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59-721: Melizoderidae is a family of treehoppers restricted to South America with only two genera, Melizoderes and Llanquihuea . The nymphs of melizoderids have the tergum of the 9th segment concealing the anal opening from above. The frontoclypeus (forehead) is convex and extended forward and below. The pronotum extends forward and above but not backward over the scutellum which is keeled posteriorly. Treehopper Centronodinae (disputed) Centrotinae Darninae Endoiastinae Heteronotinae Membracinae Nicomiinae (disputed) Smiliinae Stegaspidinae (disputed) and see text Nicomiidae Treehoppers (more precisely typical treehoppers to distinguish them from
118-438: A holoparasite such as Cuscuta derives all of its nutrients from another plant. Parasitic plants make up about one per cent of angiosperms and are in almost every biome in the world. All these plants have modified roots, haustoria , which penetrate the host plants, connecting them to the conductive system—either the xylem , the phloem , or both. This provides them with the ability to extract water and nutrients from
177-511: A cause of gastroenteritis , is spread by the fecal–oral route from animals, or by eating insufficiently cooked poultry , or by contaminated water. Haemophilus influenzae , an agent of bacterial meningitis and respiratory tract infections such as influenza and bronchitis , is transmitted by droplet contact. Treponema pallidum , the cause of syphilis , is spread by sexual activity . Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, characterised by extremely limited biological function, to
236-627: A faster rate than their hosts. Classic examples include interactions between vertebrate hosts and tapeworms , flukes , and those between the malaria-causing Plasmodium species, and fleas . Parasites reduce host fitness by general or specialised pathology , that ranges from parasitic castration to modification of host behaviour . Parasites increase their own fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their survival, in particular by feeding on them and by using intermediate (secondary) hosts to assist in their transmission from one definitive (primary) host to another. Although parasitism
295-595: A hormone or by diverting nutrients. For example, the trematode Zoogonus lasius , whose sporocysts lack mouths, castrates the intertidal marine snail Tritia obsoleta chemically, developing in its gonad and killing its reproductive cells. Directly transmitted parasites, not requiring a vector to reach their hosts, include such parasites of terrestrial vertebrates as lice and mites; marine parasites such as copepods and cyamid amphipods; monogeneans ; and many species of nematodes, fungi, protozoans, bacteria, and viruses. Whether endoparasites or ectoparasites, each has
354-836: A parasite employs to identify and approach a potential host are known as "host cues". Such cues can include, for example, vibration, exhaled carbon dioxide , skin odours, visual and heat signatures, and moisture. Parasitic plants can use, for example, light, host physiochemistry, and volatiles to recognize potential hosts. There are six major parasitic strategies , namely parasitic castration ; directly transmitted parasitism; trophically -transmitted parasitism; vector -transmitted parasitism; parasitoidism ; and micropredation. These apply to parasites whose hosts are plants as well as animals. These strategies represent adaptive peaks ; intermediate strategies are possible, but organisms in many different groups have consistently converged on these six, which are evolutionarily stable. A perspective on
413-618: A parasitic alien species. First used in English in 1539, the word parasite comes from the Medieval French parasite , from the Latinised form parasitus , from Ancient Greek παράσιτος (parasitos) 'one who eats at the table of another' in turn from παρά (para) 'beside, by' and σῖτος (sitos) 'wheat, food'. The related term parasitism appears in English from 1611. Parasitism
472-432: A phenomenon termed the biotrophy-necrotrophy switch . Pathogenic fungi are well-known causative agents of diseases on animals as well as humans. Fungal infections ( mycosis ) are estimated to kill 1.6 million people each year. One example of a potent fungal animal pathogen are Microsporidia - obligate intracellular parasitic fungi that largely affect insects, but may also affect vertebrates including humans, causing
531-533: A predator, the European sparrowhawk , giving her time to lay her eggs in the host's nest unobserved. Host species often combat parasitic egg mimicry through egg polymorphism , having two or more egg phenotypes within a single population of a species. Multiple phenotypes in host eggs decrease the probability of a parasitic species accurately "matching" their eggs to host eggs. In kleptoparasitism (from Greek κλέπτης ( kleptēs ), "thief"), parasites steal food gathered by
