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144-501: The meaning of life can be derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about, existence , social ties , consciousness , and happiness . Many other issues are also involved, such as symbolic meaning , ontology , value , purpose , ethics , good and evil , free will , the existence of one or multiple gods , conceptions of God , the soul , and the afterlife . Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related empirical facts about

288-595: A growth mindset . Most teachers and parents want students become more engaged and interested in the classroom. The design of the education system was not able to account for such needs. One school implemented a program called PASS. They acknowledged that students needed more challenge and individual advancement; they referred to this as sport culture. This PASS program integrated an elective class into which students could immerse themselves. Such activities included self-paced learning, mastery-based learning, performance learning, and so on. Flow benefits general well-being. It

432-488: A white hole on the inside of a black hole in another parent universe. Many-worlds theories claim that every possibility of quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes. The nature and origin of consciousness and the mind are also widely debated in science. The explanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness , and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in

576-477: A "space of conscious elements", often encompassing a number of extra dimensions. Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience; there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind. Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of

720-420: A 1797–1798 manuscript, in which he wrote: "Only an artist can divine the meaning of life." Additionally, the word lebenssinn , translated as life's meaning, had been used by Goethe in a 1796 letter to Schiller . These authors grappled with the rationalism and materialism of modernity. Carlyle called this the "Torch of Science", which burned "more fiercely than ever" and made religion "all parched away, under

864-500: A building and being 443.2 meters tall , express what an object is like but do not directly describe whether or not that building exists. According to this view, existence is more fundamental than regular properties because an object cannot have any properties if it does not exist. According to second-order theorists, quantifiers rather than predicates express existence. Predicates are expressions that apply to and classify objects, usually by attributing features to them, such as "is

1008-405: A butterfly" and "is happy". Quantifiers are terms that talk about the quantity of objects that have certain properties. Existential quantifiers express that there is at least one object, like the expressions "some" and "there exists", as in "some cows eat grass" and "there exists an even prime number". In this regard, existence is closely related to counting because to assert that something exists

1152-493: A certain cut-off amount. Positive psychology has practical applications in various fields related to education, workplace, community development, and mental healthcare. This domain of psychology aims to enrich individuals' lives by promoting well-being and fostering positive experiences and characteristics, thus contributing to a more fulfilling and meaningful life. Before the first use of the term "positive psychology," researchers focused on topics that would now be included under

1296-444: A children's book. They would not feel challenged enough to be engaged or motivated in the reading. Csikszentmihalyi explained this using various combinations of challenge and skills to predict psychological states. These four states included the following: Accordingly, an adult reading a children's book would most likely be in the relaxation state. The adult has no need to worry that the task will be more than they can handle. Challenge

1440-414: A concomitant vicious character. The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth , power , health , and fame , by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional. As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to human beings. The world equally belongs to everyone, so suffering is caused by false judgments of what

1584-430: A different thick concept of existence; he stated: "to be is to be perceived", meaning all existence is mental. Existence contrasts with nonexistence, a lack of reality. Whether objects can be divided into existent and nonexistent objects is a subject of controversy. This distinction is sometimes used to explain how it is possible to think of fictional objects like dragons and unicorns but the concept of nonexistent objects

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1728-551: A four-component solution to the question of meaning in life, with the four components purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoyment (PURE): Thus, a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning, rather than standing as a separate factor. Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment, most philosophers (e.g., Thaddeus Metz , Daniel Haybron) propose that there are also objective, concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life. Wong has proposed that whether life

1872-569: A fuller contribution by using one's personal strengths, and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self. Large-data studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task. For example, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur only slightly more often in billionaires. A classic example

2016-520: A hierarchical structure. They believed a transcendent entity, called "the One" or "the Good", is responsible for all existence. From it emerges the intellect, which in turn gives rise to the soul and the material world. In medieval philosophy , Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109 CE) formulated the influential ontological argument , which aims to deduce the existence of God from the concept of God. Anselm defined God as

2160-772: A historical basis in the vast majority of cultures and that they can lead to increased happiness when built upon. Notwithstanding numerous cautions and caveats, this suggestion of universality leads to three theories: The organization of the six virtues and 24 strengths is as follows: Subsequent research challenged the need for six virtues. Instead, researchers suggested the 24 strengths are more accurately grouped into just three or four categories: Intellectual Strengths, Interpersonal Strengths, and Temperance Strengths, or alternatively, Interpersonal Strengths, Fortitude, Vitality, and Cautiousness. These strengths, and their classifications, have emerged independently elsewhere in literature on values. Paul Thagard described some examples. In

2304-406: A logical property that every existing thing shares; they do not include any substantial content about the metaphysical implications of having existence. According to one view, existence is the same as the logical property of self-identity . This view articulates a thin concept of existence because it merely states what exists is identical to itself without discussing any substantial characteristics of

2448-532: A long philosophical tradition in relation to the existence of universals. According to Platonists , universals have general existence as Platonic forms independently of the particulars that exemplify them. According to this view, the universal of redness exists independently of the existence or nonexistence of red objects. Aristotelianism also accepts the existence of universals but says their existence depends on particulars that instantiate them and that they are unable to exist by themselves. According to this view,

2592-544: A natural extension of simpler non- or pre-biological physical processes should logically be included in the concept "meaning of life". Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations. However, current physics can only describe the early universe from around 10 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature);

