Local purchasing is a preference to buy locally produced goods and services rather than those produced farther away. It is very often abbreviated as a positive goal, "buy local" or "buy locally', that parallels the phrase " think globally, act locally ", common in green politics .
82-712: The Masurian Canal ( Polish : Kanał Mazurski , Russian : Мазурский Канал , German : Masurischer Kanal ) is a 50.4-kilometre-long (31.3 mi) abandoned canal in Poland and Russia in Central Europe . Planned to connect Königsberg ( Kaliningrad ) and Mauersee ( Lake Mamry ) in Prussia , construction of the canal was paused for the World Wars and hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic , before being abandoned. Proposals for
164-660: A counterweighted drum motor system (vertical gates). The locks had the ability to be manually operated if necessary. The superstructure of the upper lock at Leśniewo features a recess for the Reichsadler of the coat of arms of the Third Reich . At the abandonment of works, the locks were in varying states of completion. Polish language Polish ( endonym : język polski , [ˈjɛ̃zɘk ˈpɔlskʲi] , polszczyzna [pɔlˈʂt͡ʂɘzna] or simply polski , [ˈpɔlskʲi] )
246-499: A / (spelled a ), / ɔ / (spelled o ) and / u / (spelled u and ó as separate letters). The nasal vowels are / ɛ w̃ / (spelled ę ) and / ɔ w̃ / (spelled ą ). Unlike Czech or Slovak, Polish does not retain phonemic vowel length — the letter ó , which formerly represented lengthened /ɔː/ in older forms of the language, is now vestigial and instead corresponds to /u/. The Polish consonant system shows more complexity: its characteristic features include
328-619: A canal connecting the Masurian Lakes area with the Baltic Sea at Königsberg existed from the 18th century, when other canal schemes to connect the Masurian Lakes were enacted by Johann Friedrich Domhardt . An early proposal would have had a canal from Lake Ryńskie [ pl ] to the sea making substantial use of river navigations , and another plan was to have a canal leave Lake Mamry north via Węgielsztyn . A further plan for
410-753: A canal was proposed in 1849, and a survey was drawn up by 1862. This plan would have used inclined planes as on the nearby Elbląg Canal . Failure to acquire consent from landowners was one reason this proposal did not come to fruition. In 1890, hydraulic engineer August Hess —who had previously designed the Aller Canal —revised the plans to replace the inclined planes with locks , publishing The Masurian Shipping Canal in East Prussia ( German : Der Masurische Schiffahrtskanal in Ostpreußen ) in 1892. Two years later, engineer Otto Intze published his Expert Opinion on
492-759: A dialect of Polish. Many Silesians consider themselves a separate ethnicity and have been advocating for the recognition of Silesian as a regional language in Poland . The law recognizing it as such was passed by the Sejm and Senate in April 2024, but has been vetoed by President Andrzej Duda in late May of 2024. According to the last official census in Poland in 2011, over half a million people declared Silesian as their native language. Many sociolinguists (e.g. Tomasz Kamusella , Agnieszka Pianka, Alfred F. Majewicz, Tomasz Wicherkiewicz ) assume that extralinguistic criteria decide whether
574-656: A few culturally and linguistically related tribes from the basins of the Vistula and Oder before eventually accepting baptism in 966. With Western Christianity , Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet , which made it possible to write down Polish, which until then had existed only as a spoken language . The closest relatives of Polish are the Elbe and Baltic Sea Lechitic dialects ( Polabian and Pomeranian varieties). All of them, except Kashubian , are extinct. The precursor to modern Polish
656-494: A form of moral purchasing . Local purchasing is often claimed to be better for the environment and better for working conditions . Others contend (with empirical evidence) that local purchasing and contracting enhances local job creation and wealth while strengthening community cohesiveness. The first potential moral benefit is environmental: Bringing goods from afar generally requires using more energy than transporting goods locally, and some environmental advocates see this as
738-409: A fraction of overall production prices, and that choosing less efficient local products over more efficient nonlocal products is an economic deadweight loss . Moreover, the community as a whole does not actually save money because consumers have to spend so much more on the more expensive local products. Similarly, the moral purchasing argument has been questioned as more and more consumers consider
