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147-470: WHO estimates that about 295,000 maternal deaths occurred in 2017. The causes of these maternal deaths range from severe bleeding to obstructed labour, all of which have highly effective interventions. Further, indirect causes of maternal mortality include anemia and malaria. As women have gained access to family planning and skilled birth attendance with backup emergency obstetric care, the global maternal mortality has fallen by about 44 percent, which represented

294-606: A bipedal locomotion and freed hands, giving them a crucial advantage enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the open savanna at a time when Africa was drying up, with savanna encroaching on forested areas. This occurred 10 million to 5 million years ago. By 3 million years ago several australopithecine hominid species had developed throughout Southern , East , and Central Africa . They were tool users rather than tool manufacturers. The next major evolutionary step occurred around 2.3 million BCE, when primitive stone tools were used to scavenge

441-438: A " Wet Sahara " phase, during which larger lakes and more rivers existed. Geographers historically divided the region into several distinct ethnographic sections based on each area's respective inhabitants. The concept has been criticised as a racist construction intended to separate North Africa or "European/White Africa" and "Black Africa" or "Africa noire". Critics from various countries have provided arguments supporting

588-413: A " sentinel event ", and uses it to assess the quality of a health care system. Subsidizing the cost of healthcare will help improve the health status of women. However, the health status of women should not be generalized with that of the other category of people. Countries such as the U.S, U.K, and others have laws where government and non-governmental bodies work to reduce and even eliminate any fee that

735-475: A Bantu language with many Arabic , Persian and other Middle Eastern and South Asian loan words , developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples in southeastern Africa. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from " Hottentots ") have long been present. The San evince unique physical traits, and are

882-410: A Business June 2008 through May 2009) , PFI (Press Freedom Index 2009) Sub-Saharan Africa contains over 1,500 languages. With the exception of the extinct Sumerian (a language isolate ) of Mesopotamia , Afroasiatic has the oldest documented history of any language family in the world. Egyptian was recorded as early as 3200 BCE. The Semitic branch was recorded as early as 2900 BCE in

1029-747: A caesarean section to reduce the risk of transmitting the virus through the birth canal, but this option is not always available in developing countries. Globally, more than eight million of the 136 million women giving birth each year have excessive bleeding after childbirth. This condition—medically referred to as postpartum hemorrhage (PPH)—causes one out of every four maternal deaths that occur annually and accounts for more maternal deaths than any other individual cause. Deaths due to postpartum hemorrhage disproportionately affect women in developing countries. For every woman who dies from causes related to pregnancy, an estimated 20 to 30 encounter serious complications. At least 15 per cent of all births are complicated by

1176-584: A decline of 27%. There are no regions that are on track to meet the Millennium Development Goal of decreasing maternal mortality by 75% by the year 2015. In a September 2016 ACOG/SMFM consensus, published concurrently in the journal Obstetrics & Gynecology and by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), they noted that while they did not yet have a "single, comprehensive definition of severe maternal morbidity" (SMM),

1323-484: A decline of about 2.3 percent annually over the period from 1990 to 2015. While there has been a decline in worldwide mortality rates after much efforts, high rates still exist particularly in low and middle income countries (99%). Sub-saharan Africa accounts for approximately two thirds of these deaths and South Asia accounts for about one-fifth of them. One third of the maternal deaths occur in India and Nigeria. The effect of

1470-546: A different regional breakdown, recognising all 55 member states on the continent—grouping them into five distinct and standard regions. The term serves as a grouping counterpart to North Africa , which is instead grouped with the definition of MENA (i.e. Middle East and North Africa) as it is part of the Arab world , and most North African states are likewise members of the Arab League . However, while they are also member states of

1617-431: A failure in the progress of labor. Obstructed labor is more common in humans than any other species and continues to be a main cause of birth complications today. Modern humans have morphologically evolved to survive as bipeds, however, bipedalism has resulted in skeletal changes that have consequently narrowed the pelvis and the birth canal. The combination of increased brain size and changes in pelvic structure are

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1764-447: A fetus, which happens early in gestation and therefore should be recommended as soon as possible. Calcium and Vitamin A supplements are also recommended when those compounds are not available or only available in low doses in the natural diet but other supplements such as Vitamins D, E, C, and B6 are not recommended. The WHO also suggests that low impact exercise and reduction of caffeine intake to less than 330 mg/day can help to reduce

1911-503: A health worker can check for signs of illness – such as underweight, anaemia or infection – and monitor the health and status of the fetus. During these visits, women are counselled on nutrition and hygiene to optimize their health prior to, and following, delivery. These visits can also include health maintenance of any pre-existing health conditions the woman may have had prior to becoming pregnant - such as diabetes, hypertension, or renal disease. In collaboration with her healthcare provider,

2058-586: A lack of exposure to sunlight causing vitamin D deficiency . It is also more common in adolescence as the pelvis may not have finished growing by the time they give birth. Problems with the birth canal include a narrow vagina and perineum which may be due to female genital mutilation or tumors . A partograph is often used to track labour progression and diagnose problems. This combined with physical examination may identify obstructed labour. The treatment of obstructed labour may require cesarean section or vacuum extraction with possible surgical opening of

2205-594: A mechanical issue that is preventing the fetus from exiting the womb. Access to proper health services can reduce the prevalence of obstructed labor. Less developed areas have inadequate health services to attend to obstructed labor, resulting in a higher prevalence among less developed areas. Improving nutrition of female, both before and during pregnancy, is important for reducing the risk of obstructive labor. Creating education programs about reproduction and increasing access to reproductive services such as contraception and family planning in developing areas can also reduce

2352-556: A minimum pregnant women should receive one ultrasound at week 24 to help predict any possible growth anomalies and prevent future gestational concerns. It is also stated that pregnant women should also fulfill any missing vaccinations as soon as possible including the tetanus vaccine and influenza vaccine. For pregnant women who are at an increased risk for preeclampsia , one could take a dietary supplement of low dose aspirin as prophylaxis before 20 weeks gestation. Pregnant women should also monitor their blood sugars as they are able to monitor

2499-403: A mother's death results in vulnerable families, and their infants , if they survive childbirth, are more likely to die before reaching their second birthday. Both maternal mortality (death) and severe maternal morbidity (illness) are "associated with a high rate of preventability." In 2010 the U.S. Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations described maternal mortality as

2646-402: A multitude of detrimental effects on the health and development of the offspring. Common results of smoking during pregnancy include pre-term births, low birth weights, fetal and neonatal deaths, respiratory problems, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), as well as increased risk for cognitive impairment, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other behavioral problems. Also, in

2793-427: A number of problems for the child such as low birth weight and small head circumference, motor and cognitive developmental delays, as well as behavioral problems across childhood. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry found that six-year-olds whose mothers had smoked during pregnancy scored lower on an intelligence test than children whose mothers had not. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy can have