590-573: A single host-species. Within that species, most individuals are free or almost free of parasites, while a minority carry a large number of parasites; this is known as an aggregated distribution . Trophically -transmitted parasites are transmitted by being eaten by a host. They include trematodes (all except schistosomes ), cestodes , acanthocephalans , pentastomids , many roundworms , and many protozoa such as Toxoplasma . They have complex life cycles involving hosts of two or more species. In their juvenile stages they infect and often encyst in
649-430: A suitable fungus soon after germinating. Parasitic fungi derive some or all of their nutritional requirements from plants, other fungi, or animals. Plant pathogenic fungi are classified into three categories depending on their mode of nutrition: biotrophs, hemibiotrophs and necrotrophs. Biotrophic fungi derive nutrients from living plant cells, and during the course of infection they colonise their plant host in such
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#1733092896806708-1047: A variety of methods to infect animal hosts, including physical contact, the fecal–oral route , free-living infectious stages, and vectors, suiting their differing hosts, life cycles, and ecological contexts. Examples to illustrate some of the many possible combinations are given in the table. social behaviour (grooming) Among the many variations on parasitic strategies are hyperparasitism, social parasitism, brood parasitism, kleptoparasitism, sexual parasitism, and adelphoparasitism. Hyperparasites feed on another parasite, as exemplified by protozoa living in helminth parasites, or facultative or obligate parasitoids whose hosts are either conventional parasites or parasitoids. Levels of parasitism beyond secondary also occur, especially among facultative parasitoids. In oak gall systems, there can be up to five levels of parasitism. Hyperparasites can control their hosts' populations, and are used for this purpose in agriculture and to some extent in medicine . The controlling effects can be seen in
767-469: A variety of routes. To give a few examples, Bacillus anthracis , the cause of anthrax , is spread by contact with infected domestic animals ; its spores , which can survive for years outside the body, can enter a host through an abrasion or may be inhaled. Borrelia , the cause of Lyme disease and relapsing fever , is transmitted by vectors, ticks of the genus Ixodes , from the diseases' reservoirs in animals such as deer . Campylobacter jejuni ,
826-474: A way as to keep it alive for a maximally long time. One well-known example of a biotrophic pathogen is Ustilago maydis , causative agent of the corn smut disease. Necrotrophic pathogens on the other hand, kill host cells and feed saprophytically , an example being the root-colonising honey fungi in the genus Armillaria . Hemibiotrophic pathogens begin their colonising their hosts as biotrophs, and subsequently killing off host cells and feeding as necrotrophs,
885-563: Is a kind of symbiosis , a close and persistent long-term biological interaction between a parasite and its host. Unlike saprotrophs , parasites feed on living hosts, though some parasitic fungi, for instance, may continue to feed on hosts they have killed. Unlike commensalism and mutualism , the parasitic relationship harms the host, either feeding on it or, as in the case of intestinal parasites, consuming some of its food. Because parasites interact with other species, they can readily act as vectors of pathogens, causing disease . Predation
944-675: Is aggregated. Coinfection by multiple parasites is common. Autoinfection , where (by exception) the whole of the parasite's life cycle takes place in a single primary host, can sometimes occur in helminths such as Strongyloides stercoralis . Vector-transmitted parasites rely on a third party, an intermediate host, where the parasite does not reproduce sexually, to carry them from one definitive host to another. These parasites are microorganisms, namely protozoa , bacteria , or viruses , often intracellular pathogens (disease-causers). Their vectors are mostly hematophagic arthropods such as fleas, lice, ticks, and mosquitoes. For example,
1003-443: Is by definition not a symbiosis, as the interaction is brief, but the entomologist E. O. Wilson has characterised parasites as "predators that eat prey in units of less than one". Within that scope are many possible strategies. Taxonomists classify parasites in a variety of overlapping schemes, based on their interactions with their hosts and on their life cycles , which can be complex. An obligate parasite depends completely on
1062-645: Is found in the ant Tetramorium inquilinum , an obligate parasite which lives exclusively on the backs of other Tetramorium ants. A mechanism for the evolution of social parasitism was first proposed by Carlo Emery in 1909. Now known as " Emery's rule ", it states that social parasites tend to be closely related to their hosts, often being in the same genus. Intraspecific social parasitism occurs in parasitic nursing, where some individual young take milk from unrelated females. In wedge-capped capuchins , higher ranking females sometimes take milk from low ranking females without any reciprocation. In brood parasitism ,