820-511: A large number of branches in all of these areas) offers services available in Polish at all of their cash machines in addition to English and Spanish . According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England and Wales who consider Polish to be their "main" language. In Canada , there is a significant Polish Canadian population : There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to
902-533: A lect is an independent language or a dialect: speakers of the speech variety or/and political decisions, and this is dynamic (i.e. it changes over time). Also, research organizations such as SIL International and resources for the academic field of linguistics such as Ethnologue , Linguist List and others, for example the Ministry of Administration and Digitization recognized the Silesian language. In July 2007,
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#1732883963859984-454: A nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example, ą in dąb ("oak") is pronounced [ɔm] , and ę in tęcza ("rainbow") is pronounced [ɛn] (the nasal assimilates to the following consonant). When followed by l or ł (for example przyjęli , przyjęły ), ę is pronounced as just e . When ę is at the end of the word it is often pronounced as just [ɛ] . Depending on
1066-402: A reversed diacritic hook called an ogonek . Polish is a synthetic and fusional language which has seven grammatical cases . It has fixed penultimate stress and an abundance of palatal consonants . Contemporary Polish developed in the 1700s as the successor to the medieval Old Polish (10th–16th centuries) and Middle Polish (16th–18th centuries). Among the major languages, it
1148-704: A serious environmental threat. Transportation contributes to environmental contamination in addition to the pollution caused by chemical inputs in the growing phase. Of course, locally produced goods are not always more energy-efficient ; local agriculture or manufacturing may rely on heavy inputs (e.g., industrial agriculture ) or energy-inefficient machinery and/or transportation systems. However, small-scale growers tend to be more environmentally friendly because industrial-sized agriculture uses genetically modified crops , monoculture production, and chemical fertilizer -intensive processes to grow crops—practices that local farmers typically avoid. The second potential benefit
1230-491: A single word. This applies in particular to many combinations of preposition plus a personal pronoun, such as do niej ('to her'), na nas ('on us'), prze ze mnie ('because of me'), all stressed on the bolded syllable. The Polish alphabet derives from the Latin script but includes certain additional letters formed using diacritics . The Polish alphabet was one of three major forms of Latin-based orthography developed for Western and some South Slavic languages,
1312-405: A verse by Jan Brzechwa ) is W Szczebrzeszynie chrząszcz brzmi w trzcinie [fʂt͡ʂɛbʐɛˈʂɨɲɛ ˈxʂɔw̃ʂt͡ʂ ˈbʐmi fˈtʂt͡ɕiɲɛ] ('In Szczebrzeszyn a beetle buzzes in the reed'). Unlike languages such as Czech, Polish does not have syllabic consonants – the nucleus of a syllable is always a vowel. The consonant /j/ is restricted to positions adjacent to a vowel. It also cannot precede
1394-478: A vowel when it precedes another vowel (it represents /j/ , palatalization of the preceding consonant, or both depending on analysis). Also the letters u and i sometimes represent only semivowels when they follow another vowel, as in autor /ˈawtɔr/ ('author'), mostly in loanwords (so not in native nauka /naˈu.ka/ 'science, the act of learning', for example, nor in nativized Mateusz /maˈte.uʂ/ 'Matthew'). Some loanwords , particularly from
1476-636: Is a West Slavic language of the Lechitic group within the Indo-European language family written in the Latin script . It is primarily spoken in Poland and serves as the official language of the country, as well as the language of the Polish diaspora around the world. In 2024, there were over 39.7 million Polish native speakers. It ranks as the sixth most-spoken among languages of the European Union . Polish
1558-419: Is also spoken as a second language in eastern Germany , northern Czech Republic and Slovakia , western parts of Belarus and Ukraine as well as in southeast Lithuania and Latvia . Because of the emigration from Poland during different time periods, most notably after World War II , millions of Polish speakers can also be found in countries such as Canada , Argentina , Brazil , Israel , Australia ,
