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62-623: Sallie McFague (May 25, 1933 – November 15, 2019) was an American feminist Christian theologian , best known for her analysis of how metaphor lies at the heart of how Christians may speak about God . She applied this approach, in particular, to ecological issues, writing extensively on care for the Earth as if it were God's "body". She was Distinguished Theologian in Residence at the Vancouver School of Theology , British Columbia , Canada. McFague

124-478: A Christian church that honors in equal measure both male and female images of God." The following are a few translations of Greek Christian texts and biblical texts that show the roles that women partook in the Christianity and their actions that exemplify a follower of God. In addition to learning the importance of women in Christianity through biblical texts, learning also about how Christianity affects women in

186-522: A coherent explanation of everything – looks like "reality" or "truth". In McFague's view, this is how the complex of "male" images for God has long functioned in the Christian West – but it has done so in a way that is oppressive for all but (privileged) men. So, the notion of God, as "father", "lord" or "king" now seemingly unavoidably conjures up oppressive associations of "ownership", obedience and dependency, and in turn dictates, consciously or otherwise,

248-580: A home. The articles mentioned above give insights both about how women show their devotion through Christianity and its impact on their lives and also how women are treated by people of the faith. As these accounts only focus on certain groups of Christianity, they should not be treated as though they reflect all contemporary women's experience in Christianity. There are a number of academic journals dedicated to promoting feminist theological scholarship. These include: There have been multiple Popes, like Pope John Paul II and Pope Francis , who have referenced

310-565: A linguistic community's interpreted experience'. The experience of Jesus - his parables , table fellowship and healing ministry in particular - makes him a rich source of the 'destabilising, inclusive and non-hierarchical' metaphors Christians might profitably borrow from him as paradigmatic, a 'foundational figure'. But he is not all they need. Experience of the world, and of God's relationship to it, must add to that illustration and re-interpret it in terms and metaphors relevant to those believers, changing how they conceive of God and thus care for

372-574: A more prominent role in the Catholic Church. These same women and men also believe that "Radical Feminism" is the cause for the teachings of then Pope John Paul II to be viewed as negative, they also believe that Pope John Paul II was taking great strides, at least for his time, to include women in the church. 20th century figures like Dorothy Day and Mother Teresa show the diversity of possibilities for women in modern Catholic community. Another branch of Christianity that tends to be conservative on

434-540: A particular socio-cultural and political system, such as the patriarchal one feminist theology critiques extensively - she asserted that "there are personal, relational models which have been suppressed in the Christian tradition because of their social and political consequences". But the 'trick' of a successful metaphor, whether in science or theology, is that it is capable of generating a model, which in turn can give life to an overarching concept or world-view, which looks like

496-400: A pastor and his wife, they told her that fervent prayer will answer her troubles. To change Adriana's perspective, Edna, a psychologist and a woman who also grew up in a Pentecostal culture, helped Adriana navigate her husband's abuse and her faith. By doing so she allows Adriana as well as other women she has helped to reflect on whether the violence that they are receiving from their husbands

558-462: A social movement in the church to address such issues. The division of Protestant belief systems into different denominations allowed for women to acquire far more leadership positions in the church, as certain denominations then had the freedom to advocate for female leadership. In both mainline and liberal branches of Protestant Christianity , women are ordained as clergy . Even some theologically conservative denominations, such as The Church of

620-408: A type of Feminism in their addresses to the public. Pope Francis is quoted saying the "irreplaceable role of the woman in the family ... [t]he gifts of -delicacy ... which are a richness of the feminine spirit, represent a genuine force for the life of the family ... without which the human vocation would be unrealizable." Some men and women took Pope Francis words as a "vivid hope" that women will take

682-538: A whole complex of attitudes, responses and behaviours on the part of theistic believers. This understanding of the shifting nature of language in relation to God underpins McFague's handling of the 'building blocks' that have long been considered foundational to accounts of belief, primarily Scripture and tradition. But neither is privileged as a source of conversation about God for McFague - both 'fall under experience', and are, in their different ways, themselves extended metaphors of interpretation or 'sedimentations' of

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744-439: Is God's self-expression'. Equally we must take seriously our own embodiment (and that of other bodies): all that is has a common beginning and history (as McFague put it 'we are all made of the ashes of dead stars'), and so salvation is about salvation of all earthly bodies (not just human ones) and first and foremost about living better on the earth, not in the hereafter. Elaborating further, McFague argued that sin , on this view,

806-454: Is a fulfilment of that creation, not a rescue from it. This of course brings about a radical shift in the significance of the cross and resurrection of Jesus, whose resurrection is primarily if not exclusively a validation of continued human embodiment. There is, too, an insistence on realized, not final, eschatology. The earth becomes the place 'where we put down our roots', and we live with 'the hope against hope' that all will participate in