2736-456: A negative singular existential is true if the individual it refers to does not exist. Meinongianism has important implications for understandings of quantification. According to an influential view defended by Willard Van Orman Quine , the domain of quantification is restricted to existing objects. This view implies quantifiers carry ontological commitments about what exists and what does not exist. Meinongianism differs from this view by saying

2880-629: A new domain of psychology in 1998 when Martin Seligman chose it as the theme for his term as president of the American Psychological Association . It is a reaction against past practices that tended to focus on mental illness and emphasized maladaptive behavior and negative thinking. It builds on the humanistic movement of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers , which encourages an emphasis on happiness , well-being , and purpose . Positive psychology largely relies on concepts from

3024-463: A nonexisting object. Closely related to the problem of different types of entities is the question of whether their modes of existence also vary. This is the case according to ontological pluralism, which states entities belonging to different types differ in both their essential features and in the ways they exist. This position is sometimes found in theology; it states God is radically different from his creation and emphasizes his uniqueness by saying

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3168-485: A number of factors that may contribute to happiness and subjective well-being, for example, social ties with a spouse, family, friends, colleagues, and wider networks ; membership in clubs or social organizations; physical exercise; and the practice of meditation . Spiritual practice and religious commitment is another possible source for increased well-being. Happiness may rise with increasing income, though it may plateau or even fall when no further gains are made or after

3312-601: A particular task. This can lead to students neglecting other important aspects of their learning. In positive psychology there can be misunderstandings on what clinicians and people define as positive. In certain instances, positive qualities, such as optimism, can be detrimental to health, and therefore appear as a negative quality. Alternatively, negative processes, such as anxiety, can be conducive to health and stability and thus would appear as positive qualities. A second wave of positive psychology has further identified and characterized "positive" and "negative" complexes through

3456-406: A person can best promote their well-being by nurturing their character strengths . Seligman identifies other possible goals of positive psychology: families and schools that allow children to grow, workplaces that aim for satisfaction and high productivity, and teaching others about positive psychology. A basic premise of positive psychology is that human actions arise from our anticipations about

3600-429: A person had to study and practice in order to become "good"; thus if the person were to become virtuous , he could not simply study what virtue is , he had to be virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous: Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as

3744-500: A person. In the opening sentence of his book Authentic Happiness , Seligman claimed: "For the last half century psychology has been consumed with a single topic only—mental illness," expanding on Maslow's comments. He urged psychologists to continue the earlier missions of psychology of nurturing talent and improving everyday life. The first positive psychology summit took place in 1999. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002. In September 2005,

3888-424: A property of individuals while second-order theories say existence is a second-order property, that is, a property of properties. A central challenge for theories of the nature of existence is an understanding of the possibility of coherently denying the existence of something, like the statement: "Santa Claus does not exist". One difficulty is explaining how the name "Santa Claus" can be meaningful even though there

4032-482: A property of some but not all entities, was first formulated by Alexius Meinong . Its main assertion is that there are some entities that do not exist, meaning objecthood is independent of existence. Proposed examples of nonexistent objects are merely possible objects such as flying pigs, as well as fictional and mythical objects like Sherlock Holmes and Zeus. According to this view, these objects are real and have being, even though they do not exist. Meinong states there

4176-621: A reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease, reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease, reduced risk of stroke, and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples. There is also growing evidence for a small decline in purpose in life in the early stages of cognitive impairment. In 2014, the British National Health Service began recommending a five-step plan for mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps are: The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: notable hypotheses include

4320-410: A robust explanation of why statements about what is possible and necessary are true. According to him, possible objects exist in possible worlds while actual objects exist in the actual world. Lewis says the only difference between possible worlds and the actual world is the location of the speaker; the term "actual" refers to the world of the speaker, similar to the way the terms "here" and "now" refer to

4464-458: A rock falls on a plant and damages it, or a plant grows through rock and breaks it. Abstract objects, like numbers, sets, and types, have no location in space and time, and lack causal powers. The distinction between concrete objects and abstract objects is sometimes treated as the most-general division of being. The existence of concrete objects is widely agreed upon but opinions about abstract objects are divided. Realists such as Plato accept

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4608-438: A second-order property. According to second-order theories, to talk about existence is to talk about which properties have instances. For example, this view says that the sentence "God exists" means "Godhood is instantiated" rather than "God has the property of existing". A key reason against characterizing existence as a property of individuals is that existence differs from regular properties. Regular properties, such as being

4752-735: A sense of contentment and well-being in the present. Two definitions: Happiness can be understood both as an enjoyable state of mind and the living of an enjoyable, fulfilling life. Quality of life refers to overall well-being, encompassing not just physical and mental health but also socioeconomic factors. This concept is subjective and may vary across different cultures and regions. Positive psychology according to Seligman and Christopher Peterson , addresses three issues: According to Peterson, positive psychologists are concerned with four topics: positive experiences, enduring psychological traits, positive relationships, and positive institutions. He also states that topics of interest to researchers in

4896-428: A social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory , norms, anomie , etc. One value system suggested by social psychologists , broadly called Terror Management Theory , states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death, and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death. Alongside this, there are a number of theories about the way in which humans evaluate

5040-417: A strict sense, all negative singular existentials are false, including the assertion that "Ronald McDonald does not exist". Universalists can interpret such sentences slightly differently in relation to the context. In everyday life, for example, people use sentences like "Ronald McDonald does not exist" to express the idea that Ronald McDonald does not exist as a concrete object, which is true. Another approach

