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108-537: From April 2017 through March 2018 the exhibit "Opportunity & Conscience: Mennonite Immigration to Pennsylvania" runs, which includes: There is a semi-permanent exhibit "Work and Hope: Mennonite Life in Eastern Pennsylvania", which uses images and artifacts to illustrate three centuries of Mennonite life in the region. The center has a gallery of Fraktur . In 2015 the Center celebrated its 40th anniversary with

216-425: A {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {a}}} by b {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {b}}} and is denoted by ⁠ ( a : b ) {\displaystyle ({\mathfrak {a}}:{\mathfrak {b}})} ⁠ ; it is an instance of idealizer in commutative algebra. Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519)

324-658: A "hymnal series", that is, groups singing hymns of historical significance to the Mennonite community. Annual events include the Apple Butter Frolic autumn festival in October, the "Christmas Feast" show and craft and food sale, and a Used Book Sale. There is a museum store selling framed Fraktur prints, Redware pottery , other stoneware pottery, textiles, CDs, notecards, cookbooks, genealogies, books and DVDs about Mennonites, local history and culture, etc. Beginning in 2012

432-818: A backdoor for French interference in the Low Countries). Maximilian was elected King of the Romans on 16 February 1486 in Frankfurt-am-Main at his father's initiative and crowned on 9 April 1486 in Aachen . Much of the Austrian territories and Vienna were under the rule of King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary , as a result of the Austrian–Hungarian War (1477–1488) . Maximilian was now a king without lands. Matthias Corvinus offered Emperor Frederick and his son prince Maximilian,

540-565: A decision which today induces much scholarly discussion. Apart from balancing the Reichskammergericht with the Reichshofrat , this act of restructuring seemed to suggest that, as Westphal quoting Ortlieb, the "imperial ruler—independent of the existence of a supreme court—remained the contact person for hard pressed subjects in legal disputes as well, so that a special agency to deal with these matters could appear sensible" (as also shown by

648-458: A decisive difference. In Italy, he gained the derisive nickname of "Massimiliano di pochi denari" (Maximilian the Moneyless). One particularly humiliating episode happened in 1508, with a force mustered largely from hereditary lands and with limited resources, the emperor decided to attack Venice. The diversionary force under Sixt Trautson were routed by Bartolomeo d'Alviano (Sixt Trautson himself

756-647: A dream. In his infancy, he and his parents were besieged in Vienna by Albert of Austria . One source relates that, during the siege's bleakest days, the young prince wandered about the castle garrison, begging the servants and men-at-arms for bits of bread. He was the favourite child of his mother, whose personality was a contrast to his father (although there seemed to be communication problems between mother and son, as she spoke Portuguese ). Reportedly she told Maximilian that, "If I had known, my son, that you would become like your father, I would have regretted having born you for

864-588: A generous grant of funds from the Tyrolean Estates to invade Hungary with an army of around 17,000 men. Crossing the Raab River in late October, Maximilian encountered little resistance in Hungary, as the unprepared Vladislas was disinclined towards decisive action. Maximilian was joined by numerous Hungarian nobles and even magnates . Despite stiff resistance, the city was bombarded, with Maximilian personally directing

972-508: A heavy tendency towards wine, feasts and young women, which became evident during their trips in 1473–74. Even though he was still very young, the prince's skills and physical attractiveness made him the center everywhere he went. Although Frederick had forbidden the princes of the Empire from fighting with Maximilian in tournaments, Maximilian gave himself the necessary permission at the first chance he got. Frederick did not allow him to participate in

1080-562: A king they could dominate. The crown of Hungary thus fell to King Vladislaus II , who was deemed weaker in personality and also agreed to marry Beatrice. Tamás Bakócz , the Hungarian chancellor allied himself with Maximilian and helped him to circumvent the 1505 Diet which declared that no foreigner could be elected as King of Hungary. With money from Innsbruck and southern German towns, he raised enough cavalry and Landsknechte to campaign into Hungary itself. Despite Hungary's lower nobility,

1188-486: A modern state. While it has been suggested that Maximilian displayed a class-based mentality that favoured the aristocrats (a modern historian who shares this viewpoint is Koenigsberger), recent studies suggest that, as evidenced by the court ordinance of 1482 (at this point, before Mary's death, threats to his rule seemed to have been eliminated) among others, he sought to promote "parvenus" who were beholden to himself (often either functionaries who had risen under Charles

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1296-841: A promise to transfer territories as a gift in case of her death, but her plans were confounded. After Mary's death in a riding accident on 27 March 1482 near the Wijnendale Castle , Maximilian's aim was now to secure the inheritance to his and Mary's son, Philip the Handsome . According to Haemers and Sutch, the original marriage contract stipulated that Maximilian could not inherit her Burgundian lands if they had children. The Guinegate victory made Maximilian popular, but as an inexperienced ruler, he hurt himself politically by trying to centralize authority without respecting traditional rights and consulting relevant political bodies. The Belgian historian Eugène Duchesne comments that these years were among

1404-587: A protracted, multi-fronted war would leave him overextended though, Maximilian evacuated from Croatia (he had conquered the whole northern part of the country previously) and accepted the treaty with the Jagiellons. As the Treaty of Senlis had resolved French differences with the Holy Roman Empire, King Louis XII of France had secured borders in the north and turned his attention to Italy, where he made claims for