868-444: Is a matter of offence against other parts of the 'body' (other species or parts of the creation) and in that sense only against God, while eschatology is about a better bodily future ('creation is the place of salvation, salvation is the direction of creation'), rather than a more disembodied spiritual one. In this metaphor, God is not a distant being but being-itself, a characterization that has led some to suggest McFague's theology

930-498: Is a situation that God would want them to remain in. In addition, there are religious figures such as pastors and priests that have told these abused women that their belief in God will bring change. Sometimes, these women are told that their abuse is caused by their own inadequacies. On the other hand, amidst the patriarchal history of Japan, Japanese women who have been politically involved by demanding equal treatment congregated and founded

992-422: Is an insistence that God is always and only (or predominantly) like this. McFague remarked, "theology is mostly fiction", but a multiplicity of images, or metaphors, can and should enhance and enrich our models of God. Most importantly, new metaphors can help give substance to new ways of conceiving God appropriately "for our time", and more adequate models for the ethically urgent tasks humankind faces, principally

1054-462: Is beyond male and female, recognizing twin dangers: exaggeration of the maternal qualities of the mother so as to unhelpfully essentialize God (and by transference, women as well) as caring and self-sacrificing; or juxtaposition of this image to that of father, unhelpfully emphasizing the gender-based nature of both male and female images for God. Nonetheless, she saw in it other connotations, which she maintained are helpful in re-imaging God in terms of

1116-556: Is necessarily a construction a human creation, a tool to delineate as best we can the nature and limits of our understanding of God. According to McFague, what we know of God is a construction, and must be understood as interpretation: God as father, as shepherd, as friend, but not literally any of these. Though such habits of language can be useful (since in the Western world at least people are more used to thinking of God in personal, than in abstract terms), they become constricting, when there

1178-460: Is not primarily the initiator of creation, but 'the empowering, continuing breath of life'. It follows, too, from this metaphor of God as involved in the world that traditional notions of sin and evil are discarded. God is so much part of the process of the world and its agencies' or entities' "becoming" that it is difficult to speak of " natural disasters " as sin: they are simply the chance (as viewed by human observers) trial-and-error ways in which

1240-516: Is often described to display masculinity but also described as not being entirely masculine because of her identity as a woman. In general, many Christian feminist scholars argue that they envision a society in which female sexuality is not condemned by the church but acknowledged as a natural part of human existence. During the Reformation , theologians such as Martin Luther and John Calvin stressed

1302-676: Is too crucial in understanding the Wisdom in the Old Testament to be omitted. On the other hand, by designating qualities to either be feminine or masculine, it creates expectations of how men and women must act. In the Book of Kings , they emphasize the role of mothers by the grief that they must display towards the death of their family members. Thus, even in royalty, the role of a mother is valued over queenship. For instance, in Samuel 2, when Bathsheba mourned

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1364-458: The Woman's Christian Temperance Union which allowed them to support one another and flourish in their careers. A notable member of the organization is Ushioda Chiseko, a charity activist whose altruistic pursuits were driven by her Christian faith. Her contributions include advocating the role of women socially and politically and helped impoverished women gain vocational skills. Another notable member of

1426-507: The 1960s and 1970s many evangelical women were influenced by the civil rights movement . Christian Feminists began writing and publishing articles concerning reproductive rights as well as inequality in marriage and in the religious hierarchy. In response to these articles, groups such as the EWC or Evangelical Women's Caucus , and the ESA or Evangelicals for Societal Action were formed in order to create

1488-959: The Nazarene and Assemblies of God , ordain women as pastors. However, the Roman Catholic Church , the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Southern Baptist Convention (the largest Protestant denomination in the U.S.), as well as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and many churches in the American Evangelical movement prohibit women from entering clerical positions. Some Christian feminists believe that as women have greater opportunity to receive theological training, they will have greater influence on how scriptures are interpreted by those that deny women

1550-630: The Sophia concept is found in a search for women who reflect contemporary feminist ideals in both the Old and New Testament. Some figures used for this purpose include the Virgin Mary , Mary Magdalene , Eve , and Esther . Others see God as entirely gender-transcendent, or focus on the feminine aspects of God and Jesus . A female depiction of the Christ figure, known as Christa, recently arose in an attempt to allow for

1612-403: The actual meaning of biblical scriptures. Although the pronoun him is often used in the scripture, Robert Alter , a Hebrew professor, argues that it is not "anatomically masculine." These variations in pronouns may lead to exacerbating the division between feminine and masculine roles and encourage the gender hierarchy. Furthermore, the separation between male and female is implied not only by

