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121-477: In 1931, Pope Pius XI had put forward a vague plan for a sort of moderate corporatism . However, he also pushed for both Catholic and secular labor unions. Though these unions were likely more akin to medieval guilds in the Pope's vision, unions at this time were beginning to be associated with workers' rights and class struggles. By the 1950s and 1960s, Christian Democratic parties and Catholic labor associations were on

242-590: A Doctor of the Church due to the spiritual power of his writings. He took a strong interest in fostering the participation of lay people throughout the Catholic Church, especially in the Catholic Action movement. The end of his pontificate was dominated by speaking out against Hitler and Mussolini, and defending the Catholic Church from intrusions into Catholic life and education. Pius XI died on 10 February 1939 in

363-468: A "crime". Pius XI stated that attempts to liberate women from their husbands are a "false liberty and unnatural equality" and that the true emancipation of women "belongs to the noble office of a Christian woman and wife." The Church has a role in discussing the issues related to the social order. Social and economic issues are vital to her not from a technical point of view but in terms of the moral and ethical issues involved. Ethical considerations include

484-592: A bearable coexistence made possible. In 1926, worried by the agnosticism of its leader Charles Maurras , Pius XI condemned the monarchist movement Action Française . The Pope also judged that it was folly for the French Church to continue to tie its fortunes to the unlikely dream of a monarchist restoration, and distrusted the movement's tendency to defend the Catholic religion in merely utilitarian and nationalistic terms. Prior to this, Action Française had operated with

605-500: A biblical analysis of poverty. Gutiérrez distinguished two forms of poverty: a "scandalous state" and a "spiritual childhood". He noted that, while the former is abhorred by God, the second is valued. Gutiérrez identified that each form of poverty was present in Latin America, wherein one hungers for bread and for God. It is only through the manifestation of a committed faith that the purposes of God can be manifested to man, regardless of

726-518: A cardinal from the cardinalate during his pontificate in 1927: the Jesuit Louis Billot . The pope deviated from the usual practice of naming cardinals in collective consistories, opting instead for smaller and more frequent consistories, with some of them being less than six months apart. Unlike his predecessors, he increased the number of non-Italian cardinals. In 1923, Pius XI wanted to appoint Ricardo Sanz de Samper y Campuzano ( majordomo in

847-569: A civil ceremony), and brought religious instruction into the public schools. In turn, the bishops swore allegiance to the Italian state, which had veto power over their selection. The Church was not officially obligated to support the Fascist regime; the strong differences remained, but the seething hostility ended. Friction continued over the Catholic Action youth network, which Mussolini wanted to merge into his Fascist youth group . The third document in

968-436: A concerning "idealization of faith". As a result, Gutiérrez and liberation theology were the subjects of a 36-page Vatican report, which declared Marxism to be incompatible with Catholic teachings. According to Arthur F. McGovern, assessing the movement and its critics is complicated by the fact that it became the subject of popular controversy outside of theological and academic circles, including stories and advertisements in

1089-455: A fair wage: the worker's family, the economic condition of the enterprise, and the economy as a whole. The family has an innate right to development, but this is only possible within the framework of a functioning economy and a sound enterprise. Thus, Pius concludes that cooperation and not conflict is a necessary condition, given the mutual interdependence of the parties involved. Pius XI believed that industrialization results in less freedom at

1210-534: A fellow liberation theologian who argued for the right of priests to marry , left the room. After Gutierrez's death in 2024, Pope Francis called him "a great man of the Church". In 1984, the Holy See , under Pope John Paul II , criticized aspects of liberation theology, taking particular issue with its use of Marxist economic theory. Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger asked Peruvian bishops to examine Gutiérrez's writings, voicing concerns that Gutiérrez's arguments embodied

1331-466: A formative experience, claiming it instilled the value of hope through prayer and the love of family in friends. Gutiérrez lived in Barranco , and studied at Colegio San Luis; among his close friends during those years was Javier Mariátegui , with whom he later studied medicine. He described this experience as having had a profound impact on his interest in theology. Gutiérrez initially studied medicine at

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1452-595: A future occasion, in fact he never did make the archbishop a cardinal, and it was not until 2007 that the diocese was given a cardinal archbishop. In December 1935, the pope intended to appoint the Jesuit priest Pietro Tacchi Venturi a cardinal. However, he abandoned the idea given that the British government would have regarded the move as a friendly gesture toward Fascism since the priest and Benito Mussolini were considered to be close. The pontificate of Pius XI coincided with

1573-460: A head of state since the Papal States fell after the unification of Italy in the 19th century. The concordat that was another of the agreed documents of 1929 recognised Catholicism as the sole religion of the state (as it already was under Italian law, while other religions were tolerated), paid salaries to priests and bishops, gave civil recognition to church marriages (previously couples had to have

1694-405: A negative view of capitalism, especially of the anonymous international finance markets. He identifies certain dangers for small and medium-size enterprises, which have insufficient access to capital markets and are squeezed or destroyed by the larger ones. He warns that capitalist interests can become a danger for nations, which could be reduced to "chained slaves of individual interests" Pius XI

1815-470: A new pope, which proved to be the longest of the 20th century, the College of Cardinals was divided into two factions, one led by Rafael Merry del Val favoring the policies and style of Pope Pius X and the other favoring those of Pope Benedict XV led by Pietro Gasparri . Gasparri approached Ratti before voting began on the third day and told him he would urge his supporters to switch their votes to Ratti, who

1936-665: A pragmatic approach toward the different forms of government. In his encyclical Dilectissima Nobis (1933), in which he addressed the situation of the Church in Republican Spain , he proclaimed, Universally known is the fact that the Catholic Church is never bound to one form of government more than to another, provided the Divine rights of God and of Christian consciences are safe. She does not find any difficulty in adapting herself to various civil institutions, be they monarchic or republican, aristocratic or democratic. Pius XI argued for