1640-502: Is creating better working conditions. Nonetheless, while diverting purchasing from developing countries to local farmers helps build the local economy, it can lead to worse conditions for poor farmers in developing countries because it removes potential buyers from the market. For communities, spending at local independent businesses also generates more jobs and wealth in the local economy compared to spending at absentee-owned businesses, including corporate chains. The goal of localisation
1722-427: Is most closely related to Slovak and Czech but differs in terms of pronunciation and general grammar. Additionally, Polish was profoundly influenced by Latin and other Romance languages like Italian and French as well as Germanic languages (most notably German ), which contributed to a large number of loanwords and similar grammatical structures. Extensive usage of nonstandard dialects has also shaped
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#17328839638591804-435: Is not an appealing option to consumers who are shopping on a budget. Small-scale farmers do not receive government subsidies and are not able to support their business on prices comparable to those of industrial-scale food production, so they must sell at higher prices to make a living. Therefore, in order for the appeal of the local agriculture movement to overcome the economic cost, people must be willing to invest in it, which
1886-480: Is often cheaper to buy distantly-produced goods, despite any added costs in terms of packaging , transport , inspection , wholesale / retail facilities, etc. As such, one must now often take explicit action if one wants to purchase locally produced goods. These market conditions are based on externalized costs , argue local-economy advocates. Examples of externalized costs include the price of war , asthma , or climate change , which are not typically included in
1968-447: Is possible to say ko goście zoba czy li? – here kogo retains its usual stress (first syllable) in spite of the attachment of the clitic. Reanalysis of the endings as inflections when attached to verbs causes the different colloquial stress patterns. These stress patterns are considered part of a "usable" norm of standard Polish - in contrast to the "model" ("high") norm. Some common word combinations are stressed as if they were
2050-595: Is subdivided into regional dialects and maintains strict T–V distinction pronouns, honorifics , and various forms of formalities when addressing individuals. The traditional 32-letter Polish alphabet has nine additions ( ą , ć , ę , ł , ń , ó , ś , ź , ż ) to the letters of the basic 26-letter Latin alphabet , while removing three (x, q, v). Those three letters are at times included in an extended 35-letter alphabet. The traditional set comprises 23 consonants and 9 written vowels , including two nasal vowels ( ę , ą ) defined by
2132-501: Is that with the greatest rise . Beyond the second lock, Leśniewo Lower Lock, the first cut ends and the waterway makes use of Lake Rydzówka [ pl ] for 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) of its route. The canal heads north from the lake on another cut, through Piaski Lock, the only completed lock on the Polish side of the canal. Passing the Marszałki forest, the canal drops through locks at Bajory Małe and Bajory Wielkie . Beyond
2214-512: Is the Old Polish language . Ultimately, Polish descends from the unattested Proto-Slavic language. The Book of Henryków (Polish: Księga henrykowska , Latin : Liber fundationis claustri Sanctae Mariae Virginis in Heinrichau ), contains the earliest known sentence written in the Polish language: Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (in modern orthography: Daj, uć ja pobrusza, a ti pocziwaj ;
2296-518: Is the most widely-used minority language in Lithuania's Vilnius County , by 26% of the population, according to the 2001 census results, as Vilnius was part of Poland from 1922 until 1939. Polish is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. In Ukraine, it is most common in the western parts of Lviv and Volyn Oblasts , while in West Belarus it is used by the significant Polish minority, especially in
2378-497: Is to reduce unnecessary transport, support entrepreneurism and to strengthen and diversify community economies. This calls for condensation of agriculture and supports the idea that local farmers are capable of sustaining a community. The term “Buy Local” has become subject to varying interpretations. While leading advocates of local independent business such as the American Independent Business Alliance say