1674-560: The church cannot be achieved without rethinking the portrayal and understanding of God as a masculine being. The theological concept of Sophia , usually seen as replacing or synonymous with the Holy Spirit in the Trinity , is often used to fulfill this desire for symbols which reflect women's religious experiences. How Sophia is configured is not static, but usually filled with emotions and individual expression. For some Christian feminists,

1736-589: The contemporary timeframe is crucial. This section demonstrates how the patriarchy interwoven into Christianity remains harmful to women even in contemporary society, whereas when Christianity is applied without implying the submission of women, it allows women to be able to fully participate in the religion. In a research determining the effect of Christianity on domestically abused women, more complications arise in São Paulo, Brazil, in dealing with domestic violence when these situations are dealt by people influenced by

1798-424: The creation. However, this same 'mother' who 'bodies forth' the cosmos cares for it with a fierce justice, which demands that all life (not just humankind) has its share of the creator's care and sustenance in a just, ecological economy where all her creatures flourish. For McFague, God is the one 'who judges those who thwart the well-being and fulfilment of her body, our world'. From this metaphor developed another:

1860-422: The death of her son, she establishes her role as a mother. Then, as there are specific traits that are expected of women, if they fail to meet these qualities, then they are characterized as masculine. Contrasting Bathsheba's display of her maternal role is Athaliah's massacre of the royals of Judah that led her to become the monarch for several years. Caused by her ruthlessness and headstrong personality, Athaliah

1922-494: The dignity and rights of women. The first wave of feminism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries included an increased interest in the place of women in religion. Women who were campaigning for their rights began to question their inferiority both within the church and in other spheres, which had previously been justified by church teachings. Some Christian feminists of this period were Marie Maugeret , Katharine Bushnell , Catherine Booth , Frances Willard . During

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1984-699: The earth. As McFague remarked: 'we take what we need from Jesus using clues and hints…for an interpretation of salvation in our time'. Though McFague does use biblical motifs, her development of them goes far beyond what they are traditionally held to convey. She used others, such as the notion of the world as God's body, an image used by the early church but which 'fell by the wayside' (according to British theologian Daphne Hampson ), in her search for models 'appropriate' to our needs. She stressed that all models are partial, and are thought-experiments with shortcomings: many are needed, and need to function together. Her work on God as mother, for example, stressed that God

2046-523: The eyes of theologians away from heaven and towards the earth'. She insisted on a relevant theology, 'a better portrait of Christian faith for our day',< and reminded us that her approach was not intended as a blueprint, but a sketch for a change in attitude. Christian feminism Christian feminists and scholars believe that interpretations of biblical texts as well as works of some religious figures may push sexist traits or responsibilities that if they are not acknowledged, may continue to perpetuate

2108-559: The first century." In the Middle Ages Julian of Norwich and Hildegard of Bingen explored the idea of a divine power with both masculine and feminine characteristics. Proto-feminist works from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries addressed objections to women learning, teaching and preaching in a religious context. One such proto-feminist was Anne Hutchinson who was cast out of the Puritan colony of Massachusetts for teaching on

2170-579: The fruit. The story of Adam and Eve is just one example of a text which Christian feminists believe is patriarchal in nature due to its interpretation. Some Christian Feminists made the decision to abandon direct scriptural use in their fight for equality, while others relied on verses that opposed patriarchal ideals, pointing out the inconsistencies within the Bible. The following passages act as examples of these inconsistencies. Translations of biblical scriptures are examples where social hierarchy may influence

2232-441: The goodness that the Christian faith teaches them and an example is Japan's Woman's Christian Temperance Union . Through interpretations of biblical texts and writings of early religious figures, Christian feminists and scholars draw from these sources to argue both sexism present in Christianity and the equality that should be present between men and women. These texts then present the inconsistencies of concepts that emerge between

2294-476: The group Catholics for a Free Choice have formed the Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice . The RCRC often works as a liberal feminist organization and in conjunction with other American feminist groups to oppose conservative religious denominations which, from their perspective, seek to suppress the natural reproductive rights of women. Some Christian feminists believe that gender equality within

2356-535: The importance of chastity and marriage, leading to further repression of female sexuality within the Christian tradition. Many Christian feminists have stated that men in powerful religious positions have often used the scriptures, and teachings from theologians such as Calvin and Luther to both dominate and repress women's sexuality, a problem which Christian feminists believe needs to be solved immediately. Conservative religious groups are often in conflict with feminist and liberal religious groups over abortion and