1512-385: A real example, Given ideals a , b {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {a}},{\mathfrak {b}}} of a commutative ring R , the R -annihilator of ( b + a ) / a {\displaystyle ({\mathfrak {b}}+{\mathfrak {a}})/{\mathfrak {a}}} is an ideal of R called the ideal quotient of

1620-574: A reconciliation and a reunited dynastic rule in the 1490. Because Tyrol had no law code at this time, the nobility freely expropriated money from the populace, which caused the court in Innsbruck to fester with corruption. After taking control, Maximilian instituted immediate financial reform. Gaining control of Tyrol for the Habsburgs was of strategic importance because it linked the Swiss Confederacy to

1728-503: A regular meeting place of the central government. The harsh suppression of the rebellions did have an unifying effect, in that provinces stopped behaving like separate entities each supporting a different lord. Helmut Koenigsberger opines that it was not the erratic leadership of Maximilian, who was brave but hardly understood the Netherlands, but the Estates' desire for the survival of

1836-667: A separate script. Instead, Fraktur is considered a "presentation form" of the Latin alphabet. Thus, the additional ligatures that are required for Fraktur typefaces will not be encoded in Unicode: support for these ligatures is a font engineering issue left up to font developers. There are, however, two sets of Fraktur symbols in the Unicode blocks of Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols , Letterlike Symbols , and Latin Extended-E . The long s , ß , and

1944-408: A threat to his imperial prerogatives and wanted to avoid direct confrontations with the princes on the matter. However, in his last years, mainly to secure election for Maximilian, he presided over the initial phase of reform. Maximilian though was more open to reform. From 1488 through his reign as sole ruler, he practiced a policy of brokerage, acting as the impartial judge between options suggested by

2052-405: A variety of ligatures which are left over from cursive handwriting and have rules for their use. Most older Fraktur typefaces make no distinction between the majuscules ⟨I⟩ and ⟨J⟩ (where the common shape is more suggestive of a ⟨J⟩ ), even though the minuscules ⟨i⟩ and ⟨j⟩ are differentiated. One difference between

2160-450: Is g {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}} . A ring ideal might be denoted by a {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {a}}} (or p {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {p}}} if a prime ideal ) while an element is a ∈ a {\displaystyle a\in {\mathfrak {a}}} . The Fraktur c {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {c}}}

2268-461: Is also sometimes used to denote the cardinality of the continuum , that is, the cardinality of the real line. In model theory , A {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {A}}} is used to denote an arbitrary model, with A as its universe. Fraktur is still used among traditional Anabaptists to print German texts, while Kurrent is used as hand writing for German texts. Groups that use both forms of traditional German script are

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2376-748: Is also the root for the English word "fracture". In non-professional contexts, the term "Fraktur" is sometimes misused to refer to all blackletter typefaces – while Fraktur typefaces do fall under that category, not all blackletter typefaces exhibit the Fraktur characteristics described above. Fraktur was often characterized as "the German typeface", as it remained popular in Germany and much of Eastern Europe far longer than elsewhere. In Germany, utilizing more modern typefaces would prove controversial until 1941, when

2484-518: Is designed such that the beginnings and ends of the individual strokes that make up each letter will be clearly visible, and often emphasized; in this way it is often contrasted with the curves of the Antiqua (common) typefaces where the letters are designed to flow and strokes connect together in a continuous fashion. The word "Fraktur" derives from Latin frāctūra ("a break"), built from frāctus , passive participle of frangere ("to break"), which

2592-635: Is unknown, since both of his parents greatly favoured the Jews. In 1509, relying on the influence of Kunigunde , Maximilian's pious sister and the Cologne Dominicans, the anti-Jewish agitator Johannes Pfefferkorn was authorized by Maximilian to confiscate all offending Jewish books (including prayer books), except the Bible. The confiscations happened in Frankfurt, Bingen, Mainz and other German cities. Responding to

2700-626: The Sütterlin -based handwriting) to be Judenlettern (Jewish letters) and prohibited their further use. German historian Albert Kapr has speculated that the regime viewed Fraktur as inhibiting communication in the occupied territories during World War II . The Reichsgesetzblatt used Fraktur until the end of 1941. Even with the abolition of Fraktur, some publications included elements of it in headlines. More often, some ligatures ch , ck from Fraktur were used in Antiqua-typed editions up to

2808-784: The Amish , Old Order Mennonites , Hutterites , and traditional Plautdietsch -speaking Mennonites who live mostly in Latin America today. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] In

2916-804: The Burgundian State , heiress of Charles the Bold , though he also lost his family's original lands in today's Switzerland to the Swiss Confederacy . Through the marriage of his son Philip the Handsome to eventual queen Joanna of Castile in 1496, Maximilian helped to establish the Habsburg dynasty in Spain , which allowed his grandson Charles to hold the thrones of both Castile and Aragon . The historian Thomas A. Brady Jr. describes him as "the first Holy Roman Emperor in 250 years who ruled as well as reigned" and also,

3024-508: The County of Tyrol and Duchy of Bavaria went to war in the late 15th century. Bavaria demanded money from Tyrol that had been loaned on the collateral of Tyrolean lands. In 1490, the two states demanded that Maximilian I step in to mediate the dispute. His Habsburg cousin, the childless Archduke Sigismund , was negotiating to sell Tyrol to their Wittelsbach rivals rather than let Emperor Frederick inherit it. Maximilian's charm and tact though led to

3132-618: The Duchy of Milan . In 1499–1500 he conquered it and drove the Sforza regent Lodovico il Moro into exile. This brought him into a potential conflict with Maximilian, who on 16 March 1494 had married Bianca Maria Sforza , a daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza , duke of Milan. However, Maximilian was unable to hinder the French from taking over Milan. The prolonged Italian Wars resulted in Maximilian joining