2460-501: Is unlikely when apparently similar products are available in grocery stores for a lower cost. Despite this, distribution costs of expansive food trade must also be factored in; with increasing gas prices, it becomes more expensive to ship food from outside sources. Local purchasing preferences may conflict with procurement rules affecting public sector organisations . For example, in the UK, "the country or territory of origin of supplies to, [and]
2542-430: The kropka (superior dot) over the letter ż , and the ogonek ("little tail") under the letters ą, ę . The letters q, v, x are used only in foreign words and names. Polish orthography is largely phonemic —there is a consistent correspondence between letters (or digraphs and trigraphs ) and phonemes (for exceptions see below). The letters of the alphabet and their normal phonemic values are listed in
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2624-401: The ś in święty ("holy") all represent the sound / ɕ / . The exceptions to the above rule are certain loanwords from Latin, Italian, French, Russian or English—where s before i is pronounced as s , e.g. sinus , sinologia , do re mi fa sol la si do , Saint-Simon i saint-simoniści , Sierioża , Siergiej , Singapur , singiel . In other loanwords
2706-579: The Brest and Grodno regions and in areas along the Lithuanian border. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries. In the United States , Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. According to the 2000 United States Census , 667,414 Americans of age five years and over reported Polish as
2788-529: The Finow Canal ) to navigate bends at full speed. At these locations, the channel was widened by 3–4 metres (9.8–13.1 ft). Ten locks were constructed on the canal, with chambers made of reinforced concrete using the Torkret injection method. These were placed in one of three categories based on the pressure caused by the hydraulic head above the lock: These categories dictated the power systems used to drive
2870-528: The Narew valley which would have provided an onward connection to Warsaw . After authorisation of the canal, the works were divided into two schemes; the first was from the Łyna to the Gerdauen – Nordenburg railway line, and the second was from the railway line to Lake Mamry. The contract for construction was given to Philipp Holzmann and Dyckerhoff & Widmann , and construction began in April 1911. Construction
2952-647: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 's influence gave Polish the status of lingua franca in Central and Eastern Europe . The process of standardization began in the 14th century and solidified in the 16th century during the Middle Polish era. Standard Polish was based on various dialectal features, with the Greater Poland dialect group serving as the base. After World War II , Standard Polish became
3034-565: The USSR . After the Second World War, many of the mechanisms at the locks and weirs were looted. The canal begins at a fortified junction with Lake Przystań, a bay on the west side of Lake Mamry, at approximately 116.4 metres (382 ft) AMSL . Heading west, the canal was crossed by a road bridge and a railway bridge carrying the Kętrzyn–Węgorzewo line . The first lock, Leśniewo Upper Lock,
3116-511: The United Kingdom and the United States . Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. At the time, it was a collection of dialect groups with some mutual features, but much regional variation was present. Mieszko I , ruler of the Polans tribe from the Greater Poland region, united
3198-474: The classical languages , have the stress on the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable. For example, fizyka ( /ˈfizɨka/ ) ('physics') is stressed on the first syllable. This may lead to a rare phenomenon of minimal pairs differing only in stress placement, for example muzyka /ˈmuzɨka/ 'music' vs. muzyka /muˈzɨka/ – genitive singular of muzyk 'musician'. When additional syllables are added to such words through inflection or suffixation ,
3280-569: The flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50) , as well as the expulsion of Ukrainians and Operation Vistula , the 1947 migration of Ukrainian minorities in the Recovered Territories in the west of the country, contributed to the country's linguistic homogeneity. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak Polish somewhat differently, although the differences between modern-day vernacular varieties and standard Polish ( język ogólnopolski ) appear relatively slight. Most of
3362-404: The standard language ; considerable colloquialisms and expressions were directly borrowed from German or Yiddish and subsequently adopted into the vernacular of Polish which is in everyday use. Historically, Polish was a lingua franca , important both diplomatically and academically in Central and part of Eastern Europe . In addition to being the official language of Poland, Polish
