Tunisian rebels
147-502: The Mejba Revolt (1864–65) was a rebellion in Tunisia against the doubling of an unpopular poll tax (the mejba ) imposed on his subjects by Sadok Bey . The most extensive revolt against the rule of the Husainid Beys of Tunis, it saw uprisings all over the country and came close to prompting military intervention by Britain and France. The revolt was suppressed with great brutality and
294-602: A Circassian odalisque Lella Kmar , who was a gift from the Ottoman sultan . His main residence was the Ksar Said palace, built in an Italianate style in front of the Bardo palace. It had been confiscated from the former minister and Keeper of the Seals, Ismail as-Sunni, who was accused of treason and executed in 1867. (This minister was the maternal grandfather of the future Moncef Bey ). It
441-453: A British subject named Holt to set up the first official printing press, as well as the first Arabic-language newspaper in the country, the ar-Ra'id at-Tūnisi . A telegraph concession was established, with a French interest taking it up in 1859. On 23 April 1861 he promulgated the first written constitution in the Arab world, separating executive, legislative and judiciary powers, through
588-592: A Latin-speaking Christian Berber society to a Muslim and mostly Arabic-speaking society took over 400 years (the equivalent process in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent took 600 years) and resulted in the final disappearance of Christianity and Latin in the 12th or 13th century. The majority of the population were not Muslim until quite late in the 9th century; a vast majority were during the 10th. Also, some Tunisian Christians emigrated; some richer members of society did so after
735-439: A collective assessment. The Beys also imposed monopoly taxes on salt, tobacco, tanned hides and other commodities. In 1856, Muhammad Bey embarked on a major fiscal reform. He gave up most of his taxes on commodities and agricultural goods (except for olive and date trees, oils and cereals) as well as the old mejba levies, and instituted a new capitation tax called the i'ana ( Arabic : اعانة ) which quickly also became known as
882-608: A definite movement as tribal notables came together to swear solemn oaths and began to unite around specific demands—a return to traditional justice and taxation. Ben Ghedhahem's main lieutenants were the Zlassi Seboui Ben Mohamed Seboui and the Riahi Fraj Ben Dahr. Ali Ben Ghedhahem had connections in the Tijaniyyah order of Sufis who spread the message of insurrection. From April 1864 onwards, Ali Ben Ghedhahem
1029-629: A further loan of 5m francs in June 1865. In January 1866, the European banks were approached again for 115m francs, which could not be raised. To avoid a default, a new loan of 100m francs was launched on 9 February 1867, to pay off the commitments from 1863 and 1865, guaranteed against the receipts of those taxes which could still be levied. By 1868, the state was effectively bankrupt; foreign creditors were no longer being paid, and they called on their governments to intervene. A beylical decree of 5 July 1869 established
1176-662: A godsend for the Bey. Not only did he make a show of force to deter the European powers, he also brought desperately-needed financial support in the amount of 0.5m francs in gold coin. At the same time the government was able to raise further funds by selling the coming olive harvest to European traders in advance, with Khaznadar once again profiting from the transaction. This allowed the Bey to re-recruit 2,000 zouaoua troops who had been dismissed from service by his predecessor Muhammad Bey for grave indiscipline. As they were Kabyles from Algeria, their loyalty could be relied on as they had no ties to
1323-584: A governor, usually a near relative of the Caliph. Despite the prestige of the new masters, the country was still unruly, with continuous rioting and fighting between the townsfolk and wandering Arabs and Turks, the latter being subjects of the Muslim Armenian adventurer Karakush. Also, Tunisia was occupied by Ayyubids between 1182 and 1183 and again between 1184 and 1187. The greatest threat to Almohad rule in Tunisia
1470-550: A military academy at Le Bardo and begun training a larger army. He sent 15,000 Tunisian soldiers to fight for the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War , and also established new government offices—the rabta managing state grain silos; the ghaba in charge of olive oil forests; and the ghorfa, the central state procurement office. His successor Muhammad Bey was an ambitious palace-builder. To fund these expensive new ventures,
1617-434: A new Supreme Council, legislature and court system and thereby limiting his own powers. This constitution reaffirmed the equality of rights for Muslims, Christians (effectively, therefore, for Europeans) and for Jews ; in particular, concerning the right to own property. This created a new legal environment which encouraged Europeans to set up businesses in Tunisia. The new constitution was not popular. The new Supreme Council
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#17328761906911764-460: A new Supreme Council, legislature and court system, thus limiting the powers of the Bey. This constitution guaranteed equality of rights to Muslims, Christians (effectively, therefore, to Europeans) and to Jews ; in particular, concerning the right to own property. This created a new legal environment which encouraged Europeans to set up businesses in Tunisia; thus new French traders appeared, along with non-Muslim religious schools. On 26 April 1861,
1911-489: A number of its historic gates - Bab Cartagena , Bab Souika , Bab Bnet and Bab El Jazira . The bronze cannon on the city walls and the fortifications of La Goulette were sold off in 1872. Europeans began to settle near the former Bab el Bhar , in streets close to the old walls and along the Avenue de la Marine, now planted with fig trees. Room for building was limited in nearby areas by European cemeteries, particularly opposite
2058-511: A pantheon of Middle Eastern gods including Baal and Tanit . Tanit's symbol, a simple female figure with extended arms and long dress, is a popular icon found in ancient sites. The founders of Carthage also established a Tophet , which was altered in Roman times. A Carthaginian invasion of Italy led by Hannibal during the Second Punic War , one of a series of wars with Rome , nearly crippled
2205-664: A series of reforms modelled on the Ottoman Tanzimat . As a result, Muhammad Bey agreed to the Fundamental Pact ( Arabic : عهد الأمان ) ( 'Ahd al-Aman or Pledge of Security). The Pact guaranteed equality of taxation (thus implicitly abolishing the discriminatory jizya tax imposed on non-Muslims). It also permitted foreigners to own land, participate in all types of businesses and set up separate commercial courts. A number of concessions were quickly granted to French firms, for example to construct telegraph lines and renovate
2352-470: A sheet and wrapped up all their jewels and all their land titles. My father had the task of taking all this to Zarrouk to obtain my grandfather's freedom. He made his way to the encampment where a number of tents stood. Above one of them flew a flag. This was the tent of General Zarrouk, who took all our fortune and freed his prisoners. Ten days later, my grandfather died from the appalling treatment he had suffered. My father did not escape unscathed either. He
2499-541: A sign of foreign interference. Sadok Bey tried to resolve the country's chronic financial problems in May 1862 by borrowing 10m piastres at 12% interest from Nassim Shamama, his Jewish Receiver-General of Finances. As a result, internal public debt increased by 60% during the first three years of his reign. The loan secured from Nassim Shamama was not sufficient to restore the Regency to financial health. Indeed, interest payments on
2646-402: A total 22.95m piastres of government income. Although burdensome, the new mejba was not sufficient to eliminate the government deficit. The developing economy meant that increasingly gold and silver coin tended to fall into the hands of European merchants, who took it out of the country. When the foreign merchants refused to accept copper coins, Muhammad Bey issued debased currency in 1858. Since