3240-507: The Holy League to counter the French. His campaigns in Italy generally were not successful, and his progress there was quickly checked. Maximilian's Italian campaigns tend to be criticized for being wasteful and gaining him little. Despite the emperor's work in enhancing his army technically and organization-wise, due to financial difficulties, the forces he could muster were always too small to make

3348-562: The Nazi government rendered any transition involuntary by banning the use of Fraktur typefaces. Besides the 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet , Fraktur usually includes the Eszett ⟨ ß ⟩ in the ⟨ſʒ⟩ form, vowels with umlauts , and the long s ⟨ſ⟩ . Some Fraktur typefaces also include a variant form of the letter r known as the r rotunda , and many include

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3456-521: The Siege of Neuss (1474–75), he was successful. Perhaps as preparation for his task in the Netherlands, in 1476, at the age of 17, in the name of his father, apparently Maximilian commanded a military campaign against Hungary—the first actual battlefield experience in his life (command responsibility was likely shared with more experienced generals though). The wedding between Maximilian and Mary took place on 19 August 1477. Maximilian's wife had inherited

3564-616: The Treaty of Senlis , with which Artois and Franche-Comté returned to Burgundian rule while Picardy was confirmed as French possession. The French also continued to keep the Duchy of Burgundy. Thus a large part of the Netherlands (known as the Seventeen Provinces ) stayed in the Habsburg patrimony. On 8 January 1488, using a similar 1373 French ordinance as the model, together with Philip, he issued

3672-437: The brothers of Glymes–Bergen . In early 1486, he retook Mortaigne, l'Ecluse, Honnecourt and even Thérouanne, but the same thing like in 1479 happened—he lacked financial resources to exploit and keep his gains. Only in 1492, with a stable internal situation, he was able to reconquer and keep Franche-Comté and Arras on the pretext that the French had repudiated his daughter. In 1493, Maximilian and Charles VIII of France signed

3780-474: The umlauted vowels are not encoded, as the characters are meant to be used in mathematics and phonetics, so they are not suitable for typesetting German-language texts. LaTeX does not use Unicode to typeset letters in fraktur: it has its own method. The command used to specify fraktur is \mathfrak{◌} . For example, \mathfrak{Fraktur} produces F r a k t u r {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {Fraktur}}} . Or, in

3888-461: The "ablest royal warlord of his generation". Nicknamed "Coeur d'acier" ("Heart of steel") by Olivier de la Marche and later historians (either as praise for his courage and soldierly qualities or reproach for his ruthlessness as a warlike ruler), Maximilian has entered the public consciousness, at least in the German-speaking world, as "the last knight" ( der letzte Ritter ), especially since

3996-530: The 1474 war against Burgundy though and placed him under the care of the Bishop of Augsburg instead. The Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold , was the chief political opponent of Maximilian's father Frederick III. Frederick was concerned about Burgundy's expansionist tendencies on the western border of his Holy Roman Empire , and, to forestall military conflict, he attempted to secure the marriage of Charles' only daughter, Mary of Burgundy, to his son Maximilian. After

4104-574: The 1512–1551 period, before being supplanted by the matricular system which allowed common burdens to be assessed at imperial as well as Kreis level. To create a rival for the Reichskammergericht , Maximilian established the Reichshofrat , which had its seat in Vienna. Unlike the Reichskammergericht , the Reichshofrat looked into criminal matters and even allowed the emperors the means to depose rulers who did not live up to expectations. Pavlac and Lott note that, during Maximilian's reign, this council

4212-784: The Bold and then proved loyalty to Maximilian, or representatives of the mercantile elites), and at an alarming speed for the traditional elites. After the rebellions, concerning the aristocracy, although Maximilian punished few with death (unlike what he himself later described in Theuerdank ), their properties were largely confiscated and they were replaced with a new elite class loyal to the Habsburgs—among whom, there were noblemen who had been part of traditional high nobility but elevated to supranational importance only in this period. The most important of these were John III and Frederik of Egmont , Engelbrecht II of Nassau , Henry of Witthem and

4320-582: The Bold's campaigns (Mary had to pawn her jewels to obtain loans), he carried out a campaign against the French during 1478–1479 and reconquered Le Quesnoy , Conde and Antoing . He defeated the French forces at the Battle of Guinegate , in modern Enguinegatte , on 7 August 1479. Despite winning, Maximilian had to abandon the siege of Thérouanne and disband his army, either because the Netherlanders did not want him to become too strong or because his treasury

4428-544: The Center renovated a 3,200-square-foot traditional barn, the Paul M. Nyce Barn , which it rents for events such as wedding receptions. The Center maintains a blog on its website with histories of local families descended from Mennonite immigrants. Fraktur Fraktur ( German: [fʁakˈtuːɐ̯] ) is a calligraphic hand of the Latin alphabet and any of several blackletter typefaces derived from this hand. It

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4536-619: The Court Chancery at Innsbruck competed with the Imperial Chancery (which was under the elector-archbishop of Mainz, the senior Imperial chancellor). By referring the political matters in Tyrol, Austria as well as Imperial problems to the Court Chancery, Maximilian gradually centralized its authority. The two chanceries became combined in 1502. Jan-Dirk Müller opines that this chancery became the decisive government institution since 1502. In 1496,