2057-505: A reconstruction of economic and political life on the basis of religious values. Quadragesimo anno (1931) was written to mark 'forty years' since Pope Leo XIII 's (1878–1903) encyclical Rerum novarum , and restated that encyclical's warnings against both socialism and unrestrained capitalism, as enemies to human freedom and dignity. Pius XI instead envisioned an economy based on co-operation and solidarity. In Quadragesimo anno , Pius XI stated that social and economic issues are vital to

2178-479: A right to redistribution policies. In extreme cases, the Pope grants the state a right of expropriation of private property. A related issue, said Pius, is the relation between capital and labour and the determination of fair wages. Pius develops the following ethical mandate: The Church considers it a perversion of industrial society to have developed sharp opposite camps based on income. He welcomes all attempts to alleviate these differences. Three elements determine

2299-403: A social revolution instead. He called Catholics to reject "naive reformism" and insisted that the Catholic Church must "break its ties with the present order', become "one with the poor" and dedicate itself to the "revolutionary cause". In this, he wrote that "only by overcoming a society divided into classes .. . by eliminating the private appropriation of wealth created by human toil, can we build

2420-565: A staunch opponent of Communism in his native Poland, diminished the influence of liberation theology by appointing in Latin America only conservative bishops. Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI , as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith , was in charge of enforcing doctrine which largely opposed the theological interpretations and actions of the liberationists. In 1983

2541-412: A strong element of quasi-corporatist thought. A tempering of "excessive inequalities between poor and rich" is to be accomplished by the integration of all into the running of businesses through intermediate structures. Structures such as peasants' and workers' unions are to be thought of in terms of representation and participation in businesses. "All of the sectors of society, but in this case, principally

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2662-490: A total of 464 of the faithful in the course of his pontificate, including Pierre-René Rogue (1934) and Noël Pinot (1926). Pius XI also declared Saints to be Doctors of the Church : Pius XI created a total of 76 cardinals in 17 consistories, including notable individuals such as August Hlond (1927), Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster (1929), Raffaele Rossi (1930), Elia Dalla Costa (1933), and Giuseppe Pizzardo (1937). One of those cardinals he elevated, on 16 December 1929,

2783-571: Is generally limited to academic circles and that such theories can have considerable and tangible impact on Latin America's socioeconomic conditions. Liberation theology was intended as a call to all believers in Latin America to act on the biblical commitment to the poor. Gutiérrez's message on material and economic conditions serves to place inequality in both religious and political discourse. Gutiérrez's thought has influenced theology, both in Latin America and abroad. This influence can be observed from

2904-462: Is its pro-Marxist and anti-capitalist sentiments", and noted that Gutiérrez used Marxist terminology and always referred to the "bourgeois, capitalists, and multinational corporations" in a negative tone. Gutiérrez also cited Che Guevara , and argued that "the current economic system is purposefully designed to funnel all its resources to the top, away from the oppressed masses beneath". Historian Edward Norman called Gutiérrez "the most distinguished of

3025-542: Is precisely the confrontation of his Latin American decolonial Marxism, which is quite complex, heterogeneous and indefinite, with the Christian teaching." However, Gutiérrez's political thought also rejected and modified some aspects of Marxism. Enrique Dussel noted the absence of dialectical materialism in liberation theology: "Liberation theologians, like Gustavo Gutierrez, Juan Luis Segundo, and Leonardo Boff, do not assume

3146-467: Is said to have responded: "I hope and pray that among so highly deserving cardinals the Holy Spirit selects someone else. If I am chosen, it is indeed Cardinal Gasparri whom I will take to be my secretary of state". Ratti was elected pope on the conclave's fourteenth ballot on 6 February 1922 and took the name "Pius XI", explaining that Pius IX was the pope of his youth and Pius X had appointed him head of

3267-444: Is to overcome death and enter into a new life. The cross and the resurrection seal our freedom." The freedom of Christ is seen by Gutiérrez as the source of spiritual and economic freedom. Theological reflection on liberation extends beyond a simple discourse lacking in practical and concrete implications. Reflection on the situation of the poor leads to what liberation theologians call "liberating praxis", where they attempt to rectify

3388-770: The Apostolic Palace and was buried in the Papal Grotto of Saint Peter's Basilica . In the course of excavating space for his tomb, two levels of burial grounds were uncovered which revealed bones now venerated as the bones of St. Peter . Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti was born in Desio , in the province of Milan , in 1857, the son of the owner of a silk factory. His parents were Francesco Antonio Ratti (1823–1881) and his wife Angela Teresa née Galli Cova (1832–1918); his siblings were Carlo (1853–1906), Fermo (1854–1929), Edoardo (1855–1896), Camilla (1860–1946), and Cipriano. He

3509-521: The Catholic clergy . The central pastoral question of his work was: "How do we convey to the poor that God loves them?" Gustavo Gutiérrez was born in the Montserrat barrio of Lima on 8 June 1928 to mestizo parents of Hispanic and Quechua descent. He was afflicted with osteomyelitis as an adolescent and was frequently bed-ridden. He had to use a wheelchair from age 12 to 18. He described this time as

3630-735: The Mussolini regime to require Catholic religious education in all schools, even those with a majority of Protestants or Jews. The Pope expressed his "great pleasure" with the move. In 1934, the Fascist government at the urging of the Vatican agreed to expand the probation on public gatherings of Protestants to include even private worship in homes. Pius XI canonised a total of 34 saints during his pontificate including such prominent individuals as: Bernadette Soubirous (1933), Thérèse of Lisieux (1925), John Vianney (1925), John Fisher and Thomas More (1935), as also John Bosco (1934). He also beatified