2940-411: A physician to ensure any physical activity preformed is safe during pregnancy, as the recommended amount of physical activity can depend on other factors during pregnancy as well. During and after pregnancy, mothers should receive continuous care from a physician, in-person or via telehealth depending on the need, to monitor the growth and status of the fetus. Maternal health organizations suggest that at

3087-555: A potentially fatal condition. Women who survive such complications often require lengthy recovery times and may face lasting physical, psychological, social and economic consequences. Although many of these complications are unpredictable, almost all are treatable. Findings from a 2023 systematic review of the literature have found a relationship between health insurance coverage and postpartum outcomes, suggesting that those with little to no coverage have increased negative postpartum health outcomes. . During

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3234-450: A practicing Christian, 65% made statements that proved self-stigma effects. There is a lot of stigma and norms regarding religion that, in turn, place women at risk when receiving health-care. Other religious practices and traditions have shown to influence maternal health in a negative way. Practitioners of apostolicism in Zimbabwe have been associated with higher maternal mortality. Results of

3381-449: A predictor of prenatal care access, Materia and colleagues found similar results for proximity and antenatal care in rural Ethiopia. Also, inadequate and poor quality services contributes in increasing maternal morbidity and mortality. Pre-existing (pregestational) maternal Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes is a known factor that increases the risk of adverse outcomes, including pre-term birth, preeclampsia, and congenital birth defects. Studies from

3528-502: A safer and more comfortable environment for Muslim women, it was proven that they needed more support that would connect with the immigrant community and health-related information. Discrimination based on religion is a factor that effects the maternal health care of women from different backgrounds. There is not a lot of discussion on the studies that reflect the hardships that women go through in terms of their religion and maternal care. Stigmatizing certain maternal and reproductive practices

3675-650: A spiritual religious guardian. This imperial cult or system of divine kings was spread to most of central Africa by rivals in kingship migrating and forming new states. Many new states received legitimacy by claiming descent from the Lunda dynasties. The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the Atlantic west to the Kwango river to the east. During the 15th century, the Bakongo farming community was united with its capital at M'banza-Kongo , under

3822-676: A study published in the International Journal of Cancer, children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy experienced a 22% risk increase for non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Although alcohol use in careful moderation (one to two servings a few days a week) during pregnancy are not generally known to cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), the US Surgeon General advises against the consumption of alcohol at all during pregnancy. Excessive alcohol use during pregnancy can cause FASD, which commonly consist of physical and cognitive abnormalities in

3969-590: A study showed the dangerous associations that religion may have on maternal health. The general trend shows that Apostolicism promotes high fertility, early marriage, non-use of contraceptives and low or non-use of hospital care. There are delays in recognizing danger signs, deciding to seek care and receiving appropriate health care. Future studies can look at how societal traditions or expectations such as gender roles may combine with religion to result in poorer maternal health care. Although factors of religion can negatively influence maternal health care, other studies show

4116-586: A variety of reasons women choose not to engage in proper prenatal care, 71% of low-income women in a US national study had difficulties getting access to prenatal care when they sought it out. Additionally, immigrants and Hispanic women are at higher risk than white or black women for receiving little to no prenatal care, where level of education is also an indicator (since education and race are correlated). Adolescents are least likely to receive any prenatal care at all. Throughout several studies, women and adolescents ranked inadequate finances and lack of transportation as

4263-509: A wide variety of climate zones or biomes . South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in particular are considered megadiverse countries . It has a dry winter season and a wet summer season. According to paleontology , early hominid skull anatomy was similar to that of their close cousins, the great African forest apes , gorilla and chimpanzee . However, they had adopted

4410-524: A wider and straighter birth canal that allows a fetus to pass through more effectively. Modern human's shorter upper extremities and evolution of bipedal locomotion may have placed a premium on assistance during labor. For this reason, researchers argue that assisted labor may have evolved with bipedalism . Obstructed labor has been documented as a complication of childbirth since the field of obstetrics originated. For over 1,000 years obstetricians have had to forcibly remove obstructed labor fetuses to prevent

4557-469: Is eutocia ( Ancient Greek : εὖ , romanized :  eu , lit.   'good' + Ancient Greek : τόκος , romanized :  tókos , lit.   'childbirth') 'easy labour'. Other terms for obstructed labour include difficult labour, abnormal labour, difficult childbirth, abnormal childbirth, and dysfunctional labour. The term can also be used in the context of various animals. Dystocia pertaining to birds and reptiles

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4704-439: Is also one of the leading causes of stillbirth . Most deaths due to this condition occur in the developing world . The main causes of obstructed labour include a large or abnormally positioned baby, a small pelvis , and problems with the birth canal. Both the size and the position of the fetus can lead to obstructed labor. Abnormal positioning includes shoulder dystocia where the anterior shoulder does not pass easily below

4851-941: Is also recommended by the WHO. At these check ins mothers also have the opportunity to seek consultation from a physician about starting the breastfeeding process. Maternal health problems include complications from childbirth that do not result in death. For every woman that dies during childbirth, approximately 20 develop infection , injury , or disability . Around 75% of women who die in childbirth would be alive today if they had access to pregnancy prevention and healthcare interventions. Black women are more likely to experience pregnancy related deaths as well as receiving less effective medical care during pregnancy. Women who have chronic hypertension before their pregnancy are at increased risk of complications such as premature birth , low birthweight or stillbirth . Women who have high blood pressure and had complications in their pregnancy have three times

4998-521: Is because macrosomic neonates are used to high levels of circulating blood sugars in utero, which results in naturally high levels of insulin. At birth, when the gestational source of blood sugar is abruptly removed, this causes the neonates to experience severe drops in blood sugar. Because the embryo or fetus's nutrition is based on maternal protein, vitamin, mineral, and total caloric intake, infants born to malnourished mothers are more likely to exhibit malformations. Additionally, maternal stress can affect

5145-469: Is beneficial and has little negative impact on fetal wellbeing. It has also been shown to have similar benefits to those who perform the same level of activity outside of pregnancy. The concerns related to high intensity exercise during pregnancy are usually around fetal wellbeing measures such as heart rate and blood flow. No abnormal measures of fetal distress, such as heart rate or maternal/fetal blood flowwere found during high intensity/vigorous exercise, if

5292-405: Is common within the context of religion. For example, in a study that focused on interviewing women who have had abortions, one participant used the word "guilt" 16 times in her one-hour interview. She cited that the cause of her guilt was because of her Catholic upbringing. The overall data showed that there was a strong relationship between religion and self-stigma. Among the women who identified as

5439-413: Is directed to pregnant women or women who have health issues that are related to pregnancy. When women deliver their babies in certified healthcare facilities without paying or paying a very small amount of money, they are motivated to use their own money on the diet of the baby, clothing, and other needs. Also, when women attend clinics without being charged and are issued with free supplements, their health