2793-481: Is Nomad and indeed the people were semi-nomadic until the reign of Masinissa of the Massyli tribe. At the beginning of recorded history, Tunisia was inhabited by Berber tribes. Its coast was settled by Phoenicians starting as early as the 12th century BC ( Bizerte , Utica ). The city of Carthage was founded in the 9th century BC by Phoenicians. Legend says that Dido from Tyre, now in modern-day Lebanon, founded
2940-518: Is a part of the Maghreb region of North Africa , bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisia also shares maritime borders with Italy through the islands of Sicily and Sardinia to the north and Malta to the east. It features the archaeological sites of Carthage dating back to the 9th century BC, as well as
3087-570: Is celebrated annually as Tunisian Independence Day. A year later, Tunisia was declared a republic, with Bourguiba as the first President . From independence in 1956 until the 2011 revolution, the government and the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), formerly Neo Destour and the Socialist Destourian Party , were effectively one. Following a report by Amnesty International , The Guardian called Tunisia "one of
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#17328761906913234-763: Is rated a hybrid regime . It is one of the few countries in Africa ranking high on the Human Development Index , with one of the highest per capita incomes on the continent, ranking 129th in GDP per capita income. Tunisia is well integrated into the international community. It is a member of the United Nations , Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , the Arab League , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ,
3381-502: Is sometimes also associated with the Carthage goddess Tanith (or Tunit), and the ancient city of Tynes. The French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages have left the name untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с ( Tunís ) and Spanish Túnez . In this case,
3528-413: Is the most spoken, and French also serves as an administrative and educational language in some contexts, but it has no official status. Beginning in early antiquity, Tunisia was inhabited by the indigenous Berbers . The Phoenicians , a Semitic people , began to arrive in the 12th century BC, settling on the coast and establishing several settlements , of which Carthage emerged as the most powerful by
3675-595: Is up for debate. In 1945 after escaping French surveillance, Tunisian nationalist Habib Bourguiba arrived in Cairo . While there, he was able to make contact with the Arab League . Later in 1946, after traveling to other Middle Eastern countries, he made his way to the United States to speak to both the United Nations at their headquarters at Lake Success and U.S. State Department officials in Washington D.C. , pleading
3822-764: The African Union , the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa , the Non-Aligned Movement , the International Criminal Court , the Group of 77 , among others. It maintains close economic and political relations with some European countries, particularly with France and Italy , due to their geographical proximity. Tunisia also has an association agreement with the European Union and has attained
3969-564: The Ottoman Porte appointed directly for Tunis a governor called the Pasha supported by janissary forces. Before long, however, Tunisia became in effect an autonomous province, under the local bey . Under its Turkish governors, the beys, Tunisia attained virtual independence. The Hussein dynasty of beys, established in 1705, lasted until 1957. This evolution of status was from time to time challenged without success by Algiers. During this era,
4116-852: The Second World War , the protectorate of Tunisia was controlled by the collaborationist Vichy government in Metropolitan France. The antisemitic Statute on Jews enacted by the Vichy government was also implemented in Vichy-controlled Northwest Africa and other overseas French territories. Thus, the persecution and murder of the Jews from 1940 to 1943 was part of the Holocaust in France. From November 1942 until May 1943, Vichy-controlled Tunisia
4263-624: The Tunisian constitution . The anniversary of Ben Ali's succession, 7 November, was celebrated as a national holiday. He was consistently re-elected with enormous majorities every five years (well over 80 percent of the vote), the last being 25 October 2009, until he fled the country amid popular unrest in January 2011. Ben Ali and his family were accused of corruption and plundering the country's money. Economic liberalisation provided further opportunities for financial mismanagement, while corrupt members of
4410-504: The Zaghouan aqueduct. The Fundamental Pact thus further undermined the shaky finances of the Regency by abolishing traditional taxes, and opened the door to commercial penetration of the country by foreign business. Both issues were to become points of grievance in the Mejba Revolt. Muhammad Bey was succeeded in 1859 by his brother Sadok Bey , In 1860, Sadok Bey introduced conscription for
4557-483: The mountain people refused to give him up. Some tribal leaders tried to persuade him to resume armed resistance in order to end the reprisals and extortions the army was inflicting on their region, but he refused. All he wanted was a pardon from the Bey so he could return to normal life. Eventually, he was persuaded to place himself under the protection of an Algerian marabout of the Tijaniyya order, Mohammed el Aïd, who
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4704-652: The 19th century, the rulers of Tunisia became aware of the ongoing efforts at political and social reform in the Ottoman capital . The Bey of Tunis then, by his own lights but informed by the Turkish example, attempted to effect a modernizing reform of institutions and the economy. Tunisian international debt grew unmanageable. This was the reason or pretext for French forces to establish a protectorate in 1881. In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt and an international financial commission took control over its economy. In 1881, using
4851-401: The 2nd century, olive oil rivaled cereals as an export item. In addition to the cultivations and the capture and transporting of exotic wild animals from the western mountains, the principal production and exports included textiles, marble, wine, timber, livestock, pottery such as African Red Slip , and wool. There was even a huge production of mosaics and ceramics, exported mainly to Italy, in
4998-401: The 7th century AD, Arab Muslims conquered all of Tunisia (finally succeeding in 697 after several attempts starting in 647) and settled with their tribes and families , bringing Islam and Arab culture to the local inhabitants. A later large-scale Arab migration of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes in the 11th-12th centuries rapidly accelerated this process. By around the 15th century,
5145-667: The 7th century BC. The descendants of the Phoenician settlers came to be known as the Punic people . Ancient Carthage was a major mercantile empire and a military rival to the Roman Republic until 146 BC when it was defeated by the Romans who occupied Tunisia for most of the next 800 years. The Romans introduced Christianity and left architectural legacies like the Amphitheatre of El Jem . In
5292-704: The Algerian border to take refuge with the Nemencha people in January 1865. With him out of the way, the northwest was subjected to the same exactions as the Sahel and fines were imposed, though as more of the population were nomadic they could more easily evade the army by moving around. Crops and herds were seized as elsewhere, but as prices collapsed there was little value in them. The army therefore resorted to gruesome extorsions from even those settled areas which had remained loyal. Two hundred prisoners were sent, loaded with chains, to