3751-764: The National University of San Marcos in Lima in order to become a psychiatrist . He also became involved with Catholic Action , which greatly influenced his later theological arguments. While in medical school, Gutiérrez realized he wanted to become a priest. He completed his theological studies in the Theology Faculty of Leuven in Belgium and at Lyon in France, where he studied under Henri de Lubac , Yves Congar , Marie Dominique Chenu , Christian Ducoq, and several others. It

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3872-585: The Papal Household ) to the College of Cardinals but was forced to abandon the idea when King Alfonso XIII of Spain insisted that the pope appoint cardinals from South America despite the fact that Sanz hailed from Colombia . Since Pius XI did not want to appear to be influenced by political considerations, he chose in the December 1923 consistory to name no South American cardinals at all. According to an article by

3993-583: The Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas , Angelicum as the preeminent institution for the teaching of Aquinas: "ante omnia Pontificium Collegium Angelicum, ubi Thomam tamquam domi suae habitare dixeris" (before all others the Pontifical Angelicum College, where Thomas can be said to dwell). The encyclical Casti connubii promulgated on 31 December 1930 prohibited Catholics from using contraception . To establish or maintain

4114-778: The Sacred Heart in his encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor (1928). Pius XI was the first pope to directly address the Christian ecumenical movement . Like Benedict XV he was interested in achieving reunion with the Eastern Orthodox (failing that, he determined to give special attention to the Eastern Catholic churches). He also allowed the dialogue between Catholics and Anglicans which had been planned during Benedict XV's pontificate to take place at Mechelen . However, these enterprises were firmly aimed at actually reuniting with

4235-580: The Soviet Union , even to shedding his blood for Russia. Benedict, however, needed Ratti as a diplomat, not as a martyr , and forbade his traveling into the USSR despite his being the official papal delegate for Russia. The nuncio's continued contacts with Russians did not generate much sympathy for him within Poland at the time. After Pope Benedict sent Ratti to Silesia to forestall potential political agitation within

4356-506: The preferential option for the poor unfolding as a fundamental axis of the Christian life on three levels: The main biblical foundation for this praxis lies in the kenotic incarnation of Christ. To Gutiérrez, the ministry of Christ among the rejected and despised of his time is a clear example for the contemporary Church. Furthermore, "the incarnation is an act of love. Christ becomes man , dies and rises to liberate us , and makes us enjoy freedom. To die and be resurrected with Christ

4477-464: The preferential option for the poor , with an emphasis on improving the material conditions of the impoverished. Gutiérrez proposed that revelation and eschatology have been excessively idealized at the expense of efforts to bring about the Kingdom of God on Earth. His methodology was often critical of the social and economic injustice he believed to be responsible for poverty in Latin America, and of

4598-709: The Archbishop of Lima), Gutiérrez left Peru and joined the Dominican Order near the turn of the millennium, taking a teaching post at the University of Notre Dame in the United States. There, he held the John Cardinal O'Hara Professorship of Theology. He later taught at the University of Michigan , Harvard , Cambridge , UC Berkeley , and University of Montréal and other schools. Gutiérrez called for understanding

4719-613: The Archbishopric of Lima. It was estimated that more than 1,000 people, in person as well as virtually, attended Gutiérrez's funeral. Among those who spoke at his funeral were UNEC national advisor and Chiclayo leader Yolanda Díaz, cartoonist Juan Acevado and Provincial Superior of the Dominicans of Peru Fr. Romulo Vasquez Gavidia, OP. Following the funeral, Gutiérrez's remains were taken to Cristo Redentor Parish in Rímac, where he served as

4840-879: The Bolshevik advance against Warsaw during the Polish-Soviet War , the Pope asked for worldwide public prayers for Poland, while Ratti was the only foreign diplomat who refused to flee Warsaw when the Red Army was approaching the city in August 1920. On 11 June 1921, Benedict XV asked Ratti to deliver his message to the Polish episcopate, warning against political misuses of spiritual power, urging again peaceful coexistence with neighbouring peoples and stating that "love of country has its limits in justice and obligations". Ratti intended to work for Poland by building bridges to men of goodwill in

4961-404: The Catholic Church other Christians who basically agreed with Catholic doctrine, bringing them back under papal authority. To the broad pan-Protestant ecumenical movement he took a more negative attitude. He rejected, in his 1928 encyclical, Mortalium animos , the idea that Christian unity could be attained by establishing a broad federation of many bodies holding conflicting doctrines; rather,

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5082-415: The Catholic Church was the true Church of Christ. "The union of Christians can only be promoted by promoting the return to the one true Church of Christ of those who are separated from it, for in the past they have unhappily left it." The pronouncement also prohibited Catholics from joining groups that encouraged interfaith discussion without distinction. The next year, the Vatican was successful in lobbying

5203-531: The Church in Germany facing clear persecution, Italy and Germany agreed to the Berlin-Rome Axis . Gustavo Guti%C3%A9rrez Gustavo Gutiérrez-Merino Díaz OP (8 June 1928 – 22 October 2024) was a Peruvian philosopher, Catholic theologian , and Dominican priest who was one of the founders of liberation theology in Latin America . His 1971 book A Theology of Liberation is considered pivotal to

5324-408: The Church not from a technical point of view but in terms of moral and ethical issues involved. Ethical considerations include the nature of private property in terms of its functions for society and the development of the individual. He defined fair wages and branded the exploitation both materially and spiritually by international capitalism. Pius XI wrote that mothers should work primarily within

5445-800: The Church, as long as it was developed within the framework of orthodoxy and compatible with the Church's teachings. Pius XI was interested in supporting serious scientific study within the Church, establishing the Pontifical Academy of the Sciences in 1936. In 1928 he formed the Gregorian Consortium of universities in Rome administered by the Society of Jesus , fostering closer collaboration between their Gregorian University , Biblical Institute , and Oriental Institute . Pius XI strongly encouraged devotion to