5184-401: A subclass of possible objects; creationists say that they are artifacts that depend for their existence on the authors who first conceived them. Intentional inexistence is a similar phenomenon concerned with the existence of objects within mental states. This happens when a person perceives or thinks about an object. In some cases, the intentional object corresponds to a real object outside

5328-435: A theory of quantum gravity would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being. For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the anthropic principle , it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse . The ultimate fate of

5472-421: A universal that is not present in the space and time does not exist. According to nominalists , only particulars have existence and universals do not exist. There is an influential distinction in ontology between concrete and abstract objects . Many concrete objects, like rocks, plants, and other people, are encountered in everyday life. They exist in space and time. They have effects on each other, like when

5616-403: A wide range of competing answers and explications, from scientific theories, to philosophical , theological , and spiritual explanations. Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their view, science can offer

5760-521: A wide range of insights on topics ranging from the science of happiness to death anxiety . Scientific inquiry facilitates this through nomological investigation into various aspects of life and reality , such as the Big Bang , the origin of life , and evolution , and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness. Researchers in positive psychology study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction, full engagement in activities, making

5904-438: Is "based on the idea that how each person thinks and feels about his or her life is important." Carol Ryff 's six-factor model of psychological well-being was first published in 1989. It postulates that self-acceptance , personal growth , purpose in life , environmental mastery, autonomy , and positive relations with others are crucial to well-being. According to Corey Keyes , who collaborated with Carol Ryff and used

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6048-519: Is "the scientific study of positive human functioning and flourishing on multiple levels that include the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life." Positive psychology aims to complement and extend traditional problem-focused psychology. It concerns positive states (e.g. happiness), positive traits (e.g. talents, interests, strengths of character), positive relationships, and positive institutions and how these apply to physical health. Seligman proposes that

6192-462: Is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience. Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance. Studies have reported conflicting results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses. Sociology examines value at

6336-475: Is a difference between entities and the fundamental characteristics that make them the entities they are. Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) introduced this concept; he calls it the ontological difference and contrasts individual beings with being. According to his response to the question of being, being is not an entity but the background context that makes all individual entities intelligible. Many discussions of

6480-492: Is a first-order property or a property of individuals . This means existence is similar to other properties of individuals, like color and shape. Alexius Meinong and his followers accept this idea and say that not all individuals have this property; they state that there are some individuals, such as Santa Claus , that do not exist. Universalists reject this view; they see existence as a universal property of every individual. The concept of existence has been discussed throughout

6624-464: Is a positive and intrinsically motivating experience. It is known to "produce intense feelings of enjoyment". It can improve our lives by making them happier and more meaningful. Csikszentmihalyi discovered that our personal growth and development generates happiness. Flow is positive experience because it promotes that opportunity for personal development. While flow can be beneficial to students, students who experience flow can become overly focused on

6768-476: Is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes. Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about "what it is all for", James Watson stated "I don't think we're for anything. We're just the products of evolution." Though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth , defining life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge. Physically, one may say that life "feeds on negative entropy " which refers to

6912-438: Is a well-founded explanation for how one enters the flow state and employs intense concentration. However, other factors contribute. For example, one must be intrinsically motivated to participate in the activity/challenge. If the person is not interested in the task, then there is no possibility of their being absorbed into the flow state. Flow can help in parenting children. When flow is enhanced between parents and children,

7056-400: Is an elementary concept, meaning it cannot be defined in other terms without involving circularity. This would imply characterizing existence or talking about its nature in a non-trivial manner may be difficult or impossible. Disputes about the nature of existence are reflected in the distinction between thin and thick concepts of existence. Thin concepts of existence understand existence as

7200-405: Is an object corresponding to any combination of properties. A more specific criticism rejects the idea that there are incomplete and impossible objects. Universalists agree with Meinongians that existence is a property of individuals but deny there are nonexistent entities. Instead, universalists state existence is a universal property; all entities have it, meaning everything exists. One approach

7344-511: Is an object for any combination of properties. For example, there is an object that only has the single property of "being a singer" with no other properties. This means neither the attribute of "wearing a dress" nor the absence of it applies to this object. Meinong also includes impossible objects like round squares in this classification. According to Meinongians, sentences describing Sherlock Holmes and Zeus refer to nonexisting objects. They are true or false depending on whether these objects have

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7488-503: Is between merely possible, contingent , and necessary existence. An entity has necessary existence if it must exist or could not fail to exist. This means that it is not possible to newly create or destroy necessary entities. Entities that exist but could fail to exist are contingent; merely possible entities do not exist but could exist. Most entities encountered in ordinary experience, like telephones, sticks, and flowers, have contingent existence. The contingent existence of telephones

7632-493: Is called negative singular existential and the expression Ronald McDonald is a singular term that seems to refer to an individual. It is not clear how the expression can refer to an individual if, as the sentence asserts, this individual does not exist. According to a solution philosopher Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) proposed, singular terms do not refer to individuals but are descriptions of individuals . This theory states negative singular existentials deny an object matching

7776-454: Is closely related to the problem of modes of existence. This topic is based on the idea that some entities exist to a higher degree or have more being than other entities, similar to the way some properties, such as heat and mass, have degrees. According to philosopher Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE), for example, unchangeable Platonic forms have a higher degree of existence than physical objects. The view that there are different types of entities