5439-460: The Arab tribal leaders of the rebellion. The Bey was also able to use some of this money to begin buying off some of the tribal leaders, and mistrust started to spread among the rebels. The fear grew that if the uprising continued, the country would end up being occupied by the French army. The rebellion began to falter. In the countryside, people wanted to return to their fields in time for the harvest; in
5586-497: The Bardo palace, despite having bring promised amnesty. Condemned to the bastinado , they were beaten under the balconies of the Bey, in front of the steps leading up to the Hall of Justice, so that all could see their punishment and hear their pleas for mercy. For ten days the tribal sheikhs, their wrists and ankles bound and their faces to the ground, were savagely beaten, receiving up to 2,000 blows. Sixteen of them died quickly, and most of
5733-524: The Ben Ghedhahem brothers. At the same time, the Bey made secret contact with them, claiming that the French were making preparations to betray them and deliver them both to him at the Bardo. Finally, missing his homeland, Ali Ben Ghedhahem took flight on 17 November 1865 and returned to Tunisia, hiding out in the Regba massif near the border at Ghardimaou . The Bey's armies under General Slim laid siege to him but
5880-526: The Bey changed the order of succession to the throne; henceforth it would be the oldest prince in the beylical family who would inherit, rather than the oldest son of the late sovereign. Since the time of Hammouda Pasha two hundred years before, French interests in Tunisia had been housed in the Fondouk of French , a caravanserai in the medina . Now the Tunisian government had a new French consulate built, on what
6027-407: The Bey demanded 25m from them. To pay for these exactions, the people had to sell their property or pawn it to middlemen, associates of Zarrouk, who charged interest at 40% per year. The oil harvest for 1865 was sold in advance to these middlemen. Wealthy townspeople were tortured until they revealed their hidden riches. They were made to pay to avoid the rape of their wives or to avoid shame of having
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6174-481: The Bey did nothing to discourage the rebels of the coastal towns. The arrival of General Osman in Sousse to recruit soldiers raised tensions once again. From 23 July, the town was besieged by the inhabitants of nearby towns who wanted him gone and the new taxes abolished. The people of Monastir refused to send help to Osman and even, on 11 September, refused to allow General Slim to land in the town, after he had been sent by
6321-561: The Bey had no men to spare. Farhat therefore asked his deputy to come out to meet him with 150 spahis from the town. Ignoring his deputy's advice not to proceed because of the danger, he continued to make for his post as ordered. When he reached the pass at Khanguet el Gdim, 21 km from El Kef, he was surrounded by insurgents. The spahis, who came from the same tribe as them, did not want to fight them, and melted away, leaving him only with eight of his attendants. All were slaughtered. The olive tree, pockmarked with bullets, where he met his end
6468-495: The Bey provided the final pretext for the dispatch of a French expeditionary force which took El Kef , and for the landing of French troops at Bizerte on 1 May. The French army occupied Tunis on 11 May. The Bey was therefore compelled to sign the Treaty of Bardo on 12 May, establishing the French protectorate of Tunisia . Muhammad as-Sadiq had several wives. The first was his cousin,
6615-440: The Bey the opposite advice— to support Khaznadar and maintain the new constitution, while cancelling the doubling of the mejba. With the official justification of concern for their expatriates, Britain France and Italy all sent naval forces to cruise the Tunisian coasts. In fact each wanted to be sure that neither of the others would take advantage of the rebellion to secure hegemony over the Regency. On 11 May, Haydar Effendi,
6762-479: The Bey to rally them. On 29 August, a mhalla (military column) headed by General Ahmad Zarrouk set out from Tunis for the Sahel region. It advanced slowly - time was on the Bey's side as harvest approached and the tribes were becoming ever more disunited. On 5 October, to cut the column off from resupply, the rebels decided to take the town of Kalâa Kebira near Sousse , which resisted their advance. Zarrrouk marched to
6909-497: The Beys of Tunis relied on tax revenues paid on a customary basis. Most of the country paid the mejba ( Arabic : مجبة ) established in the seventeenth century under the Muradid dynasty . There is much scholarly debate about exactly what this constituted and how it was levied, but it appears that before 1856, the term mejba signified a tax paid by a tribe, clan or other social group, based on
7056-503: The Erlanger loan in 1863 left for Paris on 8 June 1864 on an official mission to negotiate a new loan. Instead however he took with him many compromising government papers and 20m piastres and never returned to Tunis. After his death in 1873 in Livorno the Tunisian government pursued his heirs through the courts to recuperate some of the money he had stolen. The Ottoman envoy's mission had been
7203-469: The French State prosecutor of having stolen two mega-yachts from a French marina. According to Le Monde , Ben Ali's son-in-law was being primed to eventually take over the country. Independent human rights groups, such as Amnesty International , Freedom House , and Protection International, documented that basic human and political rights were not respected. The regime obstructed in any way possible
7350-566: The French letters to Khaznadar, who passed them on to the British. The resulting scandal was such that De Beauval was forced to leave the country in January 1865. Meanwhile, the Italian government planned to land an expeditionary force of 10,000 in Tunis in June 1864 to take control of the capital and the main coastal towns. However the Italian press broke the story of preparations in the port of Genoa and in
7497-527: The General was allowed to leave for Sousse, but the countryside was so hostile that from there, he was obliged to make for Tunis on a British ship. A provisional government was set up by the rebels in Kairouan after he departed. Similar incidents unfolded across much of north an interior of the country. At Béja , Téboursouk , Makthar and Jendouba , the governors were forced to flee for their lives and their property
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#17328761906917644-627: The Great Mosque of Kairouan . Known for its ancient architecture, souks , and blue coasts, it covers 163,610 km (63,170 sq mi), and has a population of 12.1 million. It contains the eastern end of the Atlas Mountains and the northern reaches of the Sahara desert; much of its remaining territory is arable land . Its 1,300 km (810 mi) of coastline includes the African conjunction of
7791-504: The International Debt Commission and gave it control over the entire taxation system of the country. Unrest broke out again in 1867 in the northwestern border region of Kroumirie . The kroumirs lived an independent existence in their forests, and the government in Tunis did not have the means or the will to bring them firmly under its rule. The rebellion might therefore have remained a local affair, but on 11 September 1867,
7938-555: The North, the troops of ’Ali Ben Ghedhahem tried to oppose the advance of a General Rustum's column as it approached El Kef. Some of his close allies were however betrayed and handed over to the Bey's forces. His lieutenant was given a thousand strokes with a stick in front of the women of the harem in the Bardo palace, and thrown barely alive into a dungeon. Soon a second mhalla under Ali Bey joined up with Rustum's forces. To avoid annihilation, Ben Ghedhahem and 5,000 of his men slipped away over
8085-673: The Roman historian Sallust , the demigod Hercules died in Spain and his polyglot eastern army was left to settle the land, with some migrating to Africa. Persians went to the West and intermarried with the Gaetulians and became the Numidians. The Medes settled and were known as Mauri, later Moors. The Numidians and Moors belonged to the race from which the Berbers are descended. The translated meaning of Numidian