2418-610: The importance of listening to various perspectives in especially in a topic such as abortion where these choices are made on a case-by-case basis. In addition, there may also be inconsistencies in the reasoning of pro-life activists as to why abortion is immoral. For instance, some may utilize Don Marquis' term, the "future of value," which entails assuming that the embryo will have potential contributions to society if carried until birth. A number of socially progressive mainline Protestant denominations as well as certain Jewish organizations and

2480-452: The less clear I am that it is theistic'. A theology where God as creator does not stand 'over against' the creation tends to shift the focus away from God as personal. In which Jesus is a paradigm individual rather than the unique bearer of godlikeness. The role of the Spirit is emphasized in her theology, though there is little sense in which this is uniquely the spirit of Jesus. God as Spirit

2542-461: The metaphor of the world (or cosmos) as God's body. McFague elaborated this metaphor at length in The Body of God: An Ecological Theology . The purpose of using it is to 'cause us to see differently', to 'think and act as if bodies matter', and to 'change what we value'. If we imagine the cosmos as God's body, then 'we never meet God unembodied'. This is to take God in that cosmos seriously, for 'creation

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2604-405: The moorings of Scripture and tradition' and appealing only to experience and credibility as her guides. Human constructions determine what she will say about God; her work is mere anthropologizing. The lack of a transcendent element to her work is criticized by David Fergusson as 'fixed on a post-Christian trajectory'. McFague defended her approach as simply being about a refocusing, a 'turn of

2666-429: The mother metaphor. In particular, God as mother is associated with the beginning of life, its nurture, and its fulfilment. These associations allowed McFague to explore how creation of the cosmos as something 'bodied forth' from God preserves a much more intimate connection between creator and created than the traditional model whereby the world is created ex nihilo and sustained by a God distanced and separate from

2728-653: The organization is Hani Motoko , who is known as the first female journalist in Japan. Through her participation in the WCTU , the organization helped Motoko gain attention to her works. Motoko's devotion to Christianity began when she enrolled in a Christian school. Later in her career as a writer, she wrote of a Christian orphanage that informed readers about how to help orphans have more resources and facilities through donations. Motoko also later established household reforms which promote that both men and women should share responsibilities in

2790-522: The patriarchy present in the church. The issues that arise from the patriarchy in the church include the discouraged ordination of women, the lack of equality in a marriage , abortion rights , the lack of recognition for women's spirituality , and pushing a masculine image of God . Concerns also exist over how women are handled in today's culture since they are expected to be subordinate to men, according to how early Christian religious writings are interpreted. Despite that, women are continuing to pursue

2852-400: The patriarchy that has woven its way into Christianity. In addition, these women are also troubled by the abuse they have experienced due to the teachings of the Christian faith. For instance, a woman, Adriana, said that despite being abused by her husband who is a policeman, she felt unable to leave her husband as she believed that her marriage was blessed by God. Upon admitting her situation to

2914-480: The power of the Christ figure to be applied to both the masculine and the feminine. Some Christian feminists use and promote gender-neutral or feminine language and imagery to describe God or Christ. Christian Feminists also call for a gender neutral reading of the Bible, as male pronouns are heavily used as compared to female pronouns throughout the text. The United Church of Christ describes its New Century Hymnal , published in 1995, as "the only hymnal released by

2976-453: The rest of creation. Correspondingly, the notion of the individual in need of God's salvation is anachronistic in a world 'from' which that individual no longer need to be saved, but rather 'in' which he or she need to learn how to live interrelatedly and interdependently. Redemption is downplayed, though not excluded: McFague emphasized, characteristically, that it 'should include all dimensions of creation, not just human beings' and that it

3038-479: The resurrection of all bodies. However, God is presently and permanently with humankind: we are 'within the body of God whether we live or die'. Trevor Hart, a theologian from the Barthian tradition, within which McFague herself situated her early work, says that her approach, while it seeks to develop images that resonate with 'contemporary experiences of relatedness to God', shows her to be 'cutting herself loose from

3100-463: The right to become ministers. Many of the Christian ideals concerning gender stem from interpretations of the Bible. Christian feminists have often argued that the Bible is problematic, not because of the text itself, but because of the Christian scholars who have interpreted the scripture throughout time. An example of these inconsistencies can be found in the creation story of Adam and Eve; some Evangelicals believe that Adam and Eve were created at

3162-446: The same time, while others believe that Eve was made from the rib of Adam. There is also wide debate within many Christian denominations over the fault of Eve concerning the consumption of the forbidden fruit , and the entrance of sin into the world. Historically, a great deal of blame has been placed on Eve, but many Christian Feminists have worked to reframe the story, and shift the blame equally between both parties, as both partook of