5586-453: Is directly linked with obesity in offspring through adolescence. Additionally, children whose mothers had diabetes are more likely to develop Type II diabetes . Mothers who have gestational diabetes have a high chance of giving birth to very large infants (10 pounds (4.5 kg) or more). This is a cause of macrosomia. Neonates with macrosomia have significantly increased rates of hypoglycemia compared to infants of mothers without diabetes. This

5733-418: Is important to further study the effects and limitations of vigorous exercise during pregnancy as it becomes more prevalent for female athletes, and in the average population. Overall if one is already performing vigorous activity before pregnancy, no negative effects were found with the continuation of similar activity levels during pregnancy, if staying under 90% of the mothers heart rate maximum. Always consult

5880-407: Is important to keep in mind that breastfeeding provides substantial benefits to women who are not infected with HIV. In countries where HIV/AIDS rates are high, such as South Africa and Kenya, the virus is a leading cause of maternal mortality, especially in mothers who breastfeed. A complication is that many HIV-infected mothers cannot afford formula, and thus have no way of preventing transmission to

6027-669: Is located on the Swahili coast . Johannesburg is the largest city in South Africa . It is the provincial capital and largest city in Gauteng , which is the wealthiest province in South Africa. While Johannesburg is not one of South Africa's three capital cities , it is the seat of the Constitutional Court . The city is located in the mineral-rich Witwatersrand range of hills, and is

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6174-411: Is maintained, and this reduces the cost that the monetary resources that the government invests in healthcare. In turn, the maternal morbidity rate, together with mortality rates, is lowered. Education on various issues related to maternal health is essential to control and improve the healthcare of women. Women who have the resources have a  low chance of their health status deteriorating because of

6321-400: Is monitoring the energy and hydration of the mother. Contractions of the uterus require energy, so the longer the mother is in labor the more energy she expends. When the mother is depleted of energy, the contractions become weaker and labor will become increasingly longer. Antibiotics are also an important treatment as infection is a possible result of obstructed labor. If cesarean section

6468-566: Is obtained in a timely manner, prognosis is good. Prolonged obstructed labour can lead to stillbirth , obstetric fistula , and maternal death . Fetal death can be caused by asphyxia. Obstructed labor is the leading cause of uterine rupture worldwide. Maternal death can result from uterine rupture, complications during caesarean section, or sepsis. In 2013 it resulted in 19,000 maternal deaths down from 29,000 deaths in 1990. Globally, obstructed labor accounts for 8% of maternal deaths. The word dystocia means 'difficult labour'. Its antonym

6615-478: Is one of the fastest-growing cities in the world, and also one of the most populous urban agglomerations . Lagos is a major financial centre in Africa; this megacity has the highest GDP, and also houses Apapa , one of the largest and busiest ports on the continent. Dar es Salaam is the former capital of, as well as the most populous city in, Tanzania ; it is a regionally important economic centre. It

6762-421: Is said to result in prolonged labour , when the active phase of labour is longer than 12 hours. The main causes of obstructed labour include a large or abnormally positioned baby, a small pelvis , and problems with the birth canal. Abnormal positioning includes shoulder dystocia where the anterior shoulder does not pass easily below the pubic bone . Risk factors for a small pelvis include malnutrition and

6909-457: Is suggested to allow time to assess the mother and child for any possible complications such as bleeding or additional contractions. The WHO recommends that babies should have checkups with a physician on day 3, day 7-14 and 6 weeks after birth. At these follow-up appointments the emotional well-being of the mother should also be considered. Special attention to the possibility of postpartum depression , which affects 10-15% of mothers in 40 countries

7056-432: Is the baby not exiting the pelvis because it is physically blocked during childbirth although the uterus contracts normally. Complications for the baby include not getting enough oxygen which may result in death. It increases the risk of the mother getting an infection , having uterine rupture , or having post-partum bleeding . Long-term complications for the mother include obstetrical fistula . Obstructed labour

7203-455: Is the leading cause of maternal death globally; however, 99% of postpartum hemorrhages occur in low and lower-middle income countries. Sub-saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa or Subsahara is the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lie south of the Sahara . These include Central Africa , East Africa , Southern Africa , and West Africa . Geopolitically, in addition to

7350-641: Is thought that the camel was first brought to Egypt after the Persian Empire conquered Egypt in 525 BCE, although large herds did not become common enough in North Africa for camels to be the pack animal of choice for the trans-saharan trade. The Bantu expansion is a major migration movement that originated in West Central Africa (possibly around Cameroon) around 2500 BCE, reaching East and Central Africa by 1000 BCE and Southern Africa by

7497-417: Is usually diagnosed based on physical examination. Ultrasound can be used to predict malpresentation of the fetus. In examination of the cervix once labor has begun, all examinations are compared to regular cervical assessments. The comparison between the average cervical assessment and the current state of the mother allows for a diagnosis of obstructed labor. An increasingly long time in labor also indicates

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7644-582: The African countries and territories that are situated fully in that specified region, the term may also include polities that only have part of their territory located in that region, per the definition of the United Nations (UN). This is considered a non-standardised geographical region with the number of countries included varying from 46 to 48 depending on the organisation describing the region (e.g. UN , WHO , World Bank , etc.). The African Union (AU) uses

7791-637: The Bantu expansion . In Southern Africa, their speakers are the Khoikhoi and San (Bushmen), in Southeast Africa, the Sandawe and Hadza . The Niger–Congo family is the largest in the world in terms of the number of languages (1,436) it contains. The vast majority of languages of this family are tonal , such as Yoruba and Igbo . However, others such as Fulani , Wolof and Kiswahili are not. A major branch of

7938-737: The Dutch East India Company . For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was a Dutch possession. In 1795, the Dutch colony was captured by the British during the French Revolutionary Wars . The British intended to use Cape Town as a major port on the route to Australia and India . It was later returned to the Dutch in 1803, but soon afterward the Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and

8085-691: The Ethiopian Empire , and the Geledi Sultanate , whose military dominance forced governors of the Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf . According to the theory of recent African origin of modern humans , the mainstream position held within the scientific community, all humans originate from either Southeast Africa or the Horn of Africa. During

8232-459: The H. erectus species. The fossil and genetic evidence shows Homo sapiens developed in Southern and East Africa by around 350,000 to 260,000 years ago and gradually migrated across the continent in waves. Between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago, their expansion out of Africa launched the colonisation of the planet by modern humans. By 10,000 BCE, Homo sapiens had spread to all corners of

8379-578: The Mali Empire , Songhai Empire , the Kanem Empire and the subsequent Bornu Empire . They built stone structures like in Tichit , but mainly constructed in adobe . The Great Mosque of Djenne is most reflective of Sahelian architecture and is the largest adobe building in the world. In the forest zone, several states and empires such as Bono State , Akwamu and others emerged. The Ashanti Empire arose in