5566-687: The French Catholic Church anti-republican. The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State had expelled many religious orders from France, declared all Church buildings to be government property, and had led to the closure of most Church schools. Since that time Pope Benedict XV had sought a rapprochement, but it was not achieved until the reign of Pope Pius XI. In Maximam gravissimamque (1924), many areas of dispute were tacitly settled and

5687-509: The Marxist theologians in South America." The main Marxist revolutionaries and intellectual that Gutiérrez cited and incorporated ideas from were José Carlos Mariátegui , Karl Marx , Friedrich Engels , Che Guevara, Fidel Castro and Aníbal Quijano . On Gutiérrez's Marxist thought, Javier Valiente Núñez wrote: "The novelty of Gutiérrez’s use of Marxism, with the only precedent of Camilo Torres,

5808-575: The Most Holy Rosary , presided over by Archbishop of Lima Carlos Castillo Mattasoglio . Moments before the funeral began, a video broadcast of Pope Francis aired in which he paid to tribute to Gutiérrez, describing him as "A man of the Church who knew how to be silent when he had to be silent, who knew how to suffer when it was his turn to suffer, who knew how to carry forward so much apostolic fruit and so much rich theology." The pope's video broadcast, which took place from Rome, had been prepared by

5929-519: The Oppressed explored the concept of praxis and a preferential option for the poor. Gutiérrez died from pneumonia in a convent in Lima on 22 October 2024, at the age of 96. On 23 October 2024, a wake service, vespers , and Mass celebrating the memory of Gutiérrez were all held at the Dominican residence in Lima where he resided. On 24 October, Gutiérrez was granted a public funeral at Basilica of

6050-564: The Polish Catholic clergy, the nuncio was asked to leave Poland. On 20 November, when German Cardinal Adolf Bertram announced a papal ban on all political activities of clergymen, calls for Ratti's expulsion climaxed. Ratti was asked to leave. "While he tried honestly to show himself as a friend of Poland, Warsaw forced his departure, after his neutrality in Silesian voting was questioned" by Germans and Poles. Nationalistic Germans objected to

6171-412: The Polish nuncio supervising local elections, and patriotic Poles were upset because he curtailed political action among the clergy. In the consistory of 3 June 1921, Pope Benedict XV created three new cardinals, including Ratti, who was appointed Archbishop of Milan simultaneously. The pope joked with them, saying, "Well, today I gave you the red hat, but soon it will be white for one of you." After

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6292-439: The Pope visited Nicaragua and expressed his belief that there is a fundamental difference between Catholic and Sandinista ideology, something which they vehemently deny. It was common to see the contradictory nature of the documents from the 1968 conference as the new liberationist movement overtaking the older, developmentalist thought which has been described as follows: What is understood as "development" contains as well

6413-463: The Popes had refused to recognise the Italian state's seizure of the Papal States, instead withdrawing to become prisoners in the Vatican , and the Italian government's policies had always been anti-clerical . Now Pius XI thought a compromise would be the best solution. To bolster his own new regime, Benito Mussolini was also eager for an agreement. After years of negotiation, in 1929, the Pope supervised

6534-457: The Vatican Library. It was rumoured that immediately after the election, he decided to appoint Pietro Gasparri as his Cardinal Secretary of State . When asked if he accepted his election, Ratti was said to have replied: "In spite of my unworthiness, of which I am deeply aware, I accept". He went on to say that his choice in papal name was because "Pius is a name of peace". It was said after

6655-522: The Vatican celebration, Ratti went to the Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino for a retreat to prepare spiritually for his new role. He accompanied Milanese pilgrims to Lourdes in August 1921. Ratti received a tumultuous welcome on a visit to his home town of Desio , and was enthroned in Milan on 8 September. On 22 January 1922, Pope Benedict XV died unexpectedly of pneumonia . At the conclave to choose

6776-624: The Vatican was taking diplomatic action to attempt to defend the Jews of Germany. In the spring of 1933, Pope Pius XI urged Mussolini to ask Hitler to restrain the anti-Semitic actions taking place in Germany. Mussolini urged Pius to excommunicate Hitler, as he thought it would render him less powerful in Catholic Austria and reduce the danger to Italy and wider Europe. The Vatican refused to comply and thereafter Mussolini began to work with Hitler, adopting his anti-Semitic and race theories. In 1936, with

6897-552: The Vatican. The Church made advances on several fronts in the 1920s, improving relations with France and, most spectacularly, settling the Roman question with Italy and gaining recognition of an independent Vatican state. Pius XI's major diplomatic approach was to make concordats . He concluded eighteen such treaties during the course of his pontificate. However, wrote Peter Hebblethwaite , these concordats did not prove "durable or creditable" and "wholly failed in their aim of safeguarding

7018-430: The agreement paid the Vatican 1.75 billion lira (about $ 100 million) for the seizures of church property since 1860. Pius XI invested the money in the stock markets and real estate. To manage these investments, the Pope appointed the lay-person Bernardino Nogara , who, through shrewd investing in stocks, gold, and futures markets, significantly increased the Catholic Church's financial holdings. The income largely paid for

7139-399: The approach of Benedict XV on the issue of how to deal with the threat of modernism in Catholic theology. The Pope was thoroughly orthodox theologically and had no sympathy with modernist ideas that relativised fundamental Catholic teachings. He condemned modernism in his writings and addresses. However, his opposition to modernist theology was by no means a rejection of new scholarship within

7260-459: The author of A Theology of Liberation (1973), sees the tension in the documents of Medellin as arising in the bishops' attempt to reach all Latin American communities, no matter where they stood, and begin introducing more liberationist views. Pope Pius XI Pope Pius XI ( Italian : Pio XI ), born Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti ( Italian: [amˈbrɔ:dʒo daˈmja:no aˈkille ˈratti] ; 31 May 1857 – 10 February 1939),