8232-461: The Roman period, the area of what is now Tunisia enjoyed a huge development. The economy, mainly during the Empire, boomed: the prosperity of the area depended on agriculture. Called the Granary of the Empire , the area of actual Tunisia and coastal Tripolitania , according to one estimate, produced one million tons of cereals each year, one quarter of which was exported to the Empire. Additional crops included beans, figs, grapes, and other fruits. By
8379-427: The Sultan's consent, pay 3m piastres a year in tribute, and present himself in Istanbul to receive an Imperial investiture. Even the British consul, who favoured maximum Ottoman influence in Tunisia to frustrate the French, would not support these demands, and the agreement was never signed. This did not prevent the British consul from making contact with the rebels to warn them about French intentions and remind them of
8526-443: The Trabelsi family, most notably in the cases of Imed Trabelsi and Belhassen Trabelsi , controlled much of the business sector in the country. The First Lady Leila Ben Ali was described as an "unabashed shopaholic " who used the state airplane to make frequent unofficial trips to Europe's fashion capitals. Tunisia refused a French request for the extradition of two of the President's nephews, from Leila's side, who were accused by
8673-409: The US feared political change in North Africa due to the looming presence of possible Soviet Union communist expansion. Bourguiba continued to plead to foreign leaders when he traveled to Italy on 6 November 1951. His contacts included Alberto Mellini Ponce De León , Mario Toscano , and Licinio Vestri . De León was an old friend of Bourguiba who had helped free him from German captivity, Toscano
8820-437: The achour halved, the maks abolished and the Turkish and mamluk caïds replaced with Tunisian Arabs. It did not take Ben Ghedhahem long to realise he had been duped. The rewards he sought were never granted. The old caïds remained in place. The mejba continued to be levied at the exorbitant rate of 72 piastres and all of the other taxes remained in force. On 9 August a military column headed by General Rustum headed for El Kef with
8967-447: The average rate paid by the population under each caïd was to remain at 72 piastres. To show the government's determination to push ahead with the new tax, the Bey ordered all governors to return to their posts and begin implementing it. Obeying this order, General Farhat began the journey to his post as governor of El Kef and the Ounifa tribe on 16 April 1864. As the region around El Kef was now in revolt, he asked for an armed escort, but
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#17328761906919114-448: The beginning of the conquest of Algeria in 1830, France had maintained a close interest in the affairs of the Regency, and successive Beys had sought to avoid giving France or any other power reason to intervene further. However the Batto Sfez Affair in 1857 did give France an excuse to put more pressure on Muhammad Bey, and a naval squadron of nine ships and seven hundred cannon was sent to La Goulette to insist that he promptly adopt
9261-405: The broader Arab Spring movement across the region. Free multiparty parliamentary elections were held shortly thereafter; the country again voted for parliament on 26 October 2014, and for president on 23 November 2014. From 2014 to 2020, it was considered the only democratic state in the Arab world , according to the The Economist Democracy Index . After a democratic backsliding , Tunisia
9408-461: The case of the Tunisian nationalists. As part of postwar Tunisia, a new all-Tunisian labor organization was formed, the Union Générale des Travailleurs (UGTT) . This was one of the stronger components of the nationalist group Neo-Destour . Habib Bourguiba made his way to the United States on 13 September 1949. He attended the American Federation of Labor meeting in San Francisco , California. The French were opposed to his presence there, and
9555-419: The caïdship of the Majer for his brother and various other positions for his friends. The rebels' other demands were: On 19 July Sadok Bey agreed to give Ben Ghedhahem an amnesty, making sure that his requests for personal rewards were widely publicised to undermine him among his followers. On 28 July, the Bey also announced his acceptance of most of Ghedhahem's terms. The mejba was to be reduced to 20 piastres,
9702-419: The central area of El Djem (where there was the second biggest amphitheater in the Roman Empire). Berber bishop Donatus Magnus was the founder of a Christian group known as the Donatists . During the 5th and 6th centuries (from 430 to 533 AD), the Germanic Vandals invaded and ruled over a kingdom in Northwest Africa that included present-day Tripoli. The region was easily reconquered in 533–534 AD, during
9849-420: The city in 814 BC, as retold by the Greek writer Timaeus of Tauromenium . The settlers of Carthage brought their culture and religion from Phoenicia, now present-day Lebanon and adjacent areas. After the series of wars with Greek city-states of Sicily in the 5th century BC, Carthage rose to power and eventually became the dominant civilization in the Western Mediterranean . The people of Carthage worshipped
9996-421: The coastal towns, fear of brigandage by the nomadic tribes led by Ali Ben Ghedhahem made them wary of throwing their lot in with the insurgents of the interior. On 29 June 1864 a military column headed by General Ismail Es-Sunni Saheb at-Taba'a marched out from Tunis to meet Ben Ghedhahem and offer him an amnesty (aman). As the price of his surrender, Ben Ghedhahem asked for the estate of Henchir Rohia for himself,
10143-477: The command of Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha , the younger brother of Oruç Reis, who was the Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman Fleet during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent . However, it was not until the final Ottoman reconquest of Tunis from Spain in 1574 under Kapudan Pasha Uluç Ali Reis that the Ottomans permanently acquired the former Hafsid Tunisia , retaining it until the French conquest of Tunisia in 1881. Initially under Turkish rule from Algiers, soon
10290-430: The commercial opportunities. As the Tunisian economy collapsed, La Semaine financière wrote of the 1865 loan: "Today, the Bey of Tunis is under the moral protection of France, which takes an interest in the Tunisian people’s prosperity, since this prosperity also implies Algeria’s safety". The collapse of agricultural production made the repayment of these loans impossible. They could only be paid with funds secured from
10437-586: The conquest in 698 and others were welcomed by Norman rulers to Sicily or Italy in the 11th and 12th centuries – the logical destination because of the 1200 year close connection between the two regions. The Arab governors of Tunis founded the Aghlabid dynasty , which ruled Tunisia, Tripolitania and eastern Algeria from 800 to 909. Tunisia flourished under Arab rule when extensive systems were constructed to supply towns with water for household use and irrigation that promoted agriculture (especially olive production). This prosperity permitted luxurious court life and
10584-684: The country on 14 January 2011, after 23 years in power. Protests continued for banning of the ruling party and the eviction of all its members from the transitional government formed by Mohammed Ghannouchi . Eventually the new government gave in to the demands. A Tunis court banned the ex-ruling party RCD and confiscated all its resources. A decree by the minister of the interior banned the "political police", special forces which were used to intimidate and persecute political activists. Muhammad III as-Sadiq Muhammad III as-Sadiq ( Arabic : محمد الثالث الصادق ; 7 February 1813 – 27 October 1882) commonly known as Sadok Bey ( Arabic : الصادق باي ),
10731-404: The country will not allow it to bear any more taxes. The country is in danger!' Kheireddine Pasha said that most of the additional revenue generated by the increase would be taken up by the cost of the army needed to raise it. The notables convened by Sadok Bey to hear his plans made clear that they would not be able to enforce them on their people. As soon as the news spread, trouble broke out in