8526-650: The Sabaeans , Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo – Greco – Roman trade. In the Middle Ages several powerful Somali empires dominated the region's trade, including the Ajuran Sultanate , which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building, the Sultanate of Adal , whose General Ahmed Gurey was the first African commander in history to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal's conquest of

8673-643: The Songhai , Zarma and Kanuri . The Old Nubian language is also a member of this family. Major languages of Africa by region, family and number of primary language speakers in millions: Sub-Saharan Africa has several large cities. Lagos is a city in the Nigerian state of Lagos . The city, with its adjoining conurbation , is the most populous in Nigeria , and the second-most populous in Africa after Cairo , Egypt . It

8820-748: The Walls of Benin , which is the largest man-made structure in the world. In the 18th century, the Oyo and the Aro confederacy were responsible for most of the slaves exported from modern-day Nigeria, selling them to European slave traders . Following the Napoleonic Wars , the British expanded their influence into the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition, and in

8967-636: The postpartum period , many mothers breastfeed their infants. Transmission of HIV/AIDS through breastfeeding is a huge issue in developing countries , namely in African countries. The majority of infants who contract HIV through breast milk do so within the first six weeks of life, despite that antiretroviral treatment (during pregnancy, delivery and during breastfeeding) reduces transmission risk by >90%. However, in healthy mothers, there are many benefits for infants who are breastfed. The World Health Organization recommends that mothers breastfeed their children for

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9114-434: The pubic bone . A small pelvis of the mother can be a result of many factors. Risk factors for a small pelvis include malnutrition and a lack of exposure to sunlight causing vitamin D deficiency . A deficiency in calcium can also result in a small pelvis as the structures of the pelvic bones will be weak due to the lack of calcium. A relationship between maternal height and pelvis size is present and can be used to predict

9261-581: The 14th and 15th centuries, large medieval Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda , Bunyoro and Karagwe kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania. During the early 1960s, the Southeast African nations achieved independence from colonial rule. Settlements of Bantu -speaking peoples, who were iron -using agriculturists and herdsmen, were already present south of the Limpopo River by

9408-585: The 18th century in modern-day Ghana . The Kingdom of Nri , was established by the Igbo in the 11th century. Nri was famous for having a priest-king who wielded no military power. Nri was a rare African state which was a haven for freed slaves and outcasts who sought refuge in their territory. Other major states included the kingdoms of Ifẹ and Oyo in the western block of Nigeria which became prominent about 700–900 and 1400 respectively, and center of Yoruba culture. The Yoruba built massive mud walls around their cities,

9555-520: The 1950s and early 1960s, most sub-Saharan African nations achieved independence from colonial rule. According to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects , the population of sub-Saharan Africa was 1.1 billion in 2019. The current growth rate is 2.3%. The UN predicts for the region a population between 2 and 2.5 billion by 2050 with a population density of 80 per km compared to 170 for Western Europe, 140 for Asia and 30 for

9702-526: The 4th or 5th century displacing and absorbing the original Khoisan speakers. They slowly moved south, and the earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the Xhosa people , whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan inhabitants. They reached the Fish River in today's Eastern Cape Province . Monomotapa

9849-767: The Americas. Sub-Saharan African countries top the list of countries and territories by fertility rate with 40 of the highest 50, all with TFR greater than 4 in 2008. All are above the world average except South Africa and Seychelles . More than 40% of the population in sub-Saharan countries is younger than 15 years old, as well as in Sudan , with the exception of South Africa. GDP per Capita (PPP) (2016, 2017 (PPP, US$ )) , Life (Exp.) (Life Expectancy 2006) , Literacy (Male/Female 2006) , Trans (Transparency 2009) , HDI (Human Development Index) , EODBR (Ease of Doing Business Rank June 2008 through May 2009) , SAB ( Starting

9996-644: The Arab League , the Comoros , Djibouti , Mauritania , and Somalia (and sometimes Sudan ) are all geographically considered to be part of sub-Saharan Africa. Overall, the UN Development Programme applies the "sub-Saharan" classification to 46 of Africa's 55 countries, excluding Djibouti, SADR , Somalia, and Sudan. Since around 3900 BCE , the Saharan and sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by

10143-516: The Dutch (now under French control) and the British found themselves at war again. The British captured the Dutch possession yet again at the Battle of Blaauwberg , commanded by Sir David Blair . The Zulu Kingdom was a Southern African tribal state in what is now KwaZulu-Natal in southeastern South Africa. The small kingdom gained world fame during and after their defeat in the Anglo-Zulu War . During

10290-617: The Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). The Chadic branch is distributed in Central and West Africa. Hausa , its most widely spoken language, serves as a lingua franca in West Africa (Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, and Chad). The several families lumped under the term Khoi-San include languages indigenous to Southern Africa and Tanzania , though some, such as the Khoi languages , appear to have moved to their current locations not long before

10437-702: The Horn of Africa and Sahel related to those in North Africa, who spoke languages belonging to the Afroasiatic family; Negroes in most of the rest of the subcontinent (hence, the toponym Black Africa for Africa south of the Sahara ), who spoke languages belonging to the Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan families; and Khoisan in Southern Africa , who spoke languages belonging to the Khoisan family. Sub-Saharan Africa has

10584-640: The Mediterranean. Growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period ( c. 4th century BCE), it rose to prominence by the 1st century CE. The Aksumites constructed monolithic stelae to cover the graves of their kings, such as King Ezana's Stele . The later Zagwe dynasty , established in the 12th century, built churches out of solid rock. These rock-hewn structures include the Church of St. George at Lalibela . In ancient Somalia , city-states flourished such as Opone , Mosyllon and Malao that competed with

10731-539: The Niger–Congo languages is Bantu , which covers a greater geographic area than the rest of the family. Bantu speakers represent the majority of inhabitants in southern, central and southeastern Africa, though San , Pygmy , and Nilotic groups, respectively, can also be found in those regions. Bantu-speakers can also be found in parts of Central Africa such as the Gabon , Equatorial Guinea and southern Cameroon . Swahili ,

10878-658: The Pregnancy Mortality Surveillance System, conducted by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), indicates significant racial and ethnic disparities in pregnancy related deaths. The pregnancy related mortality ratio (PRMR) represents the number of deaths per 100,000 live births resulting from pregnancy or pregnancy related causes. A 2019 report from the CDC shows that the PRMRs of Black women and Indigenous women in

11025-670: The Sahel (northern Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger). The Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic is centered in the Horn, and is also spoken in the Nile Valley and parts of the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, the Semitic branch of the family, in the form of Arabic , is widely spoken in the parts of Africa that are within the Arab world. South Semitic languages are also spoken in parts of