1121-585: Is often unambiguous, it is part of a spectrum of interactions between species , grading via parasitoidism into predation, through evolution into mutualism , and in some fungi, shading into being saprophytic . Human knowledge of parasites such as roundworms and tapeworms dates back to ancient Egypt , Greece , and Rome . In early modern times, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek observed Giardia lamblia with his microscope in 1681, while Francesco Redi described internal and external parasites including sheep liver fluke and ticks . Modern parasitology developed in
1180-419: Is seen in some species of anglerfish , such as Ceratias holboelli , where the males are reduced to tiny sexual parasites , wholly dependent on females of their own species for survival, permanently attached below the female's body, and unable to fend for themselves. The female nourishes the male and protects him from predators, while the male gives nothing back except the sperm that the female needs to produce
1239-584: Is tentative. It seems three main lineages can be distinguished; the Endoiastinae are the most ancient treehoppers, still somewhat resembling cicadas . Centrotinae form the second group; they are somewhat more advanced but the pronotum still does not cover the scutellum in almost all of these. The Darninae , Heteronotinae , Membracinae and Smiliinae contain the most apomorphic treehoppers. Several proposed subfamilies seem to be paraphyletic . Centronodinae and Nicomiinae might need to be merged into
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#17330928968061298-469: Is then carried to a nest, sometimes alongside other prey if it is not large enough to support a parasitoid throughout its development. An egg is laid on top of the prey and the nest is then sealed. The parasitoid develops rapidly through its larval and pupal stages, feeding on the provisions left for it. Koinobiont parasitoids, which include flies as well as wasps, lay their eggs inside young hosts, usually larvae. These are allowed to go on growing, so
1357-694: The Aetalionidae ) and thorn bugs are members of the family Membracidae , a group of insects related to the cicadas and the leafhoppers . About 3,200 species of treehoppers in over 400 genera are known. They are found on all continents except Antarctica; only five species are known from Europe . Individual treehoppers usually live for only a few months. Treehoppers, due to their unusual appearance, have long interested naturalists . They are best known for their enlarged and ornate pronotum , expanded into often fantastic shapes that enhance their camouflage or mimicry , often resembling plant thorns (thus
1416-505: The snubnosed eel is probably a facultative endoparasite (i.e., it is semiparasitic) that opportunistically burrows into and eats sick and dying fish. Plant-eating insects such as scale insects , aphids , and caterpillars closely resemble ectoparasites, attacking much larger plants; they serve as vectors of bacteria, fungi and viruses which cause plant diseases . As female scale insects cannot move, they are obligate parasites, permanently attached to their hosts. The sensory inputs that
1475-504: The 19th century. In human culture, parasitism has negative connotations. These were exploited to satirical effect in Jonathan Swift 's 1733 poem "On Poetry: A Rhapsody", comparing poets to hyperparasitical "vermin". In fiction, Bram Stoker 's 1897 Gothic horror novel Dracula and its many later adaptations featured a blood-drinking parasite. Ridley Scott 's 1979 film Alien was one of many works of science fiction to feature
1534-510: The Centrotinae to result in a monophyletic group. Parasite Parasitism is a close relationship between species , where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host , causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson characterised parasites as "predators that eat prey in units of less than one". Parasites include single-celled protozoans such as
1593-504: The abdomen. Mutualisms are not done only for protection against predators. Nymphs of the treehopper Publilia concava have higher survivorship in the presence of ants even when predators are absent. This is suspected to be because uncollected honeydew leads to the growth of sooty mould , which may hinder excretion by treehoppers and photosynthesis by their host plants. Ant collection of honeydew thus allows treehoppers to feed more (the feeding facilitation hypothesis). Eggs are laid by
1652-562: The adults more often frequent hardwood tree species. Excess sap becomes concentrated as honeydew , which often attracts ants . Some species have a well-developed ant mutualism , and these species are normally gregarious as well, which attracts more ants. The ants provide protection from predators . Treehoppers mimic thorns to prevent predators from spotting them. Others have formed mutualisms with wasps, such as Parachartergus apicalis . Even geckos form mutualistic relations with treehoppers, with whom they communicate by small vibrations of