7920-418: Is common in metaphysics but the idea that they differ from each other in their modes or degrees of existence is often rejected, implying that a thing either exists or does not exist without in-between alternatives. Metaphysician Peter van Inwagen (1942–present) uses the idea that there is an intimate relationship between existence and quantification to argue against different modes of existence. Quantification

8064-473: Is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the meaning of Life itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle. Carlyle may have been inspired by earlier usage of the equivalent German expression der Sinn des Lebens by German Romantic writers Novalis and Friedrich Schlegel . Schlegel was the first to use it in print by way of his novel Lucinde (1799), though Novalis had done so in

8208-478: Is contradictory. This conclusion follows from the premises that one can only deny the existence of something by referring to that entity and that one can only refer to entities that exist. Universalists have proposed different ways of interpreting negative singular existentials. According to one view, names of fictional entities like "Ronald McDonald" refer to abstract objects , which exist even though they do not exist in space and time. This means, when understood in

8352-509: Is impossible because the world needs to contain at least all necessary entities. Entities that exist on a physical level include objects encountered in everyday life, like stones, trees, and human bodies, as well as entities discussed in modern physics , like electrons and protons. Physical entities can be observed and measured; they possess mass and a location in space and time. Mental entities like perceptions, experiences of pleasure and pain as well as beliefs, desires, and emotions belong to

8496-501: Is made between existence and essence . Essence refers to the intrinsic nature or defining qualities of an entity. The essence of something determines what kind of entity it is and how it differs from other kinds of entities. Essence corresponds to what an entity is, while existence corresponds to the fact that it is. For instance, it is possible to understand what an object is and grasp its nature even if one does not know whether this object exists. According to some philosophers, there

8640-492: Is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but, more importantly, on whether a person's goal-striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective normative standard . The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans. Plato , a pupil of Socrates , was one of the earliest, most influential philosophers. His reputation comes from his idealism of believing in

8784-472: Is no Santa Claus. Second-order theories understand existence as a second-order property rather than a first-order property. They are often seen as the orthodox position in ontology. For instance, the Empire State Building is an individual object and "being 443.2 meters (1,454 ft) tall" is a first-order property of it. "Being instantiated" is a property of "being 443.2 meters tall" and therefore

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8928-419: Is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other "goods" desirable for its sake. This involves achieving eudaemonia , usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence". What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is an almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with

9072-461: Is not generally accepted; some philosophers say the concept is contradictory. Closely related contrasting terms are nothingness and nonbeing. Existence is commonly associated with mind-independent reality but this position is not universally accepted because there could also be forms of mind-dependent existence, such as the existence of an idea inside a person's mind. According to some idealists , this may apply to all of reality. Another contrast

9216-429: Is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory. One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast they can make each unit and achieves flow in the process. Neuroscience describes reward , pleasure , and motivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular. If one believes that

9360-420: Is reflected in the fact that they exist in the present but did not exist in the past, meaning that it is not necessary that they exist. It is an open question whether any entities have necessary existence. According to some nominalists , all concrete objects have contingent existence while all abstract objects have necessary existence. According to some theorists, one or several necessary beings are required as

9504-410: Is related to the counting of objects; according to Inwagen, if there were different modes of entities, people would need different types of numbers to count them. Because the same numbers can be used to count different types of entities, he concludes all entities have the same mode of existence. Theories of the nature of existence aim to explain what it means for something to exist. A central dispute in

9648-561: Is studied by the subdiscipline of metaphysics known as ontology . The terms "being", "reality", and "actuality" are often used as synonyms of "existence", but the exact definition of existence and its connection to these terms is disputed. According to metaphysician Alexius Meinong (1853–1920), all entities have being but not all entities have existence. He argues merely possible objects like Santa Claus have being but lack existence. Ontologist Takashi Yagisawa (20th century–present) contrasts existence with reality; he sees "reality" as

9792-525: Is that "good lies in the state of the soul", itself, exemplified in wisdom and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: " Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature." The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy". The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and

9936-446: Is that an entity either exists or not with nothing in between, but some philosophers say that there are degrees of existence, meaning that some entities exist to a higher degree than others. The orthodox position in ontology is that existence is a second-order property or a property of properties. For example, to say that lions exist means that the property of being a lion is possessed by an entity. A different view states that existence

10080-512: Is that singular existence can be expressed in terms of general existence. For instance, the sentence "Angela Merkel exists" can be expressed as "entities that are identical to Angela Merkel exist", where the expression "being identical to Angela Merkel" is understood as a general term. Philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000) defends a different position by giving primacy to singular existence and arguing that general existence can be expressed in terms of singular existence. A related question

10224-573: Is the predicate. Quantifier constructions can also be used to express negative existential statements; for instance, the sentence "talking tigers do not exist" can be expressed as "it is not the case that there exist talking tigers". Many ontologists accept that second-order theories provide a correct analysis of many types of existential sentences. It is, however, controversial whether it is correct for all cases. Some problems relate to assumptions associated with everyday language about sentences like " Ronald McDonald does not exist". This type of statement

10368-423: Is to assert that the corresponding concept has one or more instances. Second-order views imply a sentence like " egg-laying mammals exist" is misleading because the word "exist" is used as a predicate in them. These views say the true logical form is better expressed in reformulations like "there exist entities that are egg-laying mammals". This way, "existence" has the role of a quantifier and "egg-laying mammals"