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3444-416: The 16th century, which is also regarded as the " Golden Age of Polish literature". The orthography was modified in the 19th century and in 1936. Tomasz Kamusella notes that "Polish is the oldest, non-ecclesiastical, written Slavic language with a continuous tradition of literacy and official use, which has lasted unbroken from the 16th century to this day." Polish evolved into the main sociolect of
3526-481: The 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto (91,810 speakers) and Montreal . The geographical distribution of the Polish language was greatly affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II and Polish population transfers (1944–46) . Poles settled in the " Recovered Territories " in the west and north, which had previously been mostly German -speaking. Some Poles remained in
3608-578: The Henryków monastery, noted that "Hoc est in polonico" ("This is in Polish"). The earliest treatise on Polish orthography was written by Jakub Parkosz [ pl ] around 1470. The first printed book in Polish appeared in either 1508 or 1513, while the oldest Polish newspaper was established in 1661. Starting in the 1520s, large numbers of books in the Polish language were published, contributing to increased homogeneity of grammar and orthography. The writing system achieved its overall form in
3690-671: The Silesian language was recognized by ISO , and was attributed an ISO code of szl. Some additional characteristic but less widespread regional dialects include: Polish linguistics has been characterized by a strong strive towards promoting prescriptive ideas of language intervention and usage uniformity, along with normatively-oriented notions of language "correctness" (unusual by Western standards). Polish has six oral vowels (seven oral vowels in written form), which are all monophthongs , and two nasal vowels . The oral vowels are / i / (spelled i ), / ɨ / (spelled y and also transcribed as /ɘ/ or /ɪ/), / ɛ / (spelled e ), /
3772-599: The Utilization of Considerable Water Power for Industrial Purposes Through the Masurian Shipping Canal ( German : Gutachten über die Nutzbarmachung erheblicher Wasserkräfte für industrielle Zwecke durch den Masurischen Schiffahrtskanal ) which recommended the installation of hydroelectric power stations at the locks. By 1898 the Landtag approved the land purchase of 200,000 ℳ . On 14 May 1908, authorisation
3854-512: The bridge is now demolished. The route passes through forest and the lost village of Wikrowo . The first lock in Russia is Ozerki Lock, beyond which is a railway bridge defended by anti-tank obstacles . After the next lock, near the village of Marinovka , the canal passes the Mauenwalde estate before heading west and reaching a lock at Kostromino . At Druzhba, two locks drop the canal to the level of
3936-485: The cases mentioned above, the letter i if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents / j / , yet a palatalization of the previous consonant is always assumed. The reverse case, where the consonant remains unpalatalized but is followed by a palatalized consonant, is written by using j instead of i : for example, zjeść , "to eat up". The letters ą and ę , when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by
4018-687: The corresponding sentence in modern Polish: Daj, niech ja pomielę, a ty odpoczywaj or Pozwól, że ja będę mełł, a ty odpocznij ; and in English: Come, let me grind, and you take a rest ), written around 1280. The book is exhibited in the Archdiocesal Museum in Wrocław, and as of 2015 has been added to UNESCO 's " Memory of the World " list. The medieval recorder of this phrase, the Cistercian monk Peter of
4100-436: The cost of (for example) a gallon of fuel. Most advocates for local economics address contracting and investment , as well as purchasing. Agricultural alternatives are being sought, and have manifested themselves in the form of farmers' markets , farmed goods sold through the community cooperatives , urban gardens , and even school programs that endorse community agriculture . Advocates often suggest local purchasing as
4182-479: The disappearance of yers . Polish can have word-initial and word-medial clusters of up to four consonants, whereas word-final clusters can have up to five consonants. Examples of such clusters can be found in words such as bezwzględny [bɛzˈvzɡlɛndnɨ] ('absolute' or 'heartless', 'ruthless'), źdźbło [ˈʑd͡ʑbwɔ] ('blade of grass'), wstrząs [ˈfstʂɔw̃s] ('shock'), and krnąbrność [ˈkrnɔmbrnɔɕt͡ɕ] ('disobedience'). A popular Polish tongue-twister (from
