The Maslon House was a mid-century modern house designed by the architect Richard Neutra in 1962 for the art collectors Samuel and Luella Maslon in Rancho Mirage, California . It was demolished in 2002. The house was situated within the Tamarisk Country Club golf course.
96-490: The house also held the Maslons’ collection of modern art ; the couple wanted Neutra to design them a house that combined their ideas with those of Frank Lloyd Wright . In New York Times , Brad Dunning wrote of the house that "Seldom was a home afforded such a perfect site. The Maslons' house was surrounded on all sides by the unworldly green expanse of round-the-clock irrigated turf, isolated like an architectural model and spared
192-457: A tranquil state of mind , and avoid pain. Following Antisthenes ( c. 446—366 BCE ), the Cynics warned against the pursuit of pleasure, viewing it as an obstacle to freedom. The Stoics also dismissed a hedonistic lifestyle, focusing on virtue and integrity instead of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. Lucretius ( c. 99–