11172-465: The Southeast coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta , Azania and Menouthias referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE. These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach Southeast Africa during their migration. Between

11319-516: The United States and Australia indicate that the prevalence of pregestational diabetes is around 1% of pregnancies. Even healthy pregnancy causes a state of hyperglycemia. As a result, mothers with pregestational diabetes are at an increased risk for hyperglycemia. Maternal HIV rates vary around the world, ranging from 1% to 40%, with African and Asian countries having the highest rates. Whilst maternal HIV infection largely has health implications for

11466-411: The United States are 3-4 times higher than that of White women. White women had a PRMR of approximately 13 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. While Black and Indigenous women had PRMRs of 41 and 30 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births respectively. The majority of these deaths were due to preventable diseases associated with pregnancy such as hypertension. While the fatality rate of these diseases

11613-477: The WHO and ACOG to be the same 150 minutes per week as regular physical activity guidelines. Certain modifications such as avoiding supine position after 20 weeks are also recommended. Vigorous activity guidelines during pregnancy have not been outlined as clearly or studied as much, so consulting a healthcare professional to get a safe, tailored, fitness plan is recommended. Current research supports that vigorous activity for most non-complicated singleton pregnancies

11760-420: The WHO to mitigate the side effects. the US Surgeon General recommends abstaining from consuming alcohol or nicotine in any form throughout the duration of one's pregnancy, and to avoid using it as a way to mitigate some of the side effects of pregnancy mentioned earlier. In the case of a healthy vaginal birth, mothers and babies typically are recommended to stay at the hospital for 24 hours before departing. This

11907-559: The access of resources. One of these factors that recent studies have highlighted is religion. For example, one such study stated that, due to the insensitivity and lack of knowledge that physicians showed immigrant Muslim women in Canada, their health information and treatment suffered. The health care that they received from physicians did not provide information in respect to their religious or cultural practices and did little to provide cultural adjustments and emotional support. In order to provide

12054-421: The application of animal husbandry towards carrying water, food, and supplies across the desert. Prior to the introduction of the camel , the use of oxen, mule, and horses for desert crossing was common, and trade routes followed chains of oases that were strung across the desert. The trans-saharan trade was in full motion by 500 BCE with Carthage being a major economic force for its establishment. It

12201-411: The art of making fire. They were the first hominids to leave Africa, going on to colonise the entire Old World , and perhaps later on giving rise to Homo floresiensis . Although some recent writers suggest that H. georgicus , a H. habilis descendant , was the first and most primitive hominid to ever live outside Africa, many scientists consider H. georgicus to be an early and primitive member of

12348-402: The baby through the birth canal during delivery. In pregnancies where the mother is infected with the virus, 25% of babies delivered through an infected birth canal become brain damaged, and 1/3 die. HIV/AIDS can also be transmitted during childbirth through contact with the mother's body fluids or transmission to the fetus via the placenta. Mothers in developed countries may often elect to undergo

12495-500: The capability to reduce labor pain and to provide a safe and successful delivery. The results concluded that spirituality is an integral part of the care of pregnant women in Ghana. In order to ensure the safety of these women, their religious practices should not be in secrecy. The presence of artifacts implies that women do not have the freedom to practice their religion at home. It was concluded that pastors should be sensitive to their role in

12642-476: The carcasses of animals killed by other predators, both for their meat and their marrow. In hunting, H. habilis was most likely not capable of competing with large predators and was more prey than hunter, although H. habilis likely did steal eggs from nests and may have been able to catch small game and weakened larger prey such as cubs and older animals. The tools were classed as Oldowan . Roughly 1.8 million years ago, Homo ergaster first appeared in

12789-620: The centre of a large-scale gold and diamond trade. Nairobi is the capital and the largest city of Kenya . The name comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nyrobi , which translates to "cool water", a reference to the Nairobi River which flows through the city. The city is popularly referred to as the Green City in the Sun. Obstructed labour Obstructed labour , also known as labour dystocia ,

12936-403: The chances for better health outcomes among mothers and babies. Breastfeeding provides women with several long-term benefits. Women who breastfeed experience better glucose levels, lipid metabolism, and blood pressure, and lose pregnancy weight faster than those who do not. Additionally, women who breastfeed experience lower rates of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and type 2 diabetes. However, it

13083-996: The child are all interconnected. Women living in poverty-stricken areas are more likely to be obese and engage in unhealthy behaviors such as cigarette smoking and substance use, are less likely to engage in or even have access to legitimate prenatal care, and are at a significantly higher risk for adverse outcomes for both the mother and child. A study conducted in Kenya observed that common maternal health problems in poverty-stricken areas include hemorrhaging, anemia , hypertension , malaria, placenta retention, premature labor , prolonged/complicated labor, and pre-eclampsia . Generally, adequate prenatal care encompasses medical care and educational, social, and nutritional services during pregnancy. For example, prenatal care could include serum integrated screening tests for potential chromosomal abnormalities as well as blood pressure measurements, or uterus measurements to assess fetal growth. Although there are

13230-412: The child such as facial deformities, defective limbs, face, and heart, learning problems, below average intelligence, and intellectual disability (ID). Although HIV/AIDS can be transmitted to offspring at different times, the most common time that mothers pass on the virus is during pregnancy. During the perinatal period, the embryo/fetus can contract the virus through the placenta. Gestational diabetes

13377-479: The child through breast milk or avoiding health risks for themselves. In cases like this, mothers have no choice but to breastfeed their infants regardless of their knowledge of the harmful effects. Worldwide, the Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) , which is defined as deaths per 100,000 live births per time-period, has decreased, with South-East Asia seeing the most dramatic decrease of 59% and Africa seeing

13524-660: The child, especially in countries where poverty is high and education levels are low, having HIV/AIDS while pregnant can also cause heightened health risks for the mother. A large concern for HIV-positive pregnant women is the risk of contracting tuberculosis (TB) and/or malaria, in developing countries. 28% of maternal deaths are from obstructed labour and indirect causes, meaning diseases that complicate pregnancy or that are complicated by pregnancy (malaria, anemia, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases). During pregnancy, women of an average pre-pregnancy weight ( BMI 18.5-24.9) should expect to gain between 25–35 pounds (11–16 kg) over

13671-450: The cost associated with it. According to a UNFPA report, social and economic status, culture norms and values, and geographic remoteness all increase maternal mortality, and the risk for maternal death (during pregnancy or childbirth) in sub-Saharan Africa is 175 times higher than in developed countries, and risk for pregnancy-related illnesses and negative consequences after birth is even higher. Poverty , maternal health, and outcomes for