4644-480: The European pinnacle of dynastic power" largely on the back of loans. Historians of the second half of the nineteenth century like Leopold von Ranke tended to criticize Maximilian for putting the interest of his dynasty above that of Germany, hampering the nation's unification process. Ever since Hermann Wiesflecker 's Kaiser Maximilian I. Das Reich, Österreich und Europa an der Wende zur Neuzeit (1971–1986) became

4752-1597: The Fraktur and other blackletter scripts is that in the lower case ⟨o⟩ , the left part of the bow is broken, but the right part is not. In Danish texts composed in Fraktur, the letter ⟨ ø ⟩ was already preferred to the German and Swedish ⟨ ö ⟩ in the 16th century. In the Latvian variant of Fraktur, used mainly until the 1920s, there are additional characters used to denote Latvian letters with diacritical marks . Stroked letters ⟨Ꞡ ꞡ⟩ , ⟨Ꞣ ꞣ⟩ , ⟨Ł ł⟩ , ⟨Ꞥ ꞥ⟩ , ⟨Ꞧ ꞧ⟩ are used for palatalized consonants ( ⟨Ģ ģ⟩ , ⟨Ķ ķ⟩ , ⟨Ļ ļ⟩ , ⟨Ņ ņ⟩ , ⟨Ŗ ŗ⟩ ) stroked variants of ⟨s⟩ and ⟨ſ⟩ distinguish voiced and unvoiced sibilants or affricates ( ⟨S ſ⟩ for voiced [z], ⟨Ꞩ ẜ⟩ for unvoiced [s], ⟨ſch⟩ [ž] / ⟨ẜch⟩ [š], ⟨dſch⟩ [dž] / ⟨tẜch⟩ [č]), while accents ( ⟨à⟩ , ⟨â⟩ , ⟨ê⟩ , ⟨î⟩ , ⟨ô⟩ , ⟨û⟩ ) together with digraphs ( ⟨ah⟩ , ⟨eh⟩ etc.) are used for long vowels ( ⟨Ā ā⟩ , ⟨Ē ē⟩ , ⟨Ī ī⟩ , ⟨Ō ō⟩ , ⟨Ū ū⟩ ). Stroked variants of ⟨s⟩ are also used in pre-1950 Sorbian orthography. The first Fraktur typeface arose in

4860-915: The Habsburg-controlled Austrian lands, which facilitated some imperial geographic continuity. From 1497/98, Maximilian negotiated an inheritance contract with the last Meinhardin prince, Count Leonhard of Gorizia , which was intended to bring the County of Gorizia to the Habsburgs. However, it was only after a dispute with the Republic of Venice that was finally won that the Gorizia stadtholder Virgil von Graben , who had been won over with high honours, finally succeeded in realizing this contract. Beatrice of Naples , Matthias Corvinus's widow, initially supported Maximilian out of hope that he would marry her, but Maximilian did not want this liaison. The Hungarian magnates found Maximilian impressive, but they wanted

4968-605: The Habsburgs would inherit the throne on the extinction of Vladislaus's male line and the Austrian side also received 100,000 golden florins as war reparations. It was with Maximilian that the Croatians began to harbour a connection to the House of Habsburg. Except the two most powerful noblemen (Duke Ivanis Corvinus and Bernardin Frankopan), the Croatian nobility wanted him as King. Worrying that

5076-668: The Holy Roman Empire. Jewish policy under Maximilian fluctuated greatly, usually influenced by financial considerations and the emperor's vacillating attitude when facing opposing views. In 1496, Maximilian issued a decree which expelled all Jews from Styria and Wiener Neustadt . Between 1494 and 1510, he authorized no less than thirteen expulsions of Jews in return of sizeable fiscal compensations from local government (The expelled Jews were allowed to resettle in Lower Austria. Buttaroni comments that this inconsistency showed that even Maximilian himself did not believe his expulsion decision

5184-628: The Hungarian civil war, new possibilities were opened for Maximilan. From July 1490, Maximilian began a series of short sieges that reconquered cities and fortresses that his father had lost in Austria. Maximilian entered Vienna without siege, already evacuated by the Hungarians, in August 1490. He was injured while attacking the citadel guarded by a garrison of 400 Hungarians troops who twice repelled his forces, but after some days they surrendered. In addition,

5292-717: The Jewish books, especially the Talmud . Reuchlin's arguments seemed to leave an impression on the emperor (who followed his advice, against the recommendation of his own commission), who gradually developed an intellectual interest in the Talmud and other Jewish books. Maximilian later urged the Hebraist Petrus Galatinus to defend Reuchlin's position. Galatinus dedicated his work De Arcanis Catholicae Veritatis , which provided 'a literary "threshold" where Jews and gentiles might meet', to

5400-779: The Low Countries and more flexible as a politician than Maximilian, while also being a capable general. By 1492, rebellions were completely suppressed. Maximilian revoked the Great Privilege and established a strong ducal monarchy undisturbed by particularism. But he would not reintroduce Charles the Bold's centralizing ordinances. Since 1489 (after his departure), the government under Albert of Saxony had made more efforts in consulting representative institutions and showed more restraint in subjugating recalcitrant territories. Notables who had previously supported rebellions returned to city administrations. The Estates General continued to develop as

5508-512: The Low Countries with foreign armies, in 1513, at the head of Henry VIII 's army, Maximilian gained a victory against the French at the Battle of the Spurs , at little cost to himself or his daughter (in fact according to Margaret, the Low Countries got a profit of one million of gold from supplying the English army). For the sake of his grandson Charles's Burgundian lands, he ordered Thérouanne's walls to be demolished (the stronghold had often served as