7381-493: The balcony, Urbi et Orbi ("to the city and to the world"), abandoned by his predecessors since the loss of Rome to the Italian state in 1870. This suggested his openness to a rapprochement with the government of Italy. Less than a month later, considering that all four cardinals from the Western Hemisphere had been unable to participate in his election, he issued Cum proxime to allow the College of Cardinals to delay

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7502-525: The capitalistic greed of international finance, the dangers of socialism / communism , and social justice issues, and Quas primas , establishing the feast of Christ the King in response to anti-clericalism . The encyclical Studiorum ducem , promulgated 29 June 1923, was written on the occasion of the 6th centenary of the canonization of Thomas Aquinas , whose thought is acclaimed as central to Catholic philosophy and theology. The encyclical also singles out

7623-426: The church. Marx's discussion of class struggle and the material conditions of poverty provided Gutiérrez a framework for understanding socio-economic inequality. When he returned to Peru in the late 1950s, Gutiérrez began to formulate his understanding of Latin American "reality" – the foundation and driving force of Latin American liberation theology . He wrote: "I come from a continent in which more than 60% of

7744-520: The color or social class under which he was born. Liberation theology insists on prioritizing the gift of life as the supreme manifestation of God. Gutiérrez asserted that his understanding of poverty as a "scandalous state" is reflected in Luke's beatitude "Blessed are you poor, for the kingdom of God is yours", whereas his interpretation of it as "spiritual childhood" has precedent in Matthew's verse, "Blessed are

7865-478: The dean Cardinal Vincenzo Vannutelli asked if he assented to the election that Ratti paused in silence for two minutes according to Cardinal Désiré-Joseph Mercier . The Hungarian cardinal János Csernoch later commented: "We made Cardinal Ratti pass through the fourteen stations of the Via Crucis and then we left him alone on Calvary". As Pius XI's first act as pope, he revived the traditional public blessing from

7986-441: The dialectical materialism of Engels, Lenin or Stalin, but a more “humanist” Marx by Gramsci, Marcuse or Bloch. This Marxist “humanist” perspective that is focused on a social criticism of the reality is the one used by these theologians in order to elaborate a scientific approach to the causes of poverty and exclusion in Latin America." Gutiérrez personally highlighted that a single area where liberation theology differed from Marxism

8107-606: The early aftermath of the First World War. Many of the old European monarchies had been swept away and a new and precarious order formed across the continent. In the East, the Soviet Union arose. In Italy , the Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini took power, while in Germany, the fragile Weimar Republic collapsed with the Nazi seizure of power. His reign was one of busy diplomatic activity for

8228-464: The encyclical Non abbiamo bisogno ("We Have No Need)" in 1931. It denounced the regime's persecution of the church in Italy and condemned "pagan worship of the State." It also condemned Fascism's "revolution which snatches the young from the Church and from Jesus Christ, and which inculcates in its own young people hatred, violence and irreverence". From the earliest days of the Nazi takeover in Germany,

8349-452: The evangelical proposal of the integral mission developed years after the origin of liberation, to the development of social ministries within the evangelical churches in the last decades. Among Gutiérrez's most prominent followers are Hugo Echeray  [ es ] and Luis Felipe Zegarra Russo  [ es ] . His friends included the German theologian Gerhard Ludwig Müller ,

8470-590: The exploited class, a social revolution will put an end to this dependency. They alone will allow a transition to a socialist society, or at least will make it possible." Gutiérrez was a friend of Camilo Torres Restrepo , a liberation theologian who heeded his calls for participating in a socialist revolution. Marxist influences were prevalent in Gutiérrez's political views. Cameron Swathwood argues that "the overriding theme in Gutiérrez’s conception of liberation theology

8591-499: The formation of liberation theology. He held the John Cardinal O'Hara Professorship of Theology at the University of Notre Dame and was a visiting professor at universities in North America and Europe. Gutiérrez studied medicine and literature at the National University of San Marcos before deciding to become a priest . He began studying theology at the Theology Faculty of Leuven in Belgium and in Lyon , France. His theological focus connected salvation and liberation through

8712-531: The former Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Müller, after studying his thought, stated: "The theology of Gustavo Gutiérrez, how it is considered, is orthodox because it is orthopractic and teaches us the correct Christian way of acting, since it derives from authentic faith." On his 90th birthday, in 2018, Pope Francis thanked him for his contributions "to the church and humanity through your theological service and your preferential love for

8833-501: The foundation of a more just society". In 1985, when asked if liberation theologians could support welfare-oriented capitalism as a basis for a preferential option for the poor, he replied: "I don't know any who do." He praised Marxism as "simply the best theory available for ensuring that theology is adequately contextual". Stressing his support for a socialist revolution, Gutiérrez stressed: "Hence we speak of social revolution, not reform; of liberation, not development; of socialism, not

8954-549: The full flourishing of every human person. Pope Paul VI had spoken of "just insurrection" and the possible use of violent rebellion in certain situations. The Medellin Conference in 1968 opened the way for the development of liberation theology, and endorsed the formation of base communities under lay leaders approved by the pastor. As base communities greatly multiplied, critics would complain of Marxist ideology and propensity toward violent confrontation. In 1978 Pope John Paul II ,

9075-484: The historian Monsignor Vicente Cárcel y Ortí, a 1928 letter from Alfonso XIII asked the pope to restore Valencia as a cardinalitial see and appoint its archbishop, Prudencio Melo y Alcalde, a cardinal. However, Pius XI responded saying that he could not do so because Spain already had the habitual number of cardinals (set at four) with two of them fixed ( Toledo and Seville ) while the other two were variable appointments. While Pius XI recommended that Alfonso XIII wait for