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#17328839638594264-430: The distinction between regular penultimate and exceptional antepenultimate stress. Another class of exceptions is verbs with the conditional endings -by, -bym, -byśmy , etc. These endings are not counted in determining the position of the stress; for example, zro biłbym ('I would do') is stressed on the first syllable, and zro bi libyśmy ('we would do') on the second. According to prescriptive authorities ,
4346-520: The eastern parts of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth wrote Polish in the Arabic alphabet. The Cyrillic script is used to a certain extent today by Polish speakers in Western Belarus , especially for religious texts. The diacritics used in the Polish alphabet are the kreska (graphically similar to the acute accent ) over the letters ć, ń, ó, ś, ź and through the letter in ł ;
4428-420: The end of words (where devoicing occurs) and in certain consonant clusters (where assimilation occurs). For details, see Voicing and devoicing in the article on Polish phonology. Most Polish words are paroxytones (that is, the stress falls on the second-to-last syllable of a polysyllabic word), although there are exceptions. Polish permits complex consonant clusters, which historically often arose from
4510-469: The entire country. Polish has traditionally been described as consisting of three to five main regional dialects: Silesian and Kashubian , spoken in Upper Silesia and Pomerania respectively, are thought of as either Polish dialects or distinct languages , depending on the criteria used. Kashubian contains a number of features not found elsewhere in Poland, e.g. nine distinct oral vowels (vs.
4592-462: The following table. The following digraphs and trigraphs are used: Voiced consonant letters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the tables); this occurs at the end of words and in certain clusters, due to the neutralization mentioned in the Phonology section above. Occasionally also voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds in clusters. The spelling rule for
4674-538: The language spoken at home, which is about 1.4% of people who speak languages other than English , 0.25% of the US population, and 6% of the Polish-American population. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census (over 50%) were found in three states: Illinois (185,749), New York (111,740), and New Jersey (74,663). Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services (which has
4756-439: The letter y . The predominant stress pattern in Polish is penultimate stress – in a word of more than one syllable, the next-to-last syllable is stressed. Alternating preceding syllables carry secondary stress, e.g. in a four-syllable word, where the primary stress is on the third syllable, there will be secondary stress on the first. Each vowel represents one syllable, although the letter i normally does not represent
4838-457: The locks had begun, with one at Allenburg complete. Construction recommenced in 1934, using local and forced labour , with a proposed completion of May 1941 and a projected total cost of 19,500,000 ℛℳ . In 1936, the lock at Kostromino was reported to have been complete. The outbreak of the Second World War again halted construction; the cut was complete but many of the locks along
4920-583: The locks the canal was crossed by the narrow gauge railway between Barciany and Krylovo. The last lock on the Polish side, Długopole Lock, had the lowest rise of any on the canal. Adjacent to the lock was a watchtower, now administered by the Polish Teachers' Union . North of the Poland–Russia border , the dry canal bed heads north-west and was crossed by the Zheleznodorozhny–Krylovo railway;
5002-439: The mechanisms of the gates , the need for side pounds (groups 2 and 3 only) to reduce water consumption when lockaging, and the type of lock gate used. Those extant gates show that they were constructed of steel; three different gate designs were employed—double mitre gates, vertically-lifting gates, and flat-folding gates. Operation was primarily electromechanical via a chain drive and rack and pinion gear (mitre gates) or
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#17328839638595084-431: The middle aged and young speak vernaculars close to standard Polish, while the traditional dialects are preserved among older people in rural areas. First-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty recognizing the regional and social differences. The modern standard dialect , often termed as "correct Polish", is spoken or at least understood throughout