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5616-615: The Ordinance of Admiralty, that organized the Admiralty as a state institution and strove to centralize maritime authority (this was a departure from the policy of Philip the Good, whose 1458 ordinance tried to restore maritime order by decentralizing power). This was the beginning of the Dutch navy , although initially the policy faced opposition and unfavourable political climate, which only improved with

5724-454: The U.S.) and it is also popular for pub signs and the like. In this modern decorative use, the traditional rules about the use of long s and short ⟨s⟩ and of ligatures are often disregarded. Individual Fraktur letters are sometimes used in mathematics , which often denotes associated or parallel concepts by the same letter in different fonts. For example, a Lie group is often denoted by G , while its associated Lie algebra

5832-462: The appointment of Philip of Burgundy-Beveren in 1491. A permanent navy only took shape after 1555 under the governorship of his granddaughter Mary of Hungary. In 1493, Frederick III died, thus Maximilian I became de facto leader of the Holy Roman Empire. He decided to transfer power to the 15-year-old Philip. During the time in the Low Countries, he contracted such emotional problems that except for rare, necessary occasions, he would never return to

5940-447: The artillery, and eventually captured. This resulted in a disgraceful scene of looting and slaughter that Maximilian and his officers were unable to prevent. The next day became a turning point in Maximilian's campaign, his mercenaries openly mutinied due to the prohibition of looting. Faced with a severe winter, the troops refused to continue the war, requesting Maximilian to double their pay, which he could not afford. The revolt turned

6048-420: The bishop of Utrecht, hoping to share spoils, gave Philip aid. Maximilian invested his own son with Guelders and Zutphen. Within months and with his father's skilled use of field artillery, Philip conquered the whole land and Charles of Egmond was forced to prostrate himself in front of Philip. Maximilian would like to see the Guelders matter to be dealt with once and for all, but as Charles later escaped and Philip

6156-412: The brutality described shows Maximilian and the Habsburg dynasty's insatiable greed of expansion and inability to adapt to local traditions, while Jean-François Lassalmonie opines that the nation building process (successful, with the establishment of a common tax) was remarkably similar to the same process in France, including the hesitation in working with local levels of the political society, except that

6264-400: The change was Maximilian's success in expanding imperial taxing over German Jewry: at this point, he probably considered the possibility of generating tax money from stable Jewish communities, instead of temporary financial compensations from local jurisdictions who sought to expel Jews. Noflatscher and Péterfi note that Maximilian had a deep dislike for Jews since childhood, the reason of which

6372-406: The cost of war, Maximilian's spendthrift liberality and the interests enforced by his German bankers did cause huge expenditure while income was falling. Jelle Haemers comments that the Estates stopped their support towards the young and ambitious impresario (director) of war (who took personal control of both the military and financial details during the war) because they knew that after Guinegate,

6480-424: The country that made the Burgundian monarchy survive. Jean Berenger and C.A. Simpson argue that Maximilian, as a gifted military champion and organizer, did save the Netherlands from France, although the conflict between the Estates and his personal ambitions caused a catastrophic situation in the short term. Peter Spufford opines that the invasion was prevented by a combination of the Estates and Maximilian, although

6588-446: The de facto lord of Guelders continued to cause trouble. In 1511, Margaret made an alliance with England and besieged Venlo, but Charles of Egmont invaded Holland so the siege had to be lifted. James D. Tracy opines that Maximilian and Margaret were reasonable in demanding more stern measures against Guelders, but their critics in the Estates General (that had continuously voted against providing funds for wars against Guelders) and among

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6696-445: The early 16th century, when Emperor Maximilian I commissioned the design of the Triumphal Arch woodcut by Albrecht Dürer and had a new typeface created specifically for this purpose, designed by Hieronymus Andreae . Fraktur types for printing were established by the Augsburg publisher Johann Schönsperger  [ de ] at the issuance of a series of Maximilian's works such as his Prayer Book ( Gebetbuch , 1513) or

6804-475: The emperor created a general treasury ( Hofkammer ) in Innsbruck, which became responsible for all the hereditary lands. The chamber of accounts ( Raitkammer ) at Vienna was made subordinate to this body. Under Paul von Liechtenstein , the Hofkammer was entrusted with not only hereditary lands' affairs, but Maximilian's affairs as the German king too. Historian Joachim Whaley points out that there are usually two opposite views on Maximilian's rulership: one side

6912-482: The emperor. It was Maximilian's support that enabled Reuchlin to fully devote himself to Jewish literature. Like his father Frederick III and his grandson Ferdinand I, he held Jewish physicians and teachers in high esteem. In 1514, he appointed Paulus Ricius , a Jew who converted to Christianity, as his personal physician. He was more interested in Ricius's Hebrew skills than in his medical abilities though. In 1515, he reminded his treasurer Jakob Villinger that Ricius

7020-409: The eponymous poem by Anastasius Grün was published (although the nickname likely existed even in Maximilian's lifetime). Scholarly debates still discuss whether he was truly the last knight (either as an idealized medieval ruler leading people on horseback, or a Don Quixote -type dreamer and misadventurer), or the first Renaissance prince—an amoral Machiavellian politician who carried his family "to