10512-724: Is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal logos , or reason, an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is "freedom from suffering " through apatheia (Gr: απαθεια), that is, being objective and having "clear judgement", not indifference. Stoicism's prime directives are virtue , reason , and natural law , abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions . The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration. The Stoic ethical foundation

10656-404: Is to say existence is the same as self-identity. According to the law of identity , every object is identical to itself or has the property of self-identity. This can be expressed in predicate logic as ∀ x ( x = x ) {\displaystyle \forall x(x=x)} . An influential argument in favor of universalism is that the denial of the existence of something

10800-552: Is to understand negative singular existentials as neither true nor false but meaningless because their singular terms do not refer to anything. Western philosophy originated with the Presocratic philosophers , who aimed to replace earlier mythological accounts of the universe by providing rational explanations based on foundational principles of all existence. Some, like Thales (c. 624–545 BCE) and Heraclitus (c. 540–480 BCE), suggested concrete principles like water and fire are

10944-451: Is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions of society . Aristippus of Cyrene , a pupil of Socrates , founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates's teachings—that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a hedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to

11088-407: Is whether there can be general existence without singular existence. According to philosopher Henry S. Leonard (1905–1967), a property only has general existence if there is at least one actual object that instantiates it. Philosopher Nicholas Rescher (1928–2024), by contrast, states that properties can exist if they have no actual instances, like the property of "being a unicorn". This question has

11232-529: The RNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and the iron-sulfur world hypothesis (metabolism without genetics). The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via genetic mutation and natural selection is explained by evolution . At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the gene-centered view of evolution , biologists George C. Williams , Richard Dawkins , and David Haig , among others, concluded that if there

11376-573: The Western philosophical tradition , such as the Aristotelian concept of eudaimonia , which is typically rendered in English with the terms "flourishing", "the good life," or "happiness". Positive psychologists study empirically the conditions and processes that contribute to flourishing , subjective well-being , and happiness , often using these terms interchangeably. Positive psychologists suggest

11520-523: The history of philosophy and already played a role in ancient philosophy , including Presocratic philosophy in Ancient Greece , Hindu and Buddhist philosophy in Ancient India , and Daoist philosophy in ancient China . It is relevant to fields such as logic , mathematics , epistemology , philosophy of mind , philosophy of language , and existentialism . Dictionaries define existence as

11664-459: The types of existing entities revolve around the definitions of different types, the existence or nonexistence of entities of a specific type, the way entities of different types are related to each other, and whether some types are more fundamental than others. Examples are the existence or nonexistence of souls ; whether there are abstract, fictional, and universal entities; and the existence or nonexistence of possible worlds and objects besides

11808-537: The universe , exploring the context and parameters concerning the "how" of life. Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the pursuit of well-being and a related conception of morality . An alternative, humanistic approach poses the question, "What is the meaning of my life?" The first English use of the expression "meaning of life" appears in Thomas Carlyle 's Sartor Resartus (1833–1834), book II chapter IX, " The Everlasting Yea ". Our Life

11952-423: The 1970s, Csikszentmihalyi began studying flow , a state of absorption in which one's abilities are well-matched to the demands at-hand. He often refers to it as "optimal experience". Flow is characterized by intense concentration , loss of self-awareness, a feeling of being perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed), and a sense that "time is flying." Flow is intrinsically rewarding; it can also assist in

12096-454: The Droughts of practical and spiritual Unbelief", resulting in the " Wilderness " of "the wide World in an Atheistic Century". Arthur Schopenhauer was the first to explicitly ask the question, in an essay entitled "Character". Since a man does not alter , and his moral character remains absolutely the same all through his life; since he must play out the part which he has received, without

12240-455: The ability to acquire resources necessary for reproduction. Sequences with such basic functions probably emerged early in the evolution of life. It has been proposed that both the evolution of macroscopic order in life (including its basic functions) and the evolution of order in particular physical systems obey a common fundamental principle that was termed the Darwinian dynamic. This principal

12384-412: The absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of

12528-454: The academic discourse about the nature of existence is whether existence is a property of individuals. An individual is a unique entity, like Socrates or a particular apple. A property is something that is attributed to an entity, like "being human" or "being red", and usually expresses a quality or feature of that entity. The two main theories of existence are first-order and second-order theories. First-order theories understand existence as

12672-530: The achievement of goals (e.g., winning a game) or improving skills (e.g., becoming a better chess player). Anyone can experience flow and it can be felt in different domains, such as play, creativity , and work. Flow is achieved when the challenge of the situation meets one's personal abilities. A mismatch of challenge for someone of low skills results in a state of anxiety and feeling overwhelmed; insufficient challenge for someone highly skilled results in boredom . A good example of this would be an adult reading

12816-483: The actual world. These discussions cover the topics of the basic stuff or constituents underlying all reality and the most general features of entities. There is a distinction between singular existence and general existence. Singular existence is the existence of individual entities. For example, the sentence " Angela Merkel exists" expresses the existence of one particular person. General existence pertains to general concepts, properties, or universals . For instance,

12960-404: The chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively. Non-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses , are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life. Astrobiology studies