13818-400: The course of the pregnancy. Increased rates of hypertension, diabetes, respiratory complications, and infections are prevalent in cases of maternal obesity and can have detrimental effects on pregnancy outcomes. Obesity is an extremely strong risk factor for gestational diabetes . Research has found that obese mothers who lose weight (at least 10 pounds or 4.5 kg) between pregnancies reduce

13965-405: The death of the mother. Prior to the existence of the cesarean section, fetuses that were obstructed had a low survival rate. Even in the 21st century, if obstructed labor is left untreated, it could result in mother and infant death. Although surgical removal of the fetus is the preferred method of managing obstructed labor, manual removal using medical tools is also common. Obstructed labour

14112-578: The decrease was even more pronounced for Black/African American participants. CenteringPregnancy provides physical exams, education, and peer support to a group of pregnant women who all have a similar due date. Research in race concordant group prenatal care (like the EMBRACE group at UCSF) has not yet been researched enough to indicate improved outcomes. Nonetheless, race concordant care has been proven to improve patient experience and patient & provider communication. Moreover, newborn-physician racial concordance

14259-440: The developing embryo/fetus. Additionally, high dosages of aspirin are known to lead to maternal and fetal bleeding, although low-dose aspirin is usually not harmful. Newborns whose mothers use heroin during the gestational period often exhibit withdrawal symptoms at birth and are more likely to have attention problems and health issues as they grow up. Use of stimulants like methamphetamine and cocaine during pregnancy are linked to

14406-464: The early centuries CE. The Djenné-Djenno city-state flourished from 250 BCE to 900 CE and was influential to the development of the Ghana Empire . The Nok culture of Nigeria (lasting from 1,500 BCE to 200 CE) is known from a type of terracotta figure. There were a number of medieval empires of the southern Sahara and the Sahel, based on trans-Saharan trade , including the Ghana Empire and

14553-764: The extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara, forming an effective barrier that is interrupted only by the Nile in Sudan, though navigation on the Nile was blocked by the Sudd and the river's cataracts . There is also an evident genetic divide between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa that dates back to the Neolithic . The Sahara pump theory explains how flora and fauna (including Homo sapiens ) left Africa to penetrate Eurasia and beyond. African pluvial periods are associated with

14700-420: The fetus both directly and indirectly. When a mother is under stress, physiological changes occur in the body that could harm the developing fetus. Additionally, the mother is more likely to engage in behaviors that could negatively affect the fetus, such as tobacco smoking , substance use, and alcohol use. Genital herpes , rubella, cytomegalovirus, varicella, parvovirus B19, and enteroviruses can be passed to

14847-548: The fetus starts with prenatal health. The World Health Organization suggests that the first step towards health is a balanced diet which includes a mix of vegetables, meat, fish, nuts, whole grains, fruits and beans. Additionally, iron supplements and folic acid are recommended to be taken by pregnant women daily. These supplements are recommended by the US Surgeon General to help prevent birth complications for mothers and babies such as low birth weight, anemia, hypertension and pre-term birth. Folic acid can aid neural tube formation in

14994-618: The first millennium BCE. Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilisations of Sao , Kanem , Bornu , Shilluk , Baguirmi , and Wadai . Following the Bantu Migration into Central Africa, during the 14th century, the Luba Kingdom in southeast Congo came about under a king whose political authority derived from religious, spiritual legitimacy. The kingdom controlled agriculture and regional trade of salt and iron from

15141-534: The first millennium CE, Nilotic and Bantu -speaking peoples moved into the region , and the latter now account for three-quarters of Kenya's population. On the coastal section of Southeast Africa, a mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African Swahili City States . The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do

15288-1035: The first two years of life, whereas the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Academy of Family Physicians recommend that mothers do so for at least the first six months, and continue as long as is mutually desired. Infants who are breastfed by healthy mothers (not infected with HIV/AIDS) are less prone to infections such as Haemophilus influenza, Streptococcus pneunoniae, Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli, Giardia lamblia , group B streptococci, Staphylococcus epidermidis , rotavirus, respiratory syncytial virus and herpes simplex virus-1, as well as gastrointestinal and lower respiratory tract infections and otitis media. Lower rates of infant mortality are observed in breastfed babies in addition to lower rates of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Decreases in obesity and diseases such as childhood metabolic disease, asthma, atopic dermatitis, Type I diabetes, and childhood cancers are also seen in children who are breastfed. Following up on

15435-558: The following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Goldie . In 1900, the company's territory came under the control of the British government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On 1 January 1901, Nigeria became a British protectorate as part of the British Empire , the foremost world power at the time. Nigeria was granted its independence in 1960 during

15582-696: The forebears of the Habesha . In northern Somalia was Barbara or the Bilad al-Barbar ("Land of the Berbers "), which was inhabited by the Eastern Baribah or Barbaroi , as the ancestors of the Somalis were referred to by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the populations south of the Sahara were divided into three broad ancestral groups: Hamites and Semites in

15729-517: The form of the Akkadian language of Mesopotamia ( Assyria and Babylonia ) and circa 2500 BCE in the form of the Eblaite language of northeastern Syria . The distribution of the Afroasiatic languages within Africa is principally concentrated in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Languages belonging to the family's Berber branch are mainly spoken in the north, with its speech area extending into

15876-502: The fossil record in Africa. From Homo ergaster , Homo erectus (upright man) evolved 1.5 million years ago. Some of the earlier representatives of this species were small-brained and used primitive stone tools , much like H. habilis . The brain later grew in size, and H. erectus eventually developed a more complex stone tool technology called the Acheulean . Potentially the first hominid to engage in hunting, H. erectus mastered

16023-663: The health care system is doing its job. If not, problems likely exist. According to Garret, increasing maternal survival, along with life expectancy, is an important goal for the world health community, as they show that other health issues are also improving. If these areas improve, disease-specific improvements are also better able to positively impact populations. Maternal mortality rates are extremely high worldwide. However, most women who die during or after pregnancy live in low and lower-middle income countries. Specifically, in 2017, 94% of all maternal deaths occurred in low and lower-middle income countries. The MMR in low-income countries

16170-558: The indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of Central Africa. The Nilo-Saharan languages are concentrated in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers of Central Africa and Southeast Africa. They are principally spoken by Nilotic peoples and are also spoken in Sudan among the Fur , Masalit , Nubian and Zaghawa peoples and in West and Central Africa among

16317-613: The interconnectedness of continental Africa, pointing to historical and cultural connections, as well as trade between North, West, and East Africa . Commentators in Arabic in the medieval period used the general term bilâd as-sûdân ("Land of the Blacks") for the vast Sudan region (an expression denoting Central and West Africa ), or sometimes extending from the coast of West Africa to Western Sudan . Its equivalent in Southeast Africa