7128-431: The figures below, the German sentence that appears after the names of the fonts (Walbaum-Fraktur in Fig. 1 and Humboldtfraktur in Fig. 2 reads, Victor jagt zwölf Boxkämpfer quer über den Sylter Deich . It means "Victor chases twelve boxers across the Sylt dike" and contains all 26 letters of the alphabet plus the umlauted glyphs used in German, making it an example of a pangram . Unicode does not encode Fraktur as

7236-507: The font, and the cover of Hitler 's Mein Kampf used a hand-drawn version of it. However, more modernized fonts of the Gebrochene Grotesk  [ de ] type such as Tannenberg were in fact the most popular typefaces in Nazi Germany, especially for running text as opposed to decorative uses such as in titles. These fonts were designed in the early 20th century, mainly the 1930s, as grotesque versions of blackletter typefaces. The Nazis heavily used these fonts themselves, although

7344-431: The gentry's hostility to the Habsburg, he managed to gain many supporters from higher aristocracy, including several of Corvinus's former supporters. One of them, Jakob Székely, handed over the Styrian castles to him. He claimed his status as King of Hungary. In the meantime, Vladislas was proclaimed King of Hungary on July 15, 1490, and was crowned at Székesfehérvár in September. Maximilian responded with great energy, using

7452-407: The help of many notable scholars and artists, in his lifetime, the emperor—"the promoter, coordinator, and prime mover, an artistic impresario and entrepreneur with seemingly limitless energy and enthusiasm and an unfailing eye for detail"—had built for himself "a virtual royal self" of a quality that historians call "unmatched" or "hitherto unimagined". To this image, new layers have been added by

7560-466: The illustrated Theuerdank poem (1517). Fraktur quickly overtook the earlier Schwabacher and Textualis typefaces in popularity, and a wide variety of Fraktur fonts were carved and became common in the German-speaking world and areas under German influence (Scandinavia, Estonia, Latvia, Central Europe ). In the 18th century, the German Theuerdank Fraktur was further developed by the Leipzig typographer Johann Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf to create

7668-568: The land again after gaining control. When the Estates sent a delegation to offer him the regency after Philip's death in 1506, he evaded them for months. As suzerain, Maximilian continued to involve himself with the Low Countries from afar. His son's and daughter's governments tried to maintain a compromise between the states and the Empire. Philip, in particular, sought to maintain an independent Burgundian policy, which sometimes caused disagreements with his father. As Philip preferred to maintain peace and economic development for his land, Maximilian

7776-540: The large Burgundian domains in France and the Low Countries upon her father's death in the Battle of Nancy on 5 January 1477. The Duchy of Burgundy was also claimed by the French crown under Salic law , with Louis XI of France vigorously asserting his claim through military force. Maximilian at once undertook the defence of his wife's dominions. Without support from the Empire and with an empty treasury left by Charles

7884-647: The large number of supplications he received). In 1500, as Maximilian urgently needed assistance for his military plans, he agreed to establish an organ called the Reichsregiment (central imperial government, consisting of twenty members including the Electors, with the Emperor or his representative as its chairman), first organized in 1501 in Nuremberg and consisted of the deputies of the Emperor, local rulers, commoners, and

7992-486: The love of science and culture on his own terms though, especially during his time in Burgundy, under the influence of Mary of Burgundy). Although the two remained on good terms overall and the emperor encouraged Maximilian's interest in weapons and the hunt, as well as let him attend important meetings, Frederick was horrified by his only surviving son and heir's overzealousness in chivalric contests, extravagance, and especially

8100-511: The nature of the war was not defensive anymore. Maximilian and his followers had managed to achieve remarkable success in stabilizing the situation though, and a stalemate was kept in Ghent as well as in Bruges, before the tragic death of Mary in 1482 completely turned the political landscape in the whole country upside down. According to Haemers, while Willem Zoete's indictment of Maximilian's government

8208-591: The nobles naively thought that Charles of Egmont could be controlled by maintaining the peaceful relationship with the King of France, his patron. Leading Humanists in the Netherlands like Erasmus and Hadrianus Barlandus displayed a distrust towards the government and especially the person of Maximilian, whom they believed to be a warlike and greedy prince. After the brutal 1517 campaign of Charles of Egmont in Friesland and Holland, these Humanists, in their mistaken belief, spread

8316-551: The offset type period. Fraktur saw a brief resurgence after the war, but thereafter fell out of common use. Fraktur is today used mostly for decorative typesetting: for example, a number of traditional German newspapers such as the Frankfurter Allgemeine , as well as the Norwegian Aftenposten , still print their name in Fraktur on the masthead (as indeed do some newspapers in other European countries and

8424-589: The order, the archbishop of Mainz, the city council of Frankfurt and various German princes tried to intervene in defense of the Jews. Maximilian consequently ordered the confiscated books to be returned. On 23 May 1510 though, influenced by a supposed "host desecration" and blood libel in Brandenburg, as well as pressure from Kunigunde, he ordered the creation of an investigating commission and asked for expert opinions from German universities and scholars. The prominent humanist Johann Reuchlin argued strongly in defense of

8532-419: The period 1482–1492, attempting to regain the autonomy they had enjoyed under Mary. Flemish rebels managed to capture Philip and even Maximilian himself, but they released Maximilian when Frederick III intervened. In 1489, as he turned his attention to his hereditary lands, he left the Low Countries in the hands of Albert of Saxony , who proved to be an excellent choice, as he was less emotionally committed to