13104-507: The concept of second-wave positive psychology . In Authentic Happiness (2002) Seligman proposed three kinds of a happy life that can be investigated: In Flourish (2011), Seligman argued that the last category of his proposed three kinds of a happy life, "meaningful life", can be considered as three different categories. The resulting summary for this theory is the mnemonic acronym PERMA : Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and purpose, and Accomplishments. Each of

13248-535: The descriptions exists without referring to a nonexistent individual. Following this approach, the sentence "Ronald McDonald does not exist" expresses the idea: "it is not the case there is a unique happy hamburger clown". According to first-order theories, existence is a property of individuals. These theories are less-widely accepted than second-order theories but also have some influential proponents. There are two types of first-order theories: Meinongianism and universalism. Meinongianism, which describes existence as

13392-464: The difference affects both God's features and God's mode of existence. Another form of ontological pluralism distinguishes the existence of material objects from the existence of space-time . According to this view, material objects have relative existence because they exist in space-time; the existence of space-time itself is not relative in this sense because it just exists without existing within another space-time. The topic of degrees of existence

13536-509: The entity exists. Ontology is the philosophical discipline studying the nature and types of existence. Singular existence is the existence of individual entities while general existence refers to the existence of concepts or universals . Entities present in space and time have concrete existence in contrast to abstract entities, like numbers and sets. Other distinctions are between possible , contingent , and necessary existence and between physical and mental existence. The common view

13680-505: The existence of universals . His theory of forms proposes that universals do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the dialogue of the Republic , the character of Socrates describes the Form of the Good . His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life. In Platonism , the meaning of life is in attaining

13824-438: The existence of merely possible objects. According to actualism , only actual entities have being; this includes both contingent and necessary entities but excludes merely possible entities. Possibilists reject this view and state there are also merely possible objects besides actual objects. For example, metaphysician David Lewis (1941–2001) states that possible objects exist in the same way as actual objects so as to provide

13968-536: The existence of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments, but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations. Reker and Wong define personal meaning as the "cognizance of order, coherence and purpose in one's existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment" (p. 221). In 2016, Martela and Steger defined meaning as coherence, purpose, and significance. In contrast, Wong has proposed

14112-417: The explanatory foundation of the cosmos. For instance, the philosophers Avicenna (980–1037) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) say that God has necessary existence. A few philosophers, like Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), see God and the world as the same thing , and say that all entities have necessary existence to provide a unified and rational explanation of everything. There are many academic debates about

14256-500: The field are states of pleasure or flow , values , strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the ways that these can be promoted by social systems and institutions. There is no accepted "gold standard" theory in positive psychology. The work of Seligman is regularly quoted, as is the work of Csikszentmihalyi, and older models of well-being, such as Ryff's six-factor model of psychological well-being and Diener's tripartite model of subjective well-being. Later, Paul Wong introduced

14400-469: The fields of cognitive science , neuroscience (e.g. the neuroscience of free will ) and philosophy of mind , though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject. Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches, for example the Multiple Drafts Model , hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through

14544-749: The first master's program in applied positive psychology (MAPP) was launched at the University of Pennsylvania. In 2006, a course on positive psychology at Harvard University was one of the most popular courses on offer. In June 2009, the First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place in Philadelphia . The field of positive psychology today is most advanced in the United States, Canada, Western Europe, and Australia. Positive psychology, as defined by Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

14688-752: The five PERMA elements was selected according to three criteria: The Character Strengths and Virtues (CSV) handbook (2004) was the first attempt by Seligman and Peterson to identify and classify positive psychological traits of human beings. Much like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provided a theoretical framework to assist in understanding strengths and virtues and for developing practical applications for positive psychology. It identified six classes of virtues (i.e., "core virtues"), underlying 24 measurable character strengths. The CSV suggested these six virtues have

14832-503: The future; these anticipations are informed by our past experiences. Those who practice positive psychology attempt psychological interventions that foster positive attitudes toward one's subjective experiences, individual traits, and life events. The goal is to minimize pathological thoughts that may arise in a hopeless mindset and to develop a sense of optimism toward life. Positive psychologists seek to encourage acceptance of one's past, excitement and optimism about one's future, and

14976-436: The good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness. Antisthenes , a pupil of Socrates , first outlined the themes of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue which agrees with Nature . Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is the consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and

15120-523: The greatest conceivable being. He reasoned that an entity that did not exist outside his mind would not be the greatest conceivable being, leading him to the conclusion God exists. Positive psychology Positive psychology is a field of psychological theory and research of optimal human functioning of people, groups, and institutions. It studies "positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions... it aims to improve quality of life ." Positive psychology began as

15264-447: The highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea ( Form ) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value. Aristotle , an apprentice of Plato , was another early and influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (such as metaphysics and epistemology ), but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline,

15408-646: The highest type of existence, and saw material objects as imperfect and impermanent copies of Platonic forms. Philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) accepted Plato's idea that forms are different from matter, but he challenged the idea that forms have a higher type of existence. Instead, he believed forms cannot exist without matter. He stated: "being is said in many ways" and explored how different types of entities have different modes of existence. For example, he distinguished between substances and their accidents , and between potentiality and actuality . Neoplatonists like Plotinus (204–270 CE) suggested reality has

15552-474: The humanistic theories of flourishing. In 1984, psychologist Ed Diener published his tripartite model of subjective well-being , which posited "three distinct but often related components of wellbeing: frequent positive affect, infrequent negative affect, and cognitive evaluations such as life satisfaction ." In this model, cognitive , affective , and contextual factors contribute to subjective well-being. According to Diener and Suh, subjective well-being