16464-666: The king title, Manikongo . Other significant states and peoples included the Kuba Kingdom , producers of the famous raffia cloth, the Eastern Lunda , Bemba , Burundi , Rwanda , and the Kingdom of Ndongo . Nubia , covered by present-day northern Sudan and southern Egypt , was referred to as " Aethiopia " ("land of the burnt face") by the Greeks . Nubia in her greatest phase is considered sub-Saharan Africa's oldest urban civilisation. Nubia

16611-425: The knowledge they have. These women are informed to make decisions regarding family planning, the best time to give birth as far as their financial capabilities are concerned, and their nutrition, before, during, and after giving birth. Additionally, many approaches involving women, families, and local communities as active stakeholders in interventions and strategies to improve maternal health. Gannon (n.p) reports that

16758-486: The labor process and that revelations and spiritual interventions should not lead to pregnancy or labor complications. Future studies in religion and maternal health care will focus on the role of pastors, familiar support, and the views of midwives or health care professionals in different societies around the world. Prenatal care is an important part of basic maternal health care. It is recommended expectant mothers receive at least four antenatal healthcare visits, in which

16905-551: The likelihood of neonatal morbidity. Light exercise should be continued for pregnant mothers as it has been recommended to combat negative health outcomes, side effects and birth complications related to obesity. The overturned advice that pregnant women's heartate should not exceed 140 as of 2012 was still popularly believed. Should possible side effects of a pregnancy occur, such as nausea, vomiting, heartburn, leg cramps, lower back pain, and constipation; low intensity exercise, balanced diet, or natural herb supplements are recommended by

17052-572: The major contributors of obstructed labor in modern humans. It is also common for obstructed labor in humans to be caused by the fetus' broad shoulders. However, morphological shifts in pelvic structure still account for the inability of a fetus to effectively pass through the birth canal without major complications Other primates have a wider and straighter birth canal that allows a fetus to pass through more effectively. Mismatch between birth canal size and infant cranial width and length due to bipedal locomotion requirements have often been referred to as

17199-511: The many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people . With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Tanzania (particularly Zanzibar ) and Kenya  – a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast  – the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loan-words as a consequence of these interactions. The earliest Bantu inhabitants of

17346-414: The maternal rate of mortality reduced by 70% between 1946 and 1953, when women started getting maternal education. The study has recommended that the study should focus on communities that are marginalized and girls who are below the age of 18. When the government manages to reduce unwanted and unplanned pregnancies among these two groups of people, it will become easier to reduce the maternal health issue and

17493-701: The most common barriers to receiving proper prenatal care. Income is strongly correlated with quality of prenatal care. Sometimes, proximity to healthcare facilities and access to transportation have significant effects on whether or not women have access to prenatal care. An analysis conducted on maternal healthcare services in Mali found that women who lived in rural areas, far away from healthcare facilities were less likely to receive prenatal care than those who lived in urban areas. Furthermore, researchers found an even stronger relationship between lack of transportation and prenatal and delivery care. In addition to proximity being

17640-506: The most famous being Sungbo's Eredo . Another prominent kingdom in southwestern Nigeria was the Kingdom of Benin , whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century. Their dominance reached as far as the well-known city of Eko which was named Lagos by the Portuguese traders and other early European settlers. The Edo -speaking people of Benin are known for their famous bronze casting and rich coral, wealth, ancient science and technology and

17787-436: The mother and her baby are in good condition. This prevents sickness that may affect the two and deteriorate their health. Additionally, longitudinal followup must include mental health support and screening, as roughly 15% of women will experience postpartum depression , also known as "baby blues", within the first year of birth, although it typically starts in the first 1–3 weeks after birth. Maternal health care and care of

17934-446: The mother and the infant. Symphysiotomy is the surgical opening of the symphysis pubis. This procedure can be completed more rapidly than Caesarean sections and does not require anesthesia, making it a more accessible option in places with less advanced medical technology. This procedure also leaves no scars on the uterus which makes further pregnancies and births safer for the mother. Another important factor in treating obstructed labor

18081-603: The mother provides for the embryo/fetus is critical to its wellbeing well after gestation and birth. A teratogen is "any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes." Dose, genetic susceptibility, and time of exposure are all factors for the extent of the effect of a teratogen on an embryo or fetus. Prescription drugs taken during pregnancy such as streptomycin, tetracycline, some antidepressants, progestin, synthetic estrogen, and Accutane, as well as over-the-counter drugs such as diet pills, can result in teratogenic outcomes for

18228-409: The mother stayed under 90% of her heart rate maximum. Risks of exceeding this heart rate included decreased uterine artery blood flow and fetal bradycardia. If using vigorous exercise as a means of lowering maternal weight gain during pregnancy, it's important to note there is little evidence to suggest that higher intensity has more of an effect than moderate intensity activity on normal pregnancies; It

18375-611: The necessity of understanding different religious beliefs and practices. In Ghana, interviews of women showed the benefits of transparent religious beliefs and practices while pregnant and in labor. Spiritual interventions done by pastors in pregnancy included prayer, revelations, reversing negative dreams, laying of hands and anointing women. Religious artifacts used among the women during pregnancy and labor were anointing oil, blessed water, stickers, blessed white handkerchief, blessed sand, Bible and Rosary. The women made many connections to these practices and to their religion such as God having

18522-691: The north and copper from the Zambian/Congo copper belt. Rival kingship factions which split from the Luba Kingdom later moved among the Lunda people, marrying into its elite and laying the foundation of the Lunda Empire in the 16th century. The ruling dynasty centralised authority among the Lunda under the Mwata Yamyo or Mwaant Yaav. The Mwata Yamyo's legitimacy, like that of the Luba king, came from being viewed as

18669-417: The obstetric dilemma, since compared to other great apes, modern humans have the greatest disproportion between infant cranial size and birth canal size. Shrinking of upper extremities and curvature of the spine have also affected the way modern humans give birth. Quadruped apes have longer upper limbs that allow them to reach down and pull their fetus out of the birth canal unassisted. Other primates also have

18816-413: The patient can develop a birth plan which outlines how to reach care and what to do in the event of an emergency. The model CenteringPregnancy (group prenatal care) is a relatively new addition to prenatal healthcare, and has shown to improve both birth outcomes and patient & provider satisfaction. Specifically, a randomized controlled trial indicated a 33 percent reduction in preterm birth (n=995), and

18963-678: The period of decoloniszation . Archeological finds in Central Africa provide evidence of human settlement that may date back over 10,000 years. According to Zangato and Holl, there is evidence of iron-smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3,000 to 2,500 BCE. Extensive walled sites and settlements have recently been found in Zilum , Chad. The area is located approximately 60 km (37 mi) southwest of Lake Chad, and has been radiocarbon dated to

19110-415: The possibility of obstructed labor. This relationship is a result of the mother's nutritional health throughout her life leading up to childbirth. Younger mothers are also at more risk for obstructed labor due to growth of the pelvis not being completed. Problems with the birth canal include a narrow vagina and perineum which may be due to female genital mutilation or tumors . All of these factors lead to