8640-939: The predominant typeface was the Normalfraktur, which came in slight variations. From the late 18th century to the late 19th century, Fraktur was progressively replaced by Antiqua as a symbol of the classicist age and emerging cosmopolitanism in most of the countries in Europe that had previously used Fraktur. This move was hotly debated in Germany, where it was known as the Antiqua–Fraktur dispute . The shift affected mostly scientific writing in Germany, whereas most belletristic literature and newspapers continued to be printed in Fraktur. The Fraktur typefaces remained in use in Nazi Germany , when they were initially represented as true German script; official Nazi documents and letterheads employed

8748-409: The prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. Maximilian resented the new organization as it weakened his powers, and the Estates failed to support it. The new organ proved politically weak, and its power returned to Maximilian in 1502. According to Thomas Brady Jr. and Jan-Dirk Müller, the most important governmental changes targeted the heart of the regime: the chancery. Early in Maximilian's reign,

8856-530: The princes. Many measures were launched in the 1495 Reichstag at Worms . A new organ was introduced, the Reichskammergericht , that was to be largely independent from the Emperor. A new tax was launched to finance the Empire's affairs (above all military campaigns), the Gemeine Pfennig . It was levied for the first time between 1495 and 1499, raising 136,000 florins, and another five times during

8964-450: The return of Austrian provinces and Vienna, if they would renounce the treaty of 1463 and accept Matthias as Frederick's designated heir and favoured successor as Holy Roman Emperor. Before this was settled though, Matthias died in Vienna in 1490. However, after Matthias Corvinus died from a stroke on 6 April 1490, civil war broke out in Hungary between the supporters of John Corvinus and the supporters of king Vladislaus of Bohemia . Due to

9072-554: The saddest and most turbulent in the history of the country, and despite his later great imperial career, Maximilian unfortunately could never compensate for the mistakes he made as regent in this period. Some of the Netherlander provinces were hostile to Maximilian, and, in 1482, they signed a treaty with Louis XI in Arras that forced Maximilian to give up Franche-Comté and Artois to the French crown. They openly rebelled twice in

9180-600: The scene, these became their main force). The brutal efficiency of Germanic mercenaries, together with the financial support of cities outside Flanders like Antwerp, Amsterdam, Mechelen and Brussels as well as a small group of loyal landed nobles proved decisive in the Burgundian-Habsburg regime's final triumph. Reviewing the French historian Amable Sablon du Corail's La Guerre, le prince et ses sujets. Les finances des Pays-Bas bourguignons sous Marie de Bourgogne et Maximilien d'Autriche (1477–1493) , Marc Boone comments that

9288-546: The shift remained controversial; in fact, the press was at times scolded for its frequent use of "Roman characters" under "Jewish influence" and German émigrés were urged to use only "German script". On 3 January 1941, the Nazi Party ended this controversy by switching to international scripts such as Antiqua. Martin Bormann issued a circular (the " normal type decree ") to all public offices which declared Fraktur (and its corollary,

9396-538: The situation in favour of the Jagiellonian forces. Maximilian was forced to return. He depended on his father and the territorial estates for financial support. Soon he reconquered Lower and Inner Austria for his father, who returned and settled at Linz. Worrying about his son's adventurous tendencies, Frederick decided to starve him financially. In 1491, they signed the peace treaty of Pressburg , which provided that Maximilian recognized Vladislaus as King of Hungary, but

9504-472: The standard work, a much more positive image of the emperor has emerged. He is seen as an essentially modern, innovative ruler who carried out important reforms and promoted significant cultural achievements, even if the financial price weighed hard on the Austrians and his military expansion caused the deaths and sufferings of tens of thousands of people. Through an "unprecedented" image-building program, with

9612-589: The stories that the emperor and other princes were concocting clever schemes and creating wars just to expand the Habsburg dominion and extracting money. By the time Margaret became Regent, Maximilian was less inclined to help regarding the Guelders matter. He suggested to her that the Estates in the Low Countries should defend themselves, forcing her to sign the 1513 treaty with Charles. Habsburg Netherlands would only be able to incorporate Guelders and Zutphen under Charles V. Following Margaret's strategy of defending

9720-403: The struggle was shorter and after 1494 a peaceful dialogue between the prince and the estates was reached. Jelle Haemers suggests that the level of violence associated with the suppression of the revolts as traditionally imagined has been exaggerated and that most of the violence happened in a symbolical manner, but also cautions against the tendency to consider the "central state" in the sense of

9828-514: The territories he had conceded and some Venetian possessions. Most of the Slovene-inhabited areas were transferred to the Habsburgs. But atrocities and expenses for war devastated Austria and Carniola. Lack of financial means meant that he depended on allies' resources, and just like in the Low Countries, he sometimes practically functioned as the condottiero. When Schiner suggested that they should let war feed war though, he did not agree or

9936-517: The throne." Her early death pushed him even more towards a man's world, where one grew up first as a warrior rather than a politician. Despite the efforts of his father Frederick and his tutor Peter Engelbrecht (whom Maximilian held in contempt all his life because of his violent teaching methods which, according to Cuspinianus , only made Maximilian hate science), Maximilian became an indifferent, at times belligerent student, who much preferred physical activities than learning (he would later rediscover

10044-641: The typeset Breitkopf Fraktur . While over the succeeding centuries, most Central Europeans switched to Antiqua , German speakers remained a notable holdout. Typesetting in Fraktur was still very common in the early 20th century in all German-speaking countries and areas, as well as in Norway , Estonia , and Latvia , and was still used to a very small extent in Sweden , Finland and Denmark , even though other countries typeset in Antiqua . Some books at that time used related blackletter fonts such as Schwabacher ; however,