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3224-686: The symbolic imagination and the role of the affections. She was deeply influenced by Gordon Kaufman . Sallie McFague was Distinguished Theologian in Residence at the Vancouver School of Theology, British Columbia, Canada. She was also Theologian in Residence at Dunbar Ryerson United Church in Vancouver , British Columbia . For thirty years, she taught at the Vanderbilt University Divinity School in Nashville , Tennessee , where she

3286-527: The task of caring for an ecologically fragile planet. McFague remarked that: "we construct the worlds we inhabit, but also that we forget we have done so". In this light, her work is understood as about "helping to unmask simplistic, absolutist, notions of objectivity " in relation to the claims language makes about God. And such images are usually not neutral: in McFague's understanding (and that of many feminist theologians), images of God are usually embedded within

3348-936: The use of birth control . Scholars like sociologist Flann Campbell have argued that conservative religious denominations tend to restrict male and female sexuality by prohibiting or limiting birth control use and condemning abortion as sinful murder . Some Christian feminists (like Teresa Forcades ) contend that a woman's "right to control her pregnancy is bounded by considerations of her own well-being" and that restricted access to birth control and abortion disrespects her God-given free will . Philosophy scholars Bruce P. Blackshaw and Nicholas Colgrove, along with health professional Daniel Rodger, argue that anti-abortion arguments are often inconsistent. The researchers find that anti-abortion activists often use overgeneralization in their arguments, causing them to believe that their belief applies to all women regardless of varying priorities, virtues, and beliefs. Moreover, they emphasize

3410-657: The use of gendered pronouns, but also by the absence of representation of women and gendering qualities and tasks. Saint Augustine , a bishop of Hippo, wrote a tractate on John's Gospel and in the section about the Wisdom of God, he does not mention any female figure or femininity that the Old Testament regards within Wisdom literature . While it is unclear the reason behind the absence of women being mentioned in Saint Augustine's tractates, modern scholars argue that this information

3472-638: The world (though distinct from it), and concerned (as seen in the life of the paradigmatic Jesus, for example) to see all of it brought to full enjoyment of the richness of life as originally intended in creation. This is not the omnipotent, omniscient and immutable God of classical theism and neo-orthodoxy: for McFague, God is not transcendent in any sense that we can know. This has led some critics to ask whether McFague's theology leaves us with anything that may properly be called God at all. British theologian Daphne Hampson notes 'the more I ponder this book [ Models of God: Theology for an Ecological, Nuclear Age ],

3534-407: The world develops. As McFague saw it, "within this enlarged perspective, we can no longer consider evil only in terms of what benefits or hurts me or my species. In a world as large, as complex, and with as many individuals and species as our planet has, the good of some will inevitably occur at the expense of others". And because the world is God's body, evil occurs in and to God as well as to us and

3596-506: The writings of religious figures and the Bible. Some Christian feminists believe that the principle of egalitarianism was present in the teachings of Jesus and the early Christian movements such as Marianismo , but this is a highly contested view by many feminist scholars who believe that Christianity itself relies heavily on gender roles . These interpretations of Christian origins have been criticized by secular feminists for "anachronistically projecting contemporary ideals back into

3658-462: Was a form of monism . She defended her views as not monist but panentheist . The world seen as God's body chimes strongly with a feminist and panentheist stress on God as the source of all relationship, while McFague's understanding of sin (as essentially a failure of relationality, of letting other parts of the created order flourish free of our control) is also typically panentheist. McFague's panentheistic theology stressed God as highly involved in

3720-530: Was awarded her PhD in 1964 – a revised version of her doctoral thesis being published in 1966 as Literature and the Christian Life . She received the LittD from Smith College in 1977. At Yale she was deeply influenced by the dialectical theology of Karl Barth , but gained an important new perspective from her teacher H. Richard Niebuhr with his Appreciation of liberalism's concern for experience, relativity,

3782-558: Was born May 25, 1933, in Quincy , Massachusetts . Her father, Maurice Graeme McFague, was an optometrist. Her mother, Jessie Reid McFague, was a homemaker. She had one sister, Maurine (born 1929). McFague earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English Literature in 1955 from Smith College and a Bachelor of Divinity degree from Yale Divinity School in 1959. She then went on to earn a Master of Arts degree at Yale University in 1960 and

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3844-581: Was the Carpenter Professor of Theology. She was a member of the Anglican Church of Canada . McFague married Eugene TeSelle in 1959. They had two children: Elizabeth (born 1962) and John (born 1964). They were divorced in 1976. McFague later married Janet Cawley, and they were together until McFague's death. She died in Vancouver on November 15, 2019. For McFague, the language of Christian theology

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