5166-460: The most widely spoken variant of Polish across the country, and most dialects stopped being the form of Polish spoken in villages. Poland is one of the most linguistically homogeneous European countries; nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their first language . Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in areas which were once administered or occupied by Poland, notably in neighboring Lithuania , Belarus , and Ukraine . Polish
5248-559: The name Tarzan . Local economy On the national level, the equivalent of local purchasing is import substitution , the deliberate industrial policy or agricultural policy of replacing goods or services produced on the far side of a national border with those produced on the near side, i.e., in the same country or trade bloc . Before industrialization and globalization became widespread, there were so many incentives to buy locally that no one had to make any kind of point to do so, but with current market conditions, it
5330-631: The nobles in Poland–Lithuania in the 15th century. The history of Polish as a language of state governance begins in the 16th century in the Kingdom of Poland . Over the later centuries, Polish served as the official language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Congress Poland , the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , and as the administrative language in the Russian Empire 's Western Krai . The growth of
5412-659: The others being Czech orthography and Croatian orthography , the last of these being a 19th-century invention trying to make a compromise between the first two. Kashubian uses a Polish-based system, Slovak uses a Czech-based system, and Slovene follows the Croatian one; the Sorbian languages blend the Polish and the Czech ones. Historically, Poland's once diverse and multi-ethnic population utilized many forms of scripture to write Polish. For instance, Lipka Tatars and Muslims inhabiting
5494-401: The palatal sounds / ɕ / , / ʑ / , / tɕ / , / dʑ / and / ɲ / is as follows: before the vowel i the plain letters s, z, c, dz, n are used; before other vowels the combinations si, zi, ci, dzi, ni are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms ś, ź, ć, dź, ń are used. For example, the s in siwy ("grey-haired"), the si in siarka ("sulfur") and
5576-465: The previously Polish-ruled territories in the east that were annexed by the USSR , resulting in the present-day Polish-speaking communities in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine, although many Poles were expelled from those areas to areas within Poland's new borders. To the east of Poland, the most significant Polish minority lives in a long strip along either side of the Lithuania - Belarus border. Meanwhile,
5658-540: The same applies to the first and second person plural past tense endings -śmy, -ście , although this rule is often ignored in colloquial speech (so zro bi liśmy 'we did' should be prescriptively stressed on the second syllable, although in practice it is commonly stressed on the third as zrobi li śmy ). These irregular stress patterns are explained by the fact that these endings are detachable clitics rather than true verbal inflections: for example, instead of ko go zoba czy liście? ('whom did you see?') it
5740-410: The series of affricate and palatal consonants that resulted from four Proto-Slavic palatalizations and two further palatalizations that took place in Polish. The full set of consonants, together with their most common spellings, can be presented as follows (although other phonological analyses exist): Neutralization occurs between voiced – voiceless consonant pairs in certain environments, at
5822-500: The six of standard Polish) and (in the northern dialects) phonemic word stress, an archaic feature preserved from Common Slavic times and not found anywhere else among the West Slavic languages . However, it was described by some linguists as lacking most of the linguistic and social determinants of language-hood. Many linguistic sources categorize Silesian as a regional language separate from Polish, while some consider Silesian to be
5904-494: The stress normally becomes regular. For example, uniwersytet ( /uɲiˈvɛrsɨtɛt/ , 'university') has irregular stress on the third (or antepenultimate) syllable, but the genitive uniwersytetu ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛtu/ ) and derived adjective uniwersytecki ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛt͡skʲi/ ) have regular stress on the penultimate syllables. Loanwords generally become nativized to have penultimate stress. In psycholinguistic experiments, speakers of Polish have been demonstrated to be sensitive to
