioners will often have statues of Roman Catholic saints elsewhere in their homes. In addition to their altar to the oricha , many practitioners have altars set aside for
32538-482: The town or village centre. Scholars, however, question the reliability of traditional narratives unless backed by archaeological evidence. The earliest written references to markets dates to the time of Qi Huanggong (ruled 685 to 643 BCE). Qi's Prime Minister, the great reformer, Guan Zhong , divided the capital into 21 districts ( xiang ) of which three were dedicated to farmers, three to hand-workers and three to businessmen, who were instructed to settle near
32725-476: The town's centre. The market was surrounded by alleyways inhabited by skilled artisans, such as metal workers, leather workers, and carpenters. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, but also prepared goods for sale on market days. Across ancient Greece , market places were to be found in most city states, where they operated within the agora (open space). Between 550 and 350 BCE, Greek stallholders clustered together according to
32912-444: The type of goods carried – fish-sellers were in one place, clothing in another, and sellers of more expensive goods such as perfumes, bottles, and jars were located in a separate building. The Greeks organised trade into separate zones, all located near the city centre and known as stoa . A freestanding colonnade with a covered walkway, the stoa was both a place of commerce and a public promenade, situated within or adjacent to
33099-400: The types of goods, their quality and their region of origin. In this way, markets helped to provide an early form of product branding. Gradually, certain market towns earned a reputation for providing quality produce. Today, traders and showmen jealously guard the reputation of these historic chartered markets. The 18th century commentator Daniel Defoe visited Sturbridge fair in 1723 and wrote
33286-433: The ultimate source of aché , a supernatural force permeating the universe that can be manipulated through ritual actions. Practitioners venerate the oricha at altars, either in the home or in the ilé (house-temple), which is run by a santero (priest) or santera (priestess). Membership of the ilé requires initiation . Offerings to the oricha include fruit, liquor, flowers and sacrificed animals . A central ritual
33473-775: The worship of Santa Muerte. It is estimated that 2,000 people each weekend come to the market specifically for this section of the market. Items for sale include amulets , horseshoes, candles in a wide variety of sizes, shapes and colors, with many of the colors have very specific functions, gold dust, black salt, powders of unknown ingredients, water of Saint Ignatius -to ward off unwanted attention, aromatic lotions and soaps, many of which are related to love spells and more. The most popular items are those related to love. There are candles, oils, amulets, soaps, needles, lotions, tobacco, herbs, and services such as spell casting and cleansings all geared to finding, keeping or recovering love. Products have names such as atrapahombres (trap men), ven
33660-546: Was " Ic wille þæt markete beo in þe selue tun ", meaning "I desire that there be a market in the same town". Markets have existed since ancient times. Some historians have argued that a type of market has existed since humans first began to engage in trade. Open air and public markets were known in ancient Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia , the Land of Israel, Greece, Egypt, and the Arabian peninsula. However, not all societies developed
33847-609: Was a formal codification of prior informal codes which had been practised for many years. The courts of assize were granted the power to enforce these regulations. The process of standardizing quality, prices and measures assisted markets to gain the confidence of buyers and made them more attractive to the public. A sixteenth century commentator, John Leland , described particular markets as "celebrate", "very good", "quik", and conversely as "poore", "meane", and "of no price". Over time, some products became associated with particular places, providing customers with valuable information about
34034-468: Was dynamited and bulldozed, but within a week the traders were back selling fruit, vegetables and fish, albeit without a roof over their head. Kenya 's capital, Nairobi , has several major markets. Wakulima market is one of the region's largest markets, situated on Haile Selassie Avenue in Nairobi. Other markets in Nairobi are: Kariakor Market, Gikomba Market, and Muthurwa Market. In Mombasa, Kongowea market
34221-462: Was established in 2004 with a view to encouraging a market for locally grown fresh produce rather than imported ones. The plan was designed to "stimulate local livelihoods, inspire entrepreneurship and reduce the environmental and social cost of imported produce". A great deal of the produce trade is carried out informally on street corners and many shops are little more than market booths. However, dedicated open air and covered markets can be found in
34408-441: Was in part due to the changing nature of the market system at that time. The public began to distinguish between two types of merchant, the meerseniers which referred to local merchants including bakers, grocers, sellers of dairy products and stall-holders, and the koopman , which described a new, emergent class of trader who dealt in goods or credit on a large scale. With the rise of a European merchant class, this distinction
34595-490: Was known for producing fine woollen cloth, the town of Worsted became synonymous with a type of yarn; Banbury and Essex were strongly associated with cheeses. In the market economy, goods are ungraded and unbranded, so that consumers have relatively few opportunities to evaluate quality prior to consumption. Consequently, supervision of weights, measures, food quality, and prices was a key consideration. In medieval society, regulations for such matters appeared initially at
34782-487: Was necessary to separate the daily trade that the general population understood from the rising ranks of traders who operated on a world stage and were seen as quite distant from everyday experience. During the 17th and 18th centuries, as Europeans conquered parts of North Africa and the Levant, European artists began to visit the Orient and painted scenes of everyday life. Europeans sharply divided peoples into two broad groups –
34969-404: Was originally set up with a large parking area for cars, but over time this space dwindled as the market grew. The official opening of the market was in 1957. For the market's 50th anniversary in 2007, there was a large party with actress Edith González as special guest. The event also included mariachis and a limpia or cleansing to rid the establishment of any negative energy. The market
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