10878-547: The country. Sadok Bey confined himself in the Bardo palace, but sent the Bey al-Mahalla , Ali Bey , to Kroumirie with an armed force. Sidi Adel fell ill and the Kroumirs surrendered him to his nephew in exchange for an amnesty, which, as ever, the Bey did not honour. Ben Dhiaf recorded that the reason the Kroumirs were so easily persuaded to submit was that after the repression and destruction of 1865, they were literally starving. Sidi Adel
11025-465: The countryside and subjected it to a reign of terror. To consolidate his authority, Zarrouk was made caïd of Sousse and Monastir. The Bey was now determined to make the rebel areas pay for the cost of the war. On top of his already unmanageable debts, he owed European traders for additional loans incurred to pay for the arming of his soldiers. The Sahel towns of Sousse, Mahdia and Monastir had previously been assessed for 3.5m piastres in tax payments - now
11172-502: The daughter of the Qaid Ahmed al-Munastiri, from a Turkish family which had been influential in the harem of the Beys of Tunis throughout the century; her mother and grandmother were respectively the second wives of Hussein II Bey et Mahmud ibn Muhammad . His second wife was Henani, daughter of Ali Laroussi, a rich merchant dealing in traditional Tunisian Chechia headgear. He also married
11319-480: The door to foreign occupation despite the efforts of his Grand Vizier Kheireddine Pacha . France gained an important foothold in Tunisia in 1869 by means of a tripartite Debt Commission, constituted with the United Kingdom and Italy to manage the country's financial commitments to its creditors. In April 1881, a border incident with French Algeria involving raids by Khroumire tribesmen who were subjects of
11466-506: The end of the war in Africa. After the liberation of Tunisia from the Germans, the French regained control over the government and made participation in a nationalist party illegal once more. Moncef Bey , who was popular amongst Tunisians, was deposed by the French. The French claimed that his removal was due to him being sympathetic to the Axis countries during German occupation, but the real reason
11613-469: The endless taxes which were laid upon them. In the Djerid , many date-palm owners did likewise. Whoever tried to work and produce simply ended up paying taxes for those who now owned nothing.' 'The famine of 1867 all but emptied Thala , Kalaat Senan , Zouarine and Ebba and reduced the population of towns like El Kef and Téboursouk significantly. Zouarine, said by Victor Guérin to have 250-300 souls,
11760-579: The face of British anger, the plan was abandoned. Ultimately, none of the European powers wanted to risk starting a major international incident by taking too bold a stance in Tunisia. Accordingly, on 23 September 1864, they agreed to withdraw their navies and allowed the Bey to put down the rebellion without further interference. Haydar Effendi also departed on the same day. Meanwhile, the Receiver-General Nassim Shamama, who had both lent money to Sadok Bey in 1862 and helped Khaznadar arrange
11907-525: The first time in Tunisia—;military service was now obligatory for a period of eight years. Recruits were selected by lot, and those who could afford it could buy themselves out of the service. Thus it was only the poor who ended up serving. Following the introduction of the new mejba and military service, on 23 April 1861 Sadok Bey promulgated the first written constitution in the Arab world, separating executive, legislative and judiciary powers, through
12054-603: The former Ottoman Minister Plenipotentiary in Tehran, arrived at La Goulette with an Ottoman naval squadron to reinforce the rights of the Sublime Porte . He was welcomed enthusiastically by the people of Tunis who feared that European soldiers were about to land in the country. His real purpose was to take advantage of the situation to bring Tunis back under closer Ottoman rule. He proposed that Sadok Bey sign an agreement undertaking not to enter into any treaty with another power without
12201-480: The friendly ties between Britain and the Ottoman Empire, which counted for much with a population hoping for an Ottoman intervention to persuade the Bey to reduce his demands. At the same time, despite his instruction, De Beaval sought to use the crisis to strengthen France's role in the country. He made contact with Ben Gedhahem and assured him that the aim of the French warships was to support his demands and that he
12348-520: The governing councils controlling Tunisia remained largely composed of a foreign elite who continued to conduct state business in the Turkish language . Attacks on European shipping were made by corsairs , primarily from Algiers, but also from Tunis and Tripoli , yet after a long period of declining raids the growing power of the European states finally forced its termination. The plague epidemics ravaged Tunisia in 1784–1785, 1796–1797 and 1818–1820. In
12495-446: The government became ever more seriously indebted to foreign creditors, backed by European governments, until it was finally unable to resist French occupation in 1881. Public debt did not exist in the Regency of Tunis until the end of the reign of Mustapha Bey in 1837, but his successors found themselves in increasingly difficult financial circumstances. They wanted to modernise the country and its institutions: Ahmed Bey had set up
12642-401: The government learned to its astonishment that Sadok Bey's youngest half-brother, Sidi Adel, had escaped from the palace in the night, travelled west, and placed himself at the head of the rebels, proclaiming himself Bey. He was accompanied by a number of high-ranking officials, who were deeply dissatisfied with the continued influence of Mustapha Khaznadar and the damaging effect it was having on
12789-405: The government's finances. With no other recourse, Sadok Bey was persuaded by Khaznadar to take out yet another foreign loan, on which Khaznadar once again made substantial commissions. As Nassim Shamama had fled in June 1864, the following month a loan of 5m francs was arranged with a Jewish financier named Morpurgo from Alexandria , of which only 0.5m found their way to the treasury. A new contract
12936-413: The gross amount, only 5,640,914 was ultimately paid over to the Bey's Treasury. The loan was repayable over fifteen and a half years at a rate of 4,200,000 francs per year (7m piastres). This revenue could not be raised from the existing means of taxation—the new mejba was now raising only 3m piastres a year—so a new, increased tax was required. In September 1863 the decision was taken to apply
13083-490: The help of activists such as Chedly Kallala, Farhat Hached , and Salah Ben Youssef . Today, Tunisia's culture and identity are rooted in this centuries-long intersection of different cultures and ethnicities. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution , which was triggered by dissatisfaction with the lack of freedom and democracy under the 24-year rule of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali , overthrew his regime and catalyzed
13230-479: The intention of punishing the murderers of General Farhat, despite the fact the Bey had announced a total amnesty. Ben Ghedhahem found that he could not rally the tribes to resist, as the Bey's money had bought some of them off. The tribes started to quarrel - Ben Ghedhahem's own tribe was attacked by the Hamma tribe - and turned to unrestrained looting rather than concerted resistance. Negotiations between Ben Ghedhahem and
13377-577: The interests of the French and French citizens in Tunisia, at the Cercle Republicain d'outre Mer in Paris. The Neo-Destour group was not in favor of these reforms if they themselves were not involved in their creation. They also demanded the freedom of Bourguiba who was imprisoned on the Isle of Galete. Tunisia achieved independence from France on 20 March 1956 with Habib Bourguiba as Prime Minister. 20 March