15696-417: The idea that abstract objects have independent existence. Some realists say abstract objects have the same mode of existence as concrete objects; according to others, they exist in a different way. Anti-realists state that abstract objects do not exist, a view that is often combined with the idea that existence requires a location in space and time or the ability to causally interact. A further distinction

15840-455: The least deviation from the character; since neither experience, nor philosophy, nor religion can effect any improvement in him, the question arises, What is the meaning of life at all? To what purpose is it played, this farce in which everything that is essential is irrevocably fixed and determined? Questions about the meaning of life, and similar, have been expressed in a broad variety of other ways, including: These questions have resulted in

15984-465: The limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic "abstention" from sex and the appetites: "When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or willful misrepresentation. By pleasure, we mean

16128-470: The long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness. Epicurus , a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos, taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear ( ataraxia ) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain ( aponia ) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of

16272-1044: The meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate a science of morality —the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures. Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as trolley problems . It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures, suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are culture-specific. The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most philosophical theories, for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility-based theories. Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models. Neurotheology

16416-399: The mental state, like when accurately perceiving a tree in the garden. In other cases, the intentional object does not have a real counterpart, like when thinking about Bigfoot . The problem of intentional inexistence is the challenge of explaining how one can think about entities that do not exist since this seems to have the paradoxical implication that the thinker stands in a relation to

16560-514: The mind. Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is an alternative to determinism . Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness , asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being". Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena, primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers, as evidence for an incorporeal higher consciousness . In hopes of proving

16704-465: The more-fundamental term because it equally characterizes all entities and defines existence as a relative term that connects an entity to the world it inhabits. According to philosopher Gottlob Frege (1848–1925), actuality is narrower than existence because only actual entities can produce and undergo changes, in contrast to non-actual existing entities like numbers and sets . According to some philosophers, like Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), existence

16848-520: The most-fundamental level. Materialists usually explain mental entities in terms of physical processes; for example, as brain states or as patterns of neural activation. Idealism, a minority view in contemporary philosophy, rejects matter as ultimate and views the mind as the most basic reality. Dualists like René Descartes (1596–1650) believe both physical and mental entities exist on the most-fundamental level. They state they are connected to one another in several ways but that one cannot be reduced to

16992-428: The nature of existence. Thick concepts of existence encompass a metaphysical analysis of what it means that something exists and what essential features existence implies. According to one proposal, to exist is to be present in space and time, and to have effects on other things. This definition is controversial because it implies abstract objects such as numbers do not exist. Philosopher George Berkeley (1685–1753) gave

17136-482: The object of all endeavor [...] Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is "good". Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped its infinite regression . Aristotle's solution is the Highest Good , which is desirable for its own sake. It is its own goal. The Highest Good

17280-565: The other. Fictional entities are entities that exist as inventions inside works of fiction . For example, Sherlock Holmes is a fictional character in Arthur Conan Doyle 's book A Study in Scarlet and flying carpets are fictional objects in the folktales One Thousand and One Nights . According to anti-realism, fictional entities do not form part of reality in any substantive sense. Possibilists, by contrast, see fictional entities as

17424-609: The parents can better thrive in their roles as a parents. A parenting style that is positively oriented results in children who experience lower levels of stress and improved well-being. Flow also has benefits in a school setting. When students are in a state of flow they are fully engaged, leading to better retention of information. Students who experience flow have a more enjoyable and rewarding experience. This state can also reduce stress, which helps with students' mental health and well-being. This increases resilience and helps students to overcome challenges or setbacks by teaching them

17568-537: The positive and negative aspects of their existence and thus the value and meaning they place on their lives. For example, depressive realism posits an exaggerated positivity in all except those experiencing depressive disorders who see life as it truly is, and David Benatar theorises that more weight is generally given to positive experiences, providing bias towards an over-optimistic view of life. Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes. Greater meaning has been associated with

17712-598: The positive outcomes of embracing negative emotions and pessimism. Second-wave positive psychology proposes that it is better to accept and transform the meaning of suffering than it is to avoid suffering. In 2016, Lomas and Itzvan proposed that human flourishing (their goal for positive psychology) is about embracing dialectic interplay of positive and negative. Phenomena cannot be determined to be positive or negative independent of context. Some of their examples included: In 2019, Wong proposed four principles of second-wave positive psychology: Second-wave positive psychology

17856-624: The possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA. All forms of life that are in existence today possess a self-replicating informational molecule (genome), and such an informational molecule is presumably intrinsic to life. Thus the earliest forms of life also likely possessed a self-replicating informational molecule, possibly RNA or perhaps an informational molecule more primitive than RNA. The specific genomic sequences in all currently extant organisms contain order generating information that promotes survival, reproduction , and

18000-436: The potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship. Existence Existence is the state of having being or reality in contrast to nonexistence and nonbeing . Existence is often contrasted with essence : the essence of an entity is its essential features or qualities, which can be understood even if one does not know whether

18144-402: The preface that "a positive psychology is at least available today though not very widely." There have been indications that psychologists since the 1950s have increasingly focused on promoting mental health rather than merely treating mental illness. From the beginning of psychology, the field addressed the human experience using the "Disease model," studying and identifying the dysfunction of