10152-528: The works of later artists in the centuries following his death, both as continuation of deliberately crafted images developed by his program as well as development of spontaneous sources and exploration of actual historical events, creating what Elaine Tennant dubs the " Maximilian industry ". Maximilian was born at Wiener Neustadt on 22 March 1459. His father, Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor , named him for an obscure saint, Maximilian of Tebessa , who Frederick believed had once warned him of imminent peril in

10260-553: Was King of the Romans from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death in 1519. He was never crowned by the Pope, as the journey to Rome was blocked by the Venetians . He proclaimed himself elected emperor in 1508 ( Pope Julius II later recognized this) at Trent , thus breaking the long tradition of requiring a papal coronation for the adoption of the Imperial title. Maximilian

10368-452: Was a heavy blow personally (Maximilian's entourage seemed to have concealed the incident from him for more than ten days) and also politically, as by this time, he had become his father's most important international ally, although he retained his independent judgement. All their joint ventures fell apart, including the planned Italian expedition in 1508. The Estates preferred to maintain peace with France and Guelders. But Charles of Egmont,

10476-590: Was a one-sided picture that exaggerated the negative points and the Regency Council displayed many of the same problems, Maximilian and his followers could have been more prudent when dealing with the complaints of their opponents before matters became bigger. During his time in the Low Countries, he had experimented with all kinds of military models available, first urban militia and vassalic troops, then French-style companies that were too rigid and costly, and finally Germanic mercenaries (when Albert of Saxony came to

10584-411: Was admitted for the purpose of translating the Talmud into Latin, and urged Villinger to keep an eye on him. Perhaps overwhelmed by the emperor's request, Ricius only managed to translate two out of sixty-three Mishna tractates before the emperor's death. Ricius managed to publish a translation of Joseph Gikatilla 's Kabbalistic work The Gates of Light , which was dedicated to Maximilian, though. It

10692-524: Was among the fallen), while Maximilian's own advance was blocked by the main Venetian force under Niccolò di Pitigliano and a French army under Alessandro Trivulzio . Bartolomeo d'Alviano then pushed into the Imperial territory, seizing Gorizia and Trieste, forcing Maximilian to sign a very unfavourable truce. Afterwards, he formed the League of Cambrai together with Spain, France and Pope Julius II and won back

10800-476: Was at haste to make his 1506 fatal journey to Spain, troubles would soon arise again, leaving Margaret to deal with the problems. Maximilian was exasperated by the attitude of Philip (whom, in Maximilian's imagination, was probably influenced by insidious French agency) and the Estates, whom he considered to be unbelievably nonchalant and tightfisted about a threat to their own country's security. Philip's death in Burgos

10908-528: Was empty. The battle was an important landmark in military history though: the Burgundian pikemen were the precursors of the Landsknechte , while the French side derived the momentum for military reform from their loss. According to some, Maximilian and Mary's wedding contract stipulated that their children would succeed them but that the couple could not be each other's heirs. Mary tried to bypass this rule with

11016-399: Was just.). After 1510 though, this happened only once, and he showed an unusually resolute attitude in resisting a campaign to expel Jews from Regensburg. David Price comments that during the first seventeen years of his reign, he was a great threat to the Jews, but after 1510, even if his attitude was still exploitative, his policy gradually changed. A factor that probably played a role in

11124-400: Was left fighting Charles of Egmond over Guelders on his own resources. At one point, Philip let French troops supporting Guelders's resistance to his rule pass through his own land. Only at the end of his reign, Philip decided to deal with this threat together with his father. By this time, Guelders had been affected by the continuous state of war and other problems. The duke of Cleves and

11232-455: Was not brutal enough to do that. He acknowledged French control of Milan in 1515. The situation in Italy was not the only problem Maximilian had at the time. The Swiss won a decisive victory against the Empire in the Battle of Dornach on 22 July 1499. Maximilian had no choice but to agree to a peace treaty signed on 22 September 1499 in Basel that granted the Swiss Confederacy independence from

11340-411: Was not popular though. According to Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger though, throughout the early modern period, the Reichshofrat remained by far the faster and more efficient among the two Courts. The Reichskammergericht on the other hand was often torn by matters related to confessional alliance. Around 1497–1498, as part of his administrative reforms, he restructured his Privy Council ( Geheimer Rat ),

11448-590: Was seemingly linked to the fear of the Turks (the Romani were accused of being spies for the Turks). Kenrich and Puxon explains that connect the situation with the consolidation of European nation-states, that also stimulated similar policies elsewhere. Within the Holy Roman Empire, there was also a consensus that deep reforms were needed to preserve the unity of the Empire. For most of his reign, Frederick III had considered reform as

11556-453: Was the only surviving son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor , and Eleanor of Portugal . Since his coronation as King of the Romans in 1486, he ran a double government, or Doppelregierung (with a separate court), with his father until Frederick's death in 1493. Maximilian expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through war and his marriage in 1477 to Mary of Burgundy , the ruler of

11664-684: Was under Frederick and Maximilian that the foundation of Modern Judaism arose, steeped in Humanism. It was under Maximilian that policies concerning the Romani became harsher. In 1500, a notice was given to the Romani that they had to leave Germany by the next Easter, or become outlaws (the Romani had to evade the law by following a constant circuit from an area to another, and at times, obtain patronage from aristocrats). The reformation beginning in 1517 did not consider them foreigners anymore, but as local beggars, they also faced discrimination. The change in policy

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