9196-443: The home , or in its immediate vicinity, and concentrate on household duties. He argued that every effort in society must be made for fathers to possess high enough wages, so that it never becomes a necessity within families for mothers to work. These forced dual income situations in which mothers work he describes as an "intolerable abuse". Pius also criticized egalitarianist stances, describing modern attempts to " liberate women " as

9317-447: The individual and communal level because numerous free social entities get absorbed by larger ones. The society of individuals becomes the mass class-society. People are much more interdependent than in ancient times, and become egoistic or class-conscious in order to save some freedom for themselves. The pope demands more solidarity, especially between employers and employees, through new forms of cooperation and communication. Pius displays

9438-445: The institutional rights of the Church" for "Europe was entering a period in which such agreements were regarded as mere scraps of paper". From 1933 to 1936 Pius wrote several protests against the Nazi regime, while his attitude to Mussolini's Italy changed dramatically in 1938, after Nazi racial policies were adopted in Italy. Pius XI watched the rising tide of totalitarianism with alarm and delivered three papal encyclicals challenging

9559-595: The long breach between the papacy and the Italian government and to gain recognition once more of the sovereign independence of the Holy See. Most of the Papal States had been seized by the forces of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (1861–1878) in 1860 at the foundation of the modern unified Italian state , and the rest, including Rome , in 1870. The Papacy and the Italian Government had been at loggerheads ever since:

9680-885: The midst of suffering". The relationship of suffering with Christianity would inspire his book On Job , published in 1986. In his parish ministry, Gutiérrez was at one time pastor of the Iglesia Cristo Redentor (Church of Christ the Redeemer) in Rímac , Peru. Gutiérrez drafted an outline of his theological proposal at the conference "Towards a Theology of Liberation" during the Second Meeting of Priests and Laity in Chimbote, Peru, between 21 and 25 July 1968. In this proposal, he cited on multiple occasions Vatican II 's Gaudium et spes and Paul VI 's Populorum progressio . To Gutiérrez,

9801-592: The moderate conservatives who were in control. The Latin American Episcopal Council (Spanish: Consejo Episcopal Latinoamericano), also known as CELAM, organized the conference in Medellin in order to give direction to the Church in Latin America. In an introductory statement the bishops wrote: The difficult progress towards development and integration [in Latin America] could become an important catalyst in

9922-402: The modernization of the prevailing system. ‘Realists’ call these statements romantic and utopian. And they should, for the rationality of these statements is of a kind quite unfamiliar to them." Explaining his solution to the poverty in Latin America, he wrote: "Only the complete destruction of the present state of things, the profound transformation of the ownership system, the coming to power of

10043-431: The nature of private property. Within the Catholic Church, several conflicting views had developed. Pope Pius XI declared private property essential for the development and freedom of the individual, and those who deny private property also deny personal freedom and development. Pius also said that private property has a social function and loses its morality, if it is not subordinated to the common good, and governments have

10164-402: The need for Christian over secular education. Casti connubii ("Chaste Wedlock") (1930) praised Christian marriage and family life as the basis for any good society; it condemned artificial means of contraception, but acknowledged the unitive aspect of intercourse: In contrast to some of his predecessors in the nineteenth century who had favoured monarchy and dismissed democracy, Pius XI took

10285-512: The new creeds: against Italian Fascism Non abbiamo bisogno (1931; "We Do Not Need [to Acquaint You]"); against Nazism Mit brennender Sorge (1937; "With Deep Concern"), and against atheist Communism Divini redemptoris (1937; "Divine Redeemer"). He also challenged the extremist nationalism of the Action Française movement and antisemitism in the United States . France's republican government had long been anti-clerical, and much of

10406-472: The origin of poverty was considerably more complex. In Latin America, it originates from the times of the conquest and to that is added several political, geographical, and personal factors. The proclamation of the gospel in the midst of the unjust situation in Latin America leads to a praxis based on principles derived from the word of God. In the article "Theology and Poverty", Gutiérrez recalled that this option should lead to three well-defined actions, with

10527-553: The person from sin by communion with God"). He saw these three levels as interdependent, and thus dependent on each other. The final salvation of humanity would be carried out through a "historical structure" of liberation, defined by Gutiérrez as emergence of a socialist system. He wrote "that a socialist system is more in accord with the Christian principles of true brotherhood, justice and peace… only socialism can enable Latin America to achieve true development…” In his support for socialism, Gutiérrez reformed reformism and called for

10648-518: The pontificate of John Paul II . In 1911, Ratti was appointed by Pope Pius X Vice-Prefect of the Vatican Library , and in 1914 was promoted to Prefect. In 1918, Pope Benedict XV (1914–1922) appointed Ratti unusually to what was in effect a diplomatic post, as apostolic visitor (that is, in this case unofficial papal representative) in Poland . In the aftermath of the First World War a Polish state

10769-462: The poor and discarded of society." While Gutiérrez's propositions were never censored by the Church, he was asked to modify some of them. Gutiérrez also took pains to prevent his theology from being drawn into the wider network of controversial stances adopted by some of his colleagues. For example, once in the 1970s in Córdoba, Argentina , he refused to begin his lecture until Father Jerónimo Podestá ,

10890-530: The poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of Heaven". He argued that there are forms of poverty beyond economic. Gutiérrez saw Christian salvation as something that can be brought about by human action. He argued that Christian liberation has three levels - political ("liberation of the people from the political and economic structures which oppress them"), psychological ("liberation of the human being from those things that do not let him or her take on his or her own destiny"), and lastly theological ("liberation of

11011-422: The poor to object to the hegemony and hierarchy they had been subjected to for the past centuries. Instead of accepting only what they were given, the people could now demand more, like soup kitchens , day care, co-ops , neighborhood organizations, higher wages, better medical care, and greater self-respect. The bishops and religious sisters who took part in this effort were hoping that the "religious fervor" of