13524-698: The lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert. The main Tunisian cities were conquered by the Normans of Sicily under the Kingdom of Africa in the 12th century, but following the conquest of Tunisia in 1159–1160 by the Almohads the Normans were evacuated to Sicily. Communities of Tunisian Christians would still exist in Nefzaoua up to the 14th century. The Almohads initially ruled over Tunisia through
13671-502: The loan absorbed a huge proportion of state revenues. By 1862, the government debt had reached 28m piastres and civil servants were working for months unpaid. As a way out, Mustapha Khaznadar proposed that Sadok Bey take out the country's first ever foreign loan. Accordingly, on 6 May 1863, he concluded a loan with the French banker Erlanger in the amount of 35m francs. However, by the time various intermediaries—including Mustapha Khaznadar himself—had extracted their fees from
13818-424: The mamluks!' and 'Long live the [Ottoman] Sultan!' As the caïd and the other notables fled, they hoisted the Tunisian flag and set up a provisional government. The Bey's envoy, General Osman, arrived three days later, and was only spared lynching thanks to the intervention of local religious leaders. On 31 May, Sousse revolted, encouraged by the example of Sfax. All tax collection stopped, and the rebels took control of
13965-609: The mejba would not after all be doubled, he therefore prepared his forces and opened clandestine negotiations with Ben Ghedhahem through the Maliki Grand Mufti Ahmed Ben Hussein and the head of the Rahmaniyya Sufi order, Mustapha Ben Azouz. Despite these negotiations however, the rebellion spread to the coastal towns of the Sahel region as well. In the Gabes region, the governor escaped death by handing over to
14112-440: The mejba, although it was a new tax calculated on a completely different basis—it was levied on individuals rather than on groups. This new mejba was fixed at 36 piastres per adult male per year. For most peasants, this equated to about 45 days' labour. To reduce potential unrest, the five largest towns— Tunis , Sfax , Sousse , Monastir, Tunisia and Kairouan —were exempted. The new tax raised 9.7m piastres out of
14259-507: The most modern but repressive countries in the Arab world". On 12 May 1964, Tunisia nationalized foreign farmlands. Immediately after, France canceled all financial assistance for the country, which was to amount to more than $ 40 million. This led to the Tunisian National Assembly passing a bill that required all residents of the country to subscribe to a "popular loan" in proportion to their income. From 1977 until 2005, Tunisia
14406-404: The mountains held on to any possessions. In January 1865 Ali Ben Ghedhahem and his brother Abd En Nebi were taken under watch to Constantine while his men were disarmed and interned by the French. The French treated them well, as they saw him as a potential ally in the event of a future conquest of the country. On 5 February Sadok Bey granted a fresh amnesty to the rebels who had fled, but not to
14553-535: The new consulate building, and by market gardens along the Lake of Tunis which extended as far towards the city as the present Avenue de Carthage. However, intrigues among his ministers, notably Mustapha Khaznadar and Mustapha Ben Ismaïl , constant pressure from European consuls and the looming bankruptcy of the state, provoked the Mejba Revolt of 1864, compelled him to secure debts which he could not repay, and opened
14700-459: The new mejba (or, properly, the i'ana ) to the five towns that had previously been exempted, and to double the rate to 72 piastres per head. This measure was vigorously opposed by the Bey's ex-Minister Kheireddine Pacha , General Hussein and General Farhat Gaied Jbira who served on the Supreme Council and was also the caïd (governor) of El Kef . General Hussein exclaimed: 'the conditions of
14847-513: The pretext of a Tunisian incursion into Algeria , the French invaded with an army of about 36,000 and forced the Bey of Tunis, Muhammad III as-Sadiq , to agree to the terms of the 1881 Treaty of Bardo . With this treaty, Tunisia was officially made a French protectorate , over the objections of Italy. European settlements in the country were actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945. In 1910 there were also 105,000 Italians in Tunisia . During
14994-552: The previous adjectival form was "Tunisine". Farming methods reached the Nile Valley from the Fertile Crescent region about 5000 BC, and spread to the Maghreb by about 4000 BC. Agricultural communities in the humid coastal plains of central Tunisia then were ancestors of today's Berber tribes. It was believed in ancient times that Africa was originally populated by Gaetulians and Libyans, both nomadic peoples. According to
15141-433: The property of government officials. The French government instructed its consul Charles de Beauval not to involve himself in the internal politics of the Regency, but despite this, he did not hesitate to advise Sadok Bey to revoke his reforms, suspend the constitution, and send Khaznadar away. The British government had likewise given its consul Richard Wood instructions to keep out of the dispute, but he nevertheless offered
15288-603: The protests. The protests inspired the Arab Spring , a wave of similar actions throughout the Arab world. The catalyst for mass demonstrations was the death of Mohamed Bouazizi , a 26-year-old Tunisian street vendor, who set himself afire on 17 December 2010 in protest at the confiscation of his wares and the humiliation inflicted on him by a municipal official named Faida Hamdy . Anger and violence intensified following Bouazizi's death on 4 January 2011, ultimately leading longtime President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali to resign and flee
15435-456: The rape publicly announced. In 1973, the then President of Tunisia Habib Bourguiba (born in Monastir in 1903) spoke of the impact on his family of the repression after the Mejba Revolt. 'To compel the people to give up their goods, (General) Zarrouk put many notables in irons and locked them up; one of them was my grandfather. Their ordeal lasted I don't know how many days. Then my family took
15582-465: The rebels all the tax money he had already collected. The Bey then sent a boat to rescue him. On 30 April in Sfax , the rebels took control of the town, ransacked the tax offices, seized the casbah and freed the prisoners confined there. On 23 May the local authorities sought to regain control of the town by arresting the rebel leaders, but the entire town rose up to demand their release, with shouts of 'Down with
15729-464: The region of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completely Arabized , establishing Arabs as the demographic majority of the population. Then, in 1546, the Ottoman Empire established control there, holding sway for over 300 years, until 1881, when the French conquered Tunisia . In 1956, Tunisia gained independence as the Tunisian Republic under the leadership of Habib Bourguiba with
15876-439: The relief of the town and inflicted a crushing defeat on the rebels two days later. Rebel elements fled to the neighbouring village of Kalâa Seghira where they were caught by the soldiers who massacred them and plundered the village. News of this outrage terrified the neighbouring area, where towns and villages now offered their submission without further resistance. The conditions imposed by Zarrouk were pitiless. The leaders of
16023-435: The rest did not long survive the dungeons. Ali Bey returned to the Bardo on 27 April 1865 with more notables as prisoners, from whom he intended to extort further wealth. On 5 September he set off again for Béja , which he planned to hold to ransom. Anyone suspected of owning any wealth was thrown in prison until their family bought their freedom. Here too, the region was utterly ruined and only those who managed to escape into
16170-497: The revolt were hanged or shot. Notables were imprisoned and tortured to make them reveal the names of ringleaders. Even women and old men were tortured. Hundreds of sheikhs suspected of disloyalty were chained together by the ankle. Soldiers who had abandoned their posts were interned and sent back to Tunis, where they were treated as prisoners of war. Religious leaders were dismissed. The zouaoua and those tribes which had remained loyal, or returned to loyalty early enough, laid waste to