19257-446: The potential development of gestational diabetes. Other prenatal screening tests include serum integrated protein tests, cell free DNA blood tests to check for chromosomal abnormalities, and nuchal translucency ultrasounds. If their medical system is able to provide them, mothers can also undergo more invasive diagnostic tests such as an amniocentesis, or chorionic villous sampling to detect abnormalities with greater accuracy. Analysis of

19404-399: The prevalence of obstructed labor. Before considering surgical options, changing the posture of the mother during labor can help to progress labor. The treatment of obstructed labour may require cesarean section or vacuum extraction with possible surgical opening of the symphysis pubis . Caesarean section is an invasive method but is often the only method that will save the lives of both

19551-555: The quality of care given to treat or prevent a fatal disease. For example, an NIH report states that Black women are two to three times more likely to die of hemorrhage or embolisms during pregnancy or the postpartum period. Outside of provider-patient interactions, structural factors can contribute to the racial gap in maternal mortality. This includes the gap in access to primary and preventative care as well as other social determinants of health such as education and community support. There are many factors that influence maternal health and

19698-523: The racial gap in maternal mortality. They say that most pregnancy related deaths are the combined result of 3-4 contributing factors. Some of these factors include higher rates of chronic conditions in minor communities, lower rates of prenatal care, and lower rates of insurance coverage. Furthermore, teen pregnancy rates are higher in minority communities, which is a risk factor for pregnancy or birth complications. Black and Indigenous women can also encounter racial bias held by healthcare providers, which affects

19845-547: The rate of SMM is increasing in the United States as is maternal mortality. Both are "associated with a high rate of preventability." The U.S. Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations calls maternal mortality a " sentinel event ", and uses it to assess the quality of a health care system. Maternal mortality data is said to be an important indicator of overall health system quality because pregnant women survive in sanitary, safe, well-staffed and stocked facilities. If new mothers are thriving, it indicates that

19992-871: The risk of developing cardiovascular disease compared to women with normal blood pressure who had no complications in pregnancy. Monitoring pregnant women's blood pressure can help prevent both complications and future cardiovascular diseases. Almost 50% of the births in developing countries still take place without a medically skilled attendant to aid the mother, and the ratio is even higher in South Asia. Women in Sub-Saharan Africa mainly rely on traditional birth attendants (TBAs), who have little or no formal health care training. In recognition of their role, some countries and non-governmental organizations are making efforts to train TBAs in maternal health topics, in order to improve

20139-523: The risk of gestational diabetes during their next pregnancy, whereas mothers who gain weight actually increase their risk. Women who are pregnant should aim to exercise for at least 150 minutes per week, including muscle strengthening exercises. However, it is recommended that pregnant women discuss what exercise they can do safely with their OB/GYN in the early prenatal period. Vigorous Exercise The current guidelines for moderate intensity activity during pregnancy have been outlined by organizations such as

20286-455: The symphysis pubis . Other measures include: keeping the women hydrated and antibiotics if the membranes have been ruptured for more than 18 hours. In Africa and Asia obstructed labor affects between two and five percent of deliveries. In 2015 about 6.5 million cases of obstructed labour or uterine rupture occurred. This resulted in 23,000 maternal deaths down from 29,000 deaths in 1990 (about 8% of all deaths related to pregnancy ). It

20433-412: The women who have given birth is a crucial factor as it helps check on maternal health. Since healthcare facilities have records of the women who have given birth, when the women are followed to monitor the progress of their babies as well as their health, it becomes easy to put them on a follow-up and ensure they are doing well as the baby grows. Follow-up is accompanied by nutritional advice to ensure both

20580-509: The world. This dispersal of the human species is suggested by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence. During the 11th millennium BP , pottery was independently invented in West Africa, with the earliest pottery there dating to about 9,400 BC from central Mali. It spread throughout the Sahel and southern Sahara . After the Sahara became a desert, it did not present a totally impenetrable barrier for travelers between north and south because of

20727-625: Was Zanj ("Country of the Blacks"), which was situated in the vicinity of the Great Lakes region. The geographers drew an explicit ethnographic distinction between the Sudan region and its analogue Zanj, from the area to their extreme east on the Red Sea coast in the Horn of Africa . In modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea was Al-Habash or Abyssinia, which was inhabited by the Habash or Abyssinians, who were

20874-828: Was 462 in 2017 signifying that 462 mothers died during childbirth for every 100,000 live births. In many low and lower-middle income countries complications of pregnancy and childbirth are the leading causes of death among women of reproductive age. According to the World Health Organization, in its World Health Report 2005, poor maternal conditions account for the fourth leading cause of death for women worldwide, after HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis. In low-income countries, most maternal deaths and injuries during pregnancy and labor are due to preventative issues that have been largely eradicated in higher income countries including postpartum hemorrhaging, hypertensive disease, and maternal infections. For example, postpartum hemorrhaging

21021-423: Was a major source of gold for the ancient world. Nubians built famous structures and numerous pyramids. Sudan, the site of ancient Nubia, has more pyramids than anywhere else in the world. The Axumite Empire spanned the southern Sahara, south Arabia and the Sahel along the western shore of the Red Sea . Located in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea , Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between India and

21168-527: Was a medieval kingdom (c. 1250–1629), which existed between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers of Southern Africa in the territory of modern-day Zimbabwe and Mozambique . Its old capital was located at Great Zimbabwe . In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias became the first European to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. In 1652, a victualling station was established at the Cape of Good Hope by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of

21315-580: Was higher among Black and Indigenous women, the initial prevalence was generally the same across all races. Although lower than that of Black and Indigenous women, the PRMR for Asian and Pacific Islander women was still slightly higher than that of the white women at 13.5. The PRMR for Hispanic women has shown a decline in recent years. However, state specific reports show that Hispanic women still face high rates of maternal morbidity, or health problems that arise from pregnancy and birth. The CDC cites multiple causes for

21462-500: Was shown in one study that the obese/overweight population during pregnancy had improved maternal weight gain with more vigorous exercise compared to moderate although more studies are needed. When related to birth outcome measures such as mode of delivery, pain control, and duration all were unaffected when compared to moderate intensity.High intensity exercises such as stationary biking, uphill running, cross country skiing, and resistance circuit training, all showed similar benefits. It

21609-475: Was significantly associated with mortality improvements for Black infants. Poverty, malnutrition, and substance use may contribute to impaired cognitive, motor, and behavioral problems across childhood. In other words, if a mother is not in optimal health during the prenatal period (the time while she is pregnant) and/or the fetus is exposed to teratogen(s), the child is more likely to experience health or developmental difficulties, or death. The environment in which

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