11132-618: The popular press that evoked passionate responses by identifying liberation theology with Communism and fear of radicalism in Latin American politics. Gutiérrez was a member of the Peruvian Academy of Language . In 1993, he was awarded the Legion of Honor by the French government for his tireless work. In 2000, Brown University awarded Gutiérrez an honorary Doctor of Divinity. In 2002, Gutiérrez

11253-544: The popular sectors" (Peace, 16, 18).The more conservative bishops at Medellin continued to see themselves as the protectors of the masses, while the poor masses were being encouraged to become literate and take control of their own destiny. Such literacy and mass action was fostered by the publication in Brazil of Paulo Friere's Pedagogy of the Oppressed, and given support in the Council's document on education (8). Gustavo Gutiérrez ,

11374-494: The population lives in a state of poverty, and 82% of those find themselves in extreme poverty ." Gutiérrez focused his efforts on the rediscovery of love thy neighbor as the central axiom of Christian life. He contended that the European theology he had studied did not reflect the oppressive material conditions in Latin America. In 2003, Gutiérrez reminisced that his "parishioners in Lima would ... teach me volumes about hope in

11495-506: The position of the Catholic Church, Pius XI concluded a record number of concordats , including the Reichskonkordat with Nazi Germany , whose betrayals of which he condemned four years later in the encyclical Mit brennender Sorge ("With Burning Concern"). During his pontificate, the longstanding hostility with the Italian government over the status of the papacy and the Church in Italy

11616-624: The priest. Castillo delivered a homily, while Father Andrés Gallego, who replaced Gutiérrez as the parish priest, delivered a farewell prayer. In addition to his Basilica of the Most Holy Rosary ceremony, Gutiérrez's Cristo Redentor Parish and burial ceremonies were open to the public as well. Gutiérrez's body is buried in El Ángel Cemetery . Gutiérrez was an influential figure within 20th century theology, and responses to his work have been polarized. Arthur F. McGovern identifies liberation theology as an anomaly within theologian fields, arguing such discourse

11737-516: The process by which the faith of the Church builds the economic, spiritual and intellectual liberation of socially oppressed peoples as fulfillment of the kingdom of God. The liberating praxis, then, has its basis in the love that God manifests for us and in the sense of solidarity and fellowship that should exist in interpersonal relationships among the children of God. Gutiérrez developed several concepts in concert with education activist and philosopher Paulo Freire , whose 1968 seminal work Pedagogy of

11858-428: The process of unification to which the whole human race is converging today. ...The upheaval we are experiencing demands new attitudes of us so that we can carry through an urgent, global and profound reform of structures. The reform movement drew on the influence of Paulo Freire , widely regarded as the greatest literacy teacher of the region, along with Father Camilo Torres and Bartolomé de Las Casas . It allowed for

11979-484: The rank of papal nuncio and on 3 July appointed him a titular archbishop . Ratti was consecrated as a bishop on 28 October 1919. According to German theologian Joseph Schmidlin 's Papstgeschichte der Neuesten Zeit (Verlag Joseph Kösel & Friedrich Pustet, München 1933–1939. 4 volumes.), Benedict XV and Ratti repeatedly cautioned Polish authorities against persecuting the Lithuanian and Ruthenian clergy. During

12100-454: The reality of the poor, and contended that being poor is not simply lacking the economic resources for development. On the contrary, Gutiérrez understood poverty as "a way of living, of thinking, of loving, of praying, of believing and waiting, of spending free time, of fighting for life." He simultaneously emphasized that poverty is the result of flawed social institutions. While many theologians oversimplify poverty's social roots, for Gutiérrez

12221-525: The reforming Archbishop of Milan, St. Charles Borromeo . Ratti became head of the Ambrosian Library in 1907 and undertook a thorough programme of restoration and re-classification of its collections. In his spare time, he was also an avid mountaineer , reaching the summits of Monte Rosa , the Matterhorn , Mont Blanc and Presolana . The combination of a scholar-athlete pope would not be seen again until

12342-411: The region would help make the result extremely powerful. They rejected for Latin America the model of development imposed by international organizations along with the national governments and economically powerful groups. The poor were to become active agents in the political and economic spheres. Bishop Dom Hélder Câmara called for a "structural revolution" which would allow for integral development and

12463-486: The rise. Members were tasked with bringing Christian values and principles into public life. Papal teachings emphasized the "re-Christianizing" of society based on cooperation for the common good. While the Christian Democratic Parties began advertising their "Third Way" as an alternative to both capitalism and socialism, a divide formed within the Christian Democratic Parties between the " liberationists " and

12584-471: The signing of the Lateran Treaties with the Italian government. According to the terms of the treaty that was one of the agreed documents, Vatican City was given sovereignty as an independent nation in return for the Vatican relinquishing its claim to the former territories of the Papal States. Pius XI thus became a head of state (albeit the smallest state in the world), the first Pope who could be termed

12705-413: The social-economic sphere, should, because of justice and brotherhood, transcend antagonisms in order to become agents of national and continental development" (Justice, 13). In contrast to this, the liberationist model denounces the political-economic model now in place as "institutionalized violence", which must be "conquer[ed] by means of a dynamic action of awakening (concientización) and organization of

12826-432: The source of the problems of Latin America was the sin manifested in an unjust social structure. His solution to this problem was to emphasize the dignity of the poor by prioritizing the glory of God present in them. This perspective would be refined over the next three years, until Gutiérrez published A Theology of Liberation in 1971. Largely as a result of his work, Latin American liberation theology thus emerged as