1711-635: The agents of malaria , sleeping sickness , and amoebic dysentery ; animals such as hookworms , lice , mosquitoes , and vampire bats ; fungi such as honey fungus and the agents of ringworm ; and plants such as mistletoe , dodder , and the broomrapes . There are six major parasitic strategies of exploitation of animal hosts, namely parasitic castration , directly transmitted parasitism (by contact), trophically-transmitted parasitism (by being eaten), vector-transmitted parasitism, parasitoidism , and micropredation. One major axis of classification concerns invasiveness: an endoparasite lives inside
1770-696: The air or soil given off by host shoots or roots , respectively. About 4,500 species of parasitic plant in approximately 20 families of flowering plants are known. Species within the Orobanchaceae (broomrapes) are among the most economically destructive of all plants. Species of Striga (witchweeds) are estimated to cost billions of dollars a year in crop yield loss, infesting over 50 million hectares of cultivated land within Sub-Saharan Africa alone. Striga infects both grasses and grains, including corn , rice , and sorghum , which are among
1829-399: The commonly used name of "thorn bugs" for a number of treehopper species). Treehoppers have specialized muscles in the hind femora that unfurl to generate sufficient force to jump. It had been suggested that the pronotal "helmet" could be serial homologues of insect wings, but this interpretation has been refuted by several later studies (e.g., ). Treehopper nymphs can be recognised by
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1888-864: The deer tick Ixodes scapularis acts as a vector for diseases including Lyme disease , babesiosis , and anaplasmosis . Protozoan endoparasites, such as the malarial parasites in the genus Plasmodium and sleeping-sickness parasites in the genus Trypanosoma , have infective stages in the host's blood which are transported to new hosts by biting insects. Parasitoids are insects which sooner or later kill their hosts, placing their relationship close to predation. Most parasitoids are parasitoid wasps or other hymenopterans ; others include dipterans such as phorid flies . They can be divided into two groups, idiobionts and koinobionts, differing in their treatment of their hosts. Idiobiont parasitoids sting their often-large prey on capture, either killing them outright or paralysing them immediately. The immobilised prey
1947-409: The energy that would have gone into reproduction into host and parasite growth, sometimes causing gigantism in the host. The host's other systems remain intact, allowing it to survive and to sustain the parasite. Parasitic crustaceans such as those in the specialised barnacle genus Sacculina specifically cause damage to the gonads of their many species of host crabs . In the case of Sacculina ,
2006-491: The evolutionary options can be gained by considering four key questions: the effect on the fitness of a parasite's hosts; the number of hosts they have per life stage; whether the host is prevented from reproducing; and whether the effect depends on intensity (number of parasites per host). From this analysis, the major evolutionary strategies of parasitism emerge, alongside predation. Parasitic castrators partly or completely destroy their host's ability to reproduce, diverting
2065-444: The family Cuculidae , over 40% of cuckoo species are obligate brood parasites, while others are either facultative brood parasites or provide parental care. The eggs of some brood parasites mimic those of their hosts, while some cowbird eggs have tough shells, making them hard for the hosts to kill by piercing, both mechanisms implying selection by the hosts against parasitic eggs. The adult female European cuckoo further mimics
2124-662: The female with her saw-like ovipositor in slits cut into the cambium or live tissue of stems, though some species lay eggs on top of leaves or stems. The eggs may be parasitised by wasps , such as the tiny fairyflies (Mymaridae) and Trichogrammatidae . The females of some membracid species sit over their eggs to protect them from predators and parasites, and may buzz their wings at intruders. The females of some gregarious species work together to protect each other's eggs. In at least one species, Publilia modesta , mothers serve to attract ants when nymphs are too small to produce much honeydew. Some other species make feeding slits for
2183-424: The host and parasitoid develop together for an extended period, ending when the parasitoids emerge as adults, leaving the prey dead, eaten from inside. Some koinobionts regulate their host's development, for example preventing it from pupating or making it moult whenever the parasitoid is ready to moult. They may do this by producing hormones that mimic the host's moulting hormones ( ecdysteroids ), or by regulating
2242-442: The host to complete its life cycle, while a facultative parasite does not. Parasite life cycles involving only one host are called "direct"; those with a definitive host (where the parasite reproduces sexually) and at least one intermediate host are called "indirect". An endoparasite lives inside the host's body; an ectoparasite lives outside, on the host's surface. Mesoparasites—like some copepods , for example—enter an opening in