5986-443: The term should apply only to locally owned independent businesses, some campaigns run by governments and chambers of commerce consider "local" to be merely a geographic consideration. Additionally, many corporations have manipulated the term in ways critics call "local-washing". The argument that "buying local" is good for the economy is questioned by many economic theorists. They argue that transportation costs actually account for
6068-563: The vowel i is changed to y , e.g. Syria , Sybir , synchronizacja , Syrakuzy . The following table shows the correspondence between the sounds and spelling: Digraphs and trigraphs are used: Similar principles apply to / kʲ / , / ɡʲ / , / xʲ / and /lʲ/ , except that these can only occur before vowels, so the spellings are k, g, (c)h, l before i , and ki, gi, (c)hi, li otherwise. Most Polish speakers, however, do not consider palatalization of k, g, (c)h or l as creating new sounds. Except in
6150-591: The waterway remained unfinished. Navvies were subsequently employed to construct Adolf Hitler 's nearby Wolf's Lair and the Mauerwald ( Mamerki ) base of the OKH ; a legend suggests that the canal's real purpose was to serve a secret U-boat facility at Mauerwald. Works were finally abandoned in 1942. The Polish–Soviet border agreement of August 1945 divided the course of the canal, with 20.43 kilometres (12.69 mi) assigned to Poland and 29.97 kilometres (18.62 mi) to
6232-499: The welfare of people in countries other than their own. Most "buy local" campaigns rely on the implicit assumption that providing jobs for people in the consumers' own country is more moral than in "foreign" countries. They also imply that money going to foreign countries is worse than money staying in the consumers' own country. Increasingly, these campaigns have been called out as paranoid, jingoist and even xenophobic . Additionally, organic local food tends to be more costly so this
6314-443: The word, the phoneme / x / can be spelt h or ch , the phoneme / ʐ / can be spelt ż or rz , and / u / can be spelt u or ó . In several cases it determines the meaning, for example: może ("maybe") and morze ("sea"). In occasional words, letters that normally form a digraph are pronounced separately. For example, rz represents /rz/ , not / ʐ / , in words like zamarzać ("freeze") and in
6396-460: The works; some of these later settled in Druzhba. Local men were also employed, which stimulated local economy . In 1921, it was again suggested that the canal could be used for hydroelectric power , with a recognised capacity of up to 20,000,000 kilowatt-hours (72,000,000 MJ). The following year, hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic again put works on hold. At this point, construction of most of
6478-493: The Łyna (approximately 5.1 metres (17 ft) AMSL); after the village, the canal enters a sweeping curve to the north to join the river. The cut was dug to a specification of 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) depth, a maximum beam of 13 metres (43 ft). The beam at waterline (i.e. the breadth of the canal from bank to bank) was 23 metres (75 ft). The canal alternated between cuttings and embankments , with some earthworks reaching 15 metres (49 ft) high. The channel
6560-449: Was given to construct a 50.4-kilometre (31.3 mi) navigable waterway between Königsberg and Lake Mamry. The canal, planned to make use of the Pregolya and Łyna rivers upstream of Königsberg and a canal from Allenburg (now Druzhba) to Mamry, would drop approximately 110.7 metres (363 ft) from the lakes to the river. A second phase of construction would have seen an extension to
6642-531: Was halted at the outbreak of the First World War in 1914; the canal was described as being "far from complete" with only two locks having been started. In September 1914, engagements of the First Battle of the Masurian Lakes took place near the canal works. When construction recommenced after the war, completion was planned for 1940. Many navvies came from western Germany and had accommodation in barracks near
6724-492: Was lined with 20 centimetres (7.9 in) of stone to prevent leakage. Where the canal was cut through marshy ground, it was further strengthened with reinforced concrete. In inhabited areas such as villages and farms, the channel was secured with barbed wire and fencing. The minimum-curve radius was designed to be 400 metres (1,300 ft) to allow Finowmaß -specification vessels (i.e. those measuring 40.2 by 4.6 metres (132 ft × 15 ft) and capable of navigating
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