12947-448: The start of a conclave for as long as eighteen days following the death of a pope. Pius XI's first encyclical as pope was directly related to his aim of Christianising all aspects of increasingly secular societies. Ubi arcano , promulgated in December 1922, inaugurated the "Catholic Action" movement. Similar goals were in evidence in two encyclicals of 1929 and 1930. Divini illius magistri ("That Divine Teacher's") (1929) made clear

13068-424: The support of a great number of French lay Catholics, such as Jacques Maritain , as well as members of the clergy. Pius XI's decision was strongly criticized by Cardinal Louis Billot who believed that the political activities of monarchist Catholics should not be censured by Rome. He later resigned from his position as Cardinal, the only man to do so in the twentieth century, which is believed by some to have been

13189-399: The ultimate result of Pius XI's condemnation, though these claims have been disputed. Pius XI's successor, Pope Pius XII, repealed the papal ban on the group in 1939, once again allowing Catholics to associate themselves with the movement. However, despite Pius XII's actions to rehabilitate the group, Action Française ultimately never recovered to their former status. Pius XI aimed to end

13310-501: The upkeep of the expensive-to-maintain stock of historic buildings in the Vatican which until 1870 had been maintained through funds raised from the Papal States. The Vatican's relationship with Mussolini's government deteriorated drastically after 1930 as Mussolini's totalitarian ambitions began to impinge more and more on the autonomy of the Church. For example, the Fascists tried to absorb the Church's youth groups. In response, Pius issued

13431-651: Was dependency theory , which liberation theology embraced. He acknowledged that while dependency theory itself had many Marxist elements, it "cannot simply be reduced to the Marxist version." In 1974, Gutiérrez founded the Lima branch of the Bartolomé de Las Casas Institute . The Institute, in its mission statement, sought to use theology as a means of addressing contemporary social issues and educating through research, engagement with lawmakers, and collaboration with grassroots organizations . After facing criticism for his work (including from Cardinal Juan Luis Cipriani Thorne ,

13552-521: Was also here where Gutiérrez was introduced to the Dominican and Jesuit ideologies, and was influenced by the work of Edward Schillebeeckx , Karl Rahner , Hans Küng , and Johann Baptist Metz . His time in Europe influenced Gutiérrez to discuss the openness of the Church to the contemporary world. He was also influenced by Protestant theologians such as Karl Barth and social scientists such as François Perroux and his idea of development. In 1959, Gutiérrez

13673-415: Was his eventual successor, Eugenio Pacelli, who would become Pope Pius XII . Pius XI, in fact, believed that Pacelli would be his successor and dropped many hints that this was his hope. On one such occasion at a consistory for new cardinals on 13 December 1937, while posing with the new cardinals, Pius XI pointed to Pacelli and told them: "He'll make a good pope!" Pius XI also accepted the resignation of

13794-587: Was ordained a priest . While studying in Europe, Gutiérrez was exposed to other, non-religious thinkers who had a profound impact on his ideology and the eventual formation of Latin American liberation theology . At the Faculty of Theology in Lyon, he studied Karl Marx , Sigmund Freud – on whom he did a philosophy licentiate at the University of Louvrain – and evolutionary theorists traditionally opposed or discouraged by

13915-586: Was ordained a priest in 1879 and his abilities meant he was selected for a life of academic studies within the Church. He obtained three doctorates (in philosophy , canon law and theology ) at the Gregorian University in Rome , and then from 1882 to 1888 was a professor at a seminary in Padua . His scholarly speciality was as an expert paleographer , a student of ancient and medieval Church manuscripts. Eventually, he

14036-401: Was restored, though the process was in practice incomplete, since the territory was still under the effective control of Germany and Austria-Hungary . In October 1918, Pope Benedict was the first head of state to congratulate the Polish people on the occasion of the restoration of their independence. In March 1919, he appointed ten new bishops and on 6 June 1919 reappointed Ratti, this time to

14157-409: Was shocked to hear this. When it became clear that neither Gasparri nor del Val could win, the cardinals approached Ratti, thinking him a compromise candidate not identified with either faction. Cardinal Gaetano de Lai approached Ratti and was believed to have said: "We will vote for Your Eminence if Your Eminence will promise that you will not choose Cardinal Gasparri as your secretary of state". Ratti

14278-555: Was successfully resolved in the Lateran Treaty of 1929. He was unable to stop the persecution of the Church and the killing of clergy in Mexico , Spain , and the Soviet Union . He canonized important saints, including Thomas More , Peter Canisius , Bernadette of Lourdes , and Don Bosco . He beatified and canonized Thérèse de Lisieux , for whom he held special reverence, and gave equivalent canonization to Albertus Magnus , naming him

14399-678: Was the Bishop of Rome and head of the Catholic Church from 6 February 1922 to 10 February 1939. He also became the first sovereign of the Vatican City State upon its creation as an independent state on 11 February 1929. He remained pope until his death in February 1939. Pius XI issued numerous encyclicals , including Quadragesimo anno on the 40th anniversary of Pope Leo XIII 's groundbreaking social encyclical Rerum novarum , highlighting

14520-619: Was the first Pope to utilise the power of modern communications technology in evangelising the wider world. He established Vatican Radio in 1931, and he was the first Pope to broadcast on radio. In his management of the Church's internal affairs, Pius XI mostly continued the policies of his predecessor. Like Benedict XV , he emphasised spreading Catholicism in Africa and Asia and on the training of native clergy in those mission territories. He ordered every religious order to devote some of its personnel and resources to missionary work. Pius XI continued

14641-567: Was transferred from seminary teaching to work full-time at the Ambrosian Library in Milan , where he worked in the years 1888 to 1911. During this time, Ratti edited and published an edition of the Ambrosian Missal (the rite of Mass used in a wide territory in northern Italy, coinciding above all with the diocese of Milan ). He also engaged in research and writing on the life and works of

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