2301-422: The host's body and remain partly embedded there. Some parasites can be generalists, feeding on a wide range of hosts, but many parasites, and the majority of protozoans and helminths that parasitise animals, are specialists and extremely host-specific. An early basic, functional division of parasites distinguished microparasites and macroparasites. These each had a mathematical model assigned in order to analyse
2360-453: The host's body; an ectoparasite lives outside, on the host's surface. Like predation, parasitism is a type of consumer–resource interaction , but unlike predators , parasites, with the exception of parasitoids, are much smaller than their hosts, do not kill them, and often live in or on their hosts for an extended period. Parasites of animals are highly specialised , each parasite species living on one given animal species, and reproduce at
2419-656: The host's endocrine system. A micropredator attacks more than one host, reducing each host's fitness by at least a small amount, and is only in contact with any one host intermittently. This behavior makes micropredators suitable as vectors, as they can pass smaller parasites from one host to another. Most micropredators are hematophagic , feeding on blood. They include annelids such as leeches , crustaceans such as branchiurans and gnathiid isopods, various dipterans such as mosquitoes and tsetse flies , other arthropods such as fleas and ticks, vertebrates such as lampreys , and mammals such as vampire bats . Parasites use
Melizoderidae - Misplaced Pages Continue
2478-425: The host. A parasitic plant is classified depending on where it latches onto the host, either the stem or the root, and the amount of nutrients it requires. Since holoparasites have no chlorophyll and therefore cannot make food for themselves by photosynthesis , they are always obligate parasites, deriving all their food from their hosts. Some parasitic plants can locate their host plants by detecting chemicals in
2537-477: The host. The parasitism is often on close relatives, whether within the same species or between species in the same genus or family. For instance, the many lineages of cuckoo bees lay their eggs in the nest cells of other bees in the same family. Kleptoparasitism is uncommon generally but conspicuous in birds; some such as skuas are specialised in pirating food from other seabirds, relentlessly chasing them down until they disgorge their catch. A unique approach
2596-423: The hosts suffer increased parental investment and energy expenditure to feed parasitic young, which are commonly larger than host young. The growth rate of host nestlings is slowed, reducing the host's fitness. Brood parasites include birds in different families such as cowbirds , whydahs , cuckoos , and black-headed ducks . These do not build nests of their own, but leave their eggs in nests of other species . In
2655-472: The intermediate host. When the intermediate-host animal is eaten by a predator, the definitive host, the parasite survives the digestion process and matures into an adult; some live as intestinal parasites . Many trophically transmitted parasites modify the behaviour of their intermediate hosts, increasing their chances of being eaten by a predator. As with directly transmitted parasites, the distribution of trophically transmitted parasites among host individuals
2714-471: The intestinal infection microsporidiosis . Protozoa such as Plasmodium , Trypanosoma , and Entamoeba are endoparasitic. They cause serious diseases in vertebrates including humans—in these examples, malaria, sleeping sickness, and amoebic dysentery —and have complex life cycles. Many bacteria are parasitic, though they are more generally thought of as pathogens causing disease. Parasitic bacteria are extremely diverse, and infect their hosts by
2773-441: The large blue butterfly, Phengaris arion , its larvae employing ant mimicry to parasitise certain ants, Bombus bohemicus , a bumblebee which invades the hives of other bees and takes over reproduction while their young are raised by host workers, and Melipona scutellaris , a eusocial bee whose virgin queens escape killer workers and invade another colony without a queen. An extreme example of interspecific social parasitism
2832-567: The largest group is the parasitoid wasps in the Hymenoptera. The phyla and classes with the largest numbers of parasitic species are listed in the table. Numbers are conservative minimum estimates. The columns for Endo- and Ecto-parasitism refer to the definitive host, as documented in the Vertebrate and Invertebrate columns. A hemiparasite or partial parasite such as mistletoe derives some of its nutrients from another living plant, whereas