16317-621: The rise of Roman power. From the conclusion of the Second Punic War in 202 BC, Carthage functioned as a client state of the Roman Republic for another 50 years. Following the Battle of Carthage which began in 149 BC during the Third Punic War , Carthage was conquered by Rome in 146 BC. Following its conquest, the Romans renamed Carthage to Africa , incorporating it as a province. During
16464-591: The rule of Emperor Justinian I , by the Eastern Romans led by General Belisarius , preluding a 165-year era of Byzantine rule . Sometime between the second half of the 7th century and the early part of the 8th century, Arab Muslim conquest occurred in the region . They founded the first Islamic city in Northwest Africa, Kairouan . It was there in 670 AD that the Mosque of Uqba , or the Great Mosque of Kairouan,
16611-501: The same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس , and only by context can one tell the difference. In English, Tunisia before independence was also often called simply "Tunis", a name that persisted until the 1940s; under French influence, the neologism "Tunisia", adapted from Tunisie , gradually took hold. The adjective "Tunisian" first appeared in English in 1825;
16758-529: The son of Abu Hafs declared himself independent. During the reign of the Hafsid dynasty from their capital Tunis, fruitful commercial relationships were established with several Christian Mediterranean states. In the late 16th century the coast became a pirate stronghold. In the last years of the Hafsid dynasty , Spain seized many of the coastal cities, but these were recovered by the Ottoman Empire . The first Ottoman conquest of Tunis took place in 1534 under
16905-502: The status of a major non-NATO ally of the United States . The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis ; a central urban hub and the capital of modern-day Tunisia. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia , evolved from French Tunisie , in turn generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ , transcribed tns , which means "to lay down" or "encampment". It
17052-531: The town. Demanding the keys of the town and the kasba from the governor they accused him of 'delivering the country to the Christians' and set about fortifying the seaward side of the town in expectation of bombardment by European warships. European expatriates took refuge on board the Italian frigate Giuseppe Garibaldi . Throughout the country, the tribes rose up and threatened anyone who refused to join them, plundering
17199-400: The tribal regions. Caravans were looted and stocks of weapons and powder were built up. In an attempt to calm the growing unrest, a decree of 22 March 1864 modified the new mejba again, making it into a progressive tax. Those eligible to pay were graded into six categories on the basis of their wealth, and the mejba applied to them on a scale of 36 to 108 piastres. It was however stipulated that
17346-414: The wake of the hunger came cholera, in 1865, 1866 and 1867, and there was a typhus outbreak in 1867. 'Dead bodies lay in the roads, unburied. They were collected every morning in the caravanserais and the mosques, and heaped in carts. Bubonic plague and typhus combined; this new scourge caused such ravages that there were two hundred new victims each day in the town of Sousse alone. Already, when there
17493-622: The west of the country. When the Bey's soldiers came to his region to collect the mejba, he told people to disobey, and was obliged to flee for safety to the mountains near Oueslatia and Bargou . From here, he began to organise resistance, and soon other tribes began to rally to him. The unorganised revolt of the Mthélith, the Zlass, the Majer and the Fraichiche who camped near the Algerian frontier coalesced into
17640-467: The western and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Basin . Tunisia is home to Africa's northernmost point, Cape Angela . Located on the northeastern coast, Tunis is the capital and largest city of the country, which is itself named after Tunis. The official language of Tunisia is Modern Standard Arabic . The vast majority of Tunisia's population is Arab and Muslim . Vernacular Tunisian Arabic
17787-419: The work of local human rights organizations. In 2008, in terms of press freedom , Tunisia was ranked 143rd out of 173. The Tunisian Revolution was an intensive campaign of civil resistance that was precipitated by high unemployment , food inflation , corruption , a lack of freedom of speech and other political freedoms and poor living conditions . Labour unions were said to be an integral part of
17934-544: Was a shooting location for five films of the Star Wars film franchise. In 1982, Tunisia became the center of the Palestinian Liberation Organization , a militant and political organization based in the capital Tunis. In November 1987, doctors declared Bourguiba unfit to rule and, in a bloodless coup d'état, Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali assumed the presidency in accordance with Article 57 of
18081-490: Was abandoned after the attacks of Fraichiche bedouin driven by hunger, and not repopulated until the eve of the Protectorate on the initiative of the governor of El Kef, Si Rachid. At Ebba , want compelled most owners to sell their houses and gardens to their sheikh, Kader, who let them fall down or become overgrown with weeds.' The extorsions of Zarrouk and the other commanders did much to enrich them, but nothing to improve
18228-510: Was at this point, after two years of confinement, that Ali Ben Ghedhahem was killed, for fear that he might escape. Many others were also eliminated at this time to remove all possible threat to the Bey. Mustapha Khaznadar remained Prime Minister until 1873, and Sadok Bey ruled until 1882. Tunisia Tunisia , officially the Republic of Tunisia , is the northernmost country in Africa . It
18375-582: Was connected to the decline of Tunisian trade and agriculture. The depredation of the Tunisian campaigns by the Banu Hilal , a warlike Arab tribe encouraged by the Fatimids of Egypt to seize Northwest Africa, sent the region's rural and urban economic life into further decline. Consequently, the region underwent rapid urbanisation as famines depopulated the countryside and industry shifted from agriculture to manufactures. The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun wrote that
18522-427: Was conscripted into Zarrouk's army where he served for nineteen years, the longest and hardest years of his life. He urged me to study. 'I don't want you to be brought down to the level of a beast of burden one day' he said. 'I don't want to see you like me, condemned to wear a uniform all your days.' I assured him I would do my best by devoting myself completely to my studies. On 9 April the mhalla reached Sfax, which
18669-588: Was constructed. This mosque is the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the Muslim West with the oldest standing minaret in the world; it is also considered a masterpiece of Islamic art and architecture. The Arab migration to the Maghreb began during this time. The region in its entirety was taken in 695, retaken by the Byzantine Eastern Romans in 697, but lost permanently in 698. The transition from
18816-475: Was filled with placemen of the Prime Minister Mustapha Khaznadar , mamluks , and others of Turkish and non-native descent, with few of the traditional Arab tribal leaders of the interior. The customary links between ruler and ruled were displaced, and it became harder for the sheikhs outside Tunis to gain audience. The costs of the new institutions were regarded as excessive, and resented as
18963-505: Was looted. The governor of the Majer tribe in the Thala region was not so fortunate. Besieged in his fortress, he killed dozens of attackers before it fell. He was killed, along with his entire family, and his body decapitated on 21 May. The dead governor's secretary, Ali Ben Ghedhahem ( Arabic : علي بن غذاهم ), born in 1814 in Sbeïtla , quickly established himself as the leader of the revolt in