18288-582: The process by which living entities decrease their internal entropy at the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment. Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self-organizing systems which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state , metabolism serves to provide energy, and reproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes

18432-429: The properties ascribed to them. For instance, the sentence "Pegasus has wings" is true because having wings is a property of Pegasus, even though Pegasus lacks the property of existing. One key motivation of Meinongianism is to explain how negative singular existentials like "Ronald McDonald does not exist" can be true. Meinongians accept the idea that singular terms like "Ronald McDonald" refer to individuals. For them,

18576-405: The realm of the mind; they are primarily associated with conscious experiences but also include unconscious states like unconscious beliefs, desires, and memories. The mind–body problem concerns the ontological status of and relation between physical and mental entities and is a frequent topic in metaphysics and philosophy of mind . According to materialists , only physical entities exist on

18720-414: The root of existence. Anaximander (c. 610–545 BCE) opposed this position; he believed the source must lie in an abstract principle that is beyond the world of human perception. Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE) argued that different types of entities have different degrees of existence and that shadows and images exist in a weaker sense than regular material objects. He said unchangeable Platonic forms have

18864-407: The sentence "politicians exist" states the general term "politician" has instances without referring to a particular politician. Singular and general existence are closely related to each other, and some philosophers have tried to explain one as a special case of the other. For example, according to Frege, general existence is more basic than singular existence. One argument in favor of this position

19008-446: The soul." The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no afterlife , yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us." Zeno of Citium , a pupil of Crates of Thebes , established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue

19152-478: The spatial and temporal location of the speaker. The problem of contingent and necessary existence is closely related to the ontological question of why there is anything at all or why is there something rather than nothing . According to one view, the existence of something is a contingent fact, meaning the world could have been totally empty. This is not possible if there are necessary entities, which could not have failed to exist. In this case, global nothingness

19296-447: The state of being real and to exist as having being or participating in reality . Existence sets real entities apart from imaginary ones, and can refer both to individual entities or to the totality of reality. The word "existence" entered the English language in the late 14th century from old French and has its roots in the medieval Latin term ex(s)istere , which means "to stand forth", "to appear", and "to arise". Existence

19440-601: The state or condition of good spirit , and which is commonly translated as happiness or welfare ) —of the tutelage necessary to achieve it, and of the psychological obstacles to its practice. It teaches the cultivation of virtues as the means of attaining happiness and well-being. Scientific research on well-being dates back to the 1950s. Several humanistic psychologists , most notably Maslow, Carl Rogers , and Erich Fromm , developed theories and practices pertaining to human happiness and flourishing. More recently, positive psychologists have found empirical support for

19584-484: The term flourishing as a central concept, mental well-being has three components: hedonic (i.e. subjective or emotional ), psychological, and social well-being. Hedonic well-being concerns emotional aspects of well-being, whereas psychological and social well-being, e.g. eudaimonic well-being, concerns skills, abilities, and optimal functioning. This tripartite model of mental well-being has received cross-cultural empirical support. The positive psychology movement

19728-424: The umbrella of positive psychology. Some view positive psychology as a meeting of Eastern thought , such as Buddhism , and Western psychodynamic approaches. The historical roots of positive psychology are found in the teachings of Aristotle , whose Nicomachean Ethics is a description of the theory and practice of human flourishing—which he referred to as eudaimonia (a Greek word literally translating to

19872-444: The universe, and implicitly of humanity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable, such as through a Big Freeze , Big Rip , or Big Crunch . Theoretical cosmology studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside black holes , with our own Big Bang being

20016-514: The use of critical and dialectical thinking. Researchers in 2016 chose to identify these characteristics via two complexes: post-traumatic growth and love as well as optimism vs. pessimism. Paul Wong introduced the idea of a second wave of positive psychology, focused on the pursuit of meaning in life, which he contrasted with the pursuit of happiness in life. Ivtzan, Lomas, Hefferon, and Worth have recast positive psychology as being about positive outcome or positive mental health, and have explored

20160-427: The use of the term "positive psychology", researchers within the field of psychology had focused on topics that would now be included under this new denomination. The term "positive psychology" dates at least to 1954, when Abraham Maslow 's Motivation and Personality was published with a final chapter titled "Toward a Positive Psychology." In the second edition published in 1970, he removed that chapter, saying in

20304-463: The widest domain of quantification includes both existing and nonexisting objects. Some aspects of Meinongianism are controversial and have received substantial criticism. According to one objection, one cannot distinguish between being an object and being an existing object. A closely related criticism states objects cannot have properties if they do not exist. A further objection is that Meinongianism leads to an "overpopulated universe" because there

20448-418: The workings of the brain and its neurons , thus adhering to biological naturalism . On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde , have considered that consciousness , like spacetime , might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects. Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing

20592-480: Was first founded in 1998 by Martin Seligman. He was concerned about the fact that mainstream psychology was too focused on disease, disorders, and disabilities rather than well-being, resilience, and recovery. He aimed to apply mainstream psychology's methodological, scientific, scholarly, and organizational strengths to facilitate well-being rather than illness and disease. The field has been influenced by humanistic and psychodynamic approaches to treatment. Predating

20736-424: Was formulated by considering, first, how macroscopic order is generated in a simple physical, non-biological system far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short RNA replicating molecules and then further to more complex forms of life. It was concluded that the fundamental order-generating process was basically similar for both types of process. Thus the idea that life likely emerged as

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