2891-537: The marine worm Bonellia viridis has a similar reproductive strategy, although the larvae are planktonic. Examples of the major variant strategies are illustrated. Parasitism has an extremely wide taxonomic range, including animals, plants, fungi, protozoans, bacteria, and viruses. Parasitism is widespread in the animal kingdom, and has evolved independently from free-living forms hundreds of times. Many types of helminth including flukes and cestodes have complete life cycles involving two or more hosts. By far
2950-407: The next generation. Adelphoparasitism, (from Greek ἀδελφός ( adelphós ), brother ), also known as sibling-parasitism, occurs where the host species is closely related to the parasite, often in the same family or genus. In the citrus blackfly parasitoid, Encarsia perplexa , unmated females may lay haploid eggs in the fully developed larvae of their own species, producing male offspring, while
3009-542: The nymphs. Most species are innocuous to humans, although a few are considered minor pests, such as Umbonia crassicornis (a thorn bug), the three-cornered alfalfa hopper ( Spissistilus festinus ), and the buffalo treehopper ( Stictocephala bisonia ), which has been introduced to Europe . The cowbug Oxyrachis tarandus has been recorded as a pest of Withania somnifera in India. The diversity of treehoppers has been little researched, and their systematic arrangement
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#17330928968063068-417: The point where, while they are evidently able to infect all other organisms from bacteria and archaea to animals, plants and fungi, it is unclear whether they can themselves be described as living. They can be either RNA or DNA viruses consisting of a single or double strand of genetic material ( RNA or DNA , respectively), covered in a protein coat and sometimes a lipid envelope. They thus lack all
3127-535: The population movements of the host–parasite groupings. The microorganisms and viruses that can reproduce and complete their life cycle within the host are known as microparasites. Macroparasites are the multicellular organisms that reproduce and complete their life cycle outside of the host or on the host's body. Much of the thinking on types of parasitism has focused on terrestrial animal parasites of animals, such as helminths. Those in other environments and with other hosts often have analogous strategies. For example,
3186-466: The testes of over two-thirds of their crab hosts degenerate sufficiently for these male crabs to develop female secondary sex characteristics such as broader abdomens, smaller claws and egg-grasping appendages. Various species of helminth castrate their hosts (such as insects and snails). This may happen directly, whether mechanically by feeding on their gonads, or by secreting a chemical that destroys reproductive cells; or indirectly, whether by secreting
3245-403: The tropics, however effectively cheat by taking carbon from a fungus rather than exchanging it for minerals. They have much reduced roots, as they do not need to absorb water from the soil; their stems are slender with few vascular bundles , and their leaves are reduced to small scales, as they do not photosynthesize. Their seeds are small and numerous, so they appear to rely on being infected by
3304-474: The tube-like ninth abdominal segment, through which the tenth and eleventh segments can be exerted in defence or to provide honeydew to other animals (explained further in the next section). The tube is longer (compared to the rest of the body) in early instars compared to late instars. Treehoppers have pointy, tube-shaped mouthparts that they use to pierce plant stems and feed upon sap. The young can frequently be found on herbaceous shrubs and grasses, while
3363-506: The usual machinery of the cell such as enzymes , relying entirely on the host cell's ability to replicate DNA and synthesise proteins. Most viruses are bacteriophages , infecting bacteria. Parasitism is a major aspect of evolutionary ecology; for example, almost all free-living animals are host to at least one species of parasite. Vertebrates, the best-studied group, are hosts to between 75,000 and 300,000 species of helminths and an uncounted number of parasitic microorganisms. On average,
3422-585: The way that the CHV1 virus helps to control the damage that chestnut blight , Cryphonectria parasitica , does to American chestnut trees, and in the way that bacteriophages can limit bacterial infections. It is likely, though little researched, that most pathogenic microparasites have hyperparasites which may prove widely useful in both agriculture and medicine. Social parasites take advantage of interspecific interactions between members of eusocial animals such as ants , termites , and bumblebees . Examples include
3481-471: The world's most important food crops. Orobanche also threatens a wide range of other important crops, including peas , chickpeas , tomatoes , carrots , and varieties of cabbage . Yield loss from Orobanche can be total; despite extensive research, no method of control has been entirely successful. Many plants and fungi exchange carbon and nutrients in mutualistic mycorrhizal relationships. Some 400 species of myco-heterotrophic plants, mostly in
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