19110-467: Was marked by the construction of new palace cities such as al-Abbasiya (809) and Raq Adda (877). After conquering Cairo , the Fatimids abandoned Tunisia and parts of Eastern Algeria to the local Zirids (972–1148). Zirid Tunisia flourished in many areas: agriculture, industry, trade, and religious and secular learning. Management by the later Zirid emirs was neglectful though, and political instability
19257-695: Was occupied by Germany. SS Commander Walter Rauff continued to implement the "Final Solution" there. From 1942 to 1943, Tunisia was the scene of the Tunisia Campaign , a series of battles between the Axis and Allied forces. The battle opened with initial success by the German and Italian forces, but the massive supply and numerical superiority of the Allies led to the Axis surrender on 13 May 1943. The six-month campaign of Tunisia's liberation from Axis occupation signalled
19404-437: Was on his way to Mecca by way of Tunis. On 25 February 1866, Ben Ghedhahem joined his caravan at El Ksour . The caïd of El Kef wanted to arrest him, but his soldiers refused to do so. On 28 February, having reached Téboursouk , he was captured by cavalry sent out by the Bey. His brother managed to escape. He was brought to the Bardo palace on 2 March where he was subjected to insults and the blows of his captors. His only hope
19551-401: Was only famine to contend with, Europeans did not dare leave their houses, for fear of encountering people wandering in the street, emaciated, whom despair might push to commit some awful crime. In the countryside, caravans were stopped and pillaged. The admirable soil of the Sahel itself was not spared: owners cut down their olive trees, their future fortune, to sell as firewood, rather than pay
19698-417: Was referred to as 'the people's Bey' ( bey al-umma ). He decided to lead his forces on Tunis, but only reached as far as El Fahs , where they had a series of inconclusive encounters with forces loyal to the Bey. In April and May 1864 the Bey did not have the military means to strike a decisive blow against Ben Ghedhahem. While seeking to calm the unrest by revoking the constitution of 1861 and announcing that
19845-578: Was replaced by Pierre Voizard . Voizard had previously been the French Minister to Monaco . A month after his arrival in Tunis on 26 September 1953, Voizard made many changes to ease tensions in Tunisia. He lifted press censorship and freed several political prisoners. He also restored the full powers of civil authorities and raised the state of siege in the Sahel . On 26 January 1954, Voizard announced that there would soon be new reforms in favor of granting more sovereignty to Tunisians while insuring
19992-582: Was seeking to secure the dismissal of the Prime Minister. Led by De Beauval, the French Foreign Minister Édouard Drouyn de Lhuys backed his approach and even considered replacing Sadok Bey himself if circumstances allowed. On 29 a June a column of 3,000 soldiers in Algeria was moved up to the Tunisian border in readiness for any eventuality. However the rebel leader ignored these overtures and forwarded
20139-572: Was signed with the Erlanger Bank on 1 November 1864 for 15m francs guaranteed by customs revenues. A further 10m francs was subscribed several weeks later by the Oppenheim Bank, guaranteed by the tax on olive trees. As loan after loan was subscribed on terms very favourable to lenders, the Paris market was euphoric, and loans to Tunisia as well as to Egypt and the Ottoman Empire were known as "turban securities." The newspapers carried upbeat accounts of
20286-410: Was subjected to similar exactions as a fine of 5.5m piastres was imposed; Djerba was fined a further 5m piastres. Fields were plundered and herds driven off. Only the nomads escaped the punitive action by fleeing into Tripolitania . When Zarrouk's column returned to Tunis on 30 July 1865, the centre and south of the country had been brutalised and plundered on an enormous scale for nearly a year. In
20433-582: Was succeeded by his brother Ali III ibn al-Husayn . According to the writer Nizar Ben Saad , The Bey had many sexual affairs with several male ministers from his court, the most famous with his Grand Vizir Mustapha Ben Ismail. The intimate meetings of the bey were always held in Dar El Bey at night to avoid being seen. Not only that, his marriage to Lella Kmar was never consummated, which made it easier for her to marry his brother Ali Bey after his death. The bey died without leaving any children to inherit
20580-498: Was taken back to the Bardo where he died on 8 October 1867. A few days previously, on 4 October, Sadok Bey took steps to eliminate anyone on whose loyalty he could not safely rely on. Among those ordered to be strangled were Si Rachid, who had commanded the Tunisian forces in the Crimean War, and Ismail Es-Sunni Ismaïl Sahib Et-Tabaâ, his brother in law, who had negotiated with Ali Ben Ghedhahem in 1864. Their fortunes were confiscated. It
20727-669: Was the Banu Ghaniya , relatives of the Almoravids , who from their base in Mallorca tried to restore Almoravid rule over the Maghreb. Around 1200 they succeeded in extending their rule over the whole of Tunisia until they were crushed by Almohad troops in 1207. After this success, the Almohads installed Walid Abu Hafs as the governor of Tunisia. Tunisia remained part of the Almohad state, until 1230 when
20874-539: Was the Husainid Bey of Tunis from 1859 until his death. Invested as Bey al-Mahalla (Heir Apparent) on 10 June 1855, he succeeded his brother Muhammad II ibn al-Husayn on 23 September 1859. Named as divisional General in the Imperial Ottoman Army on 10 June 1855, he was promoted to the rank of Marshal on 10 December 1859. In July 1860, the Bey was persuaded by the British consul, Richard Wood, to allow
21021-736: Was the head of the Ufficio Studi e Documentazione in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , and Vestri was an Africanist scholar. Despite his best efforts, the Italians remained neutral as they did not want to ruin relations with NATO ally France, nor did they want to hamper any possibility of future relations with Tunisia as it served as a key part of the Mediterranean . The French Resident General in Tunisia, Jean de Hautecloque [ de ; fr ] left Tunis to go to Paris on 25 August 1953, when he
21168-466: Was the protection of the holy man with whom he had been travelling, but Mohammed el Aïd continued on his way to Mecca on a steamship specially provided by the Bey. He remained in prison until his death on 11 October 1867. Much of the countryside was laid waste. The harvests had all been seized and sold, reducing the people to famine for three years. People ate herbs and roots, and there were even reports of desperate people eating children in some areas. In
21315-472: Was to become the Avenue de la Marine (now Avenue Habib Bourguiba ), and it was formally opened by the Bey on 12 January 1862. The Bey commissioned the Marseille engineer Colin to repair the Zaghouan aqueduct providing a fresh water supply to the capital. In 1865 he began demolishing the walls around the medina, some of which were so unsound they threatened to collapse. It is during this period that Tunis lost
21462-540: Was to one of the first floor staterooms of this palace that, on 12 May 1881, the French consul Théodore Roustan brought the French General Jules Aimé Bréart to the Bey 's privy council to secure his signature on the Treaty of Bardo . In his later years, the Bey fell under the influence Mustapha Ben Ismaïl , and died without issue. He was buried in the Tourbet el Bey mausoleum in the medina of Tunis . He
21609-410: Was venerated for many years until it was cut down and burned in around 1950. The death of General Farhat galvanised the rebels. El Kef was besieged by surrounding tribes, while the authorities refused to let them enter the town. The Governor of Kairouan, General Rashid, took refuge in a house which was then surrounded; the defenders opened fire and killed some of the attackers. After a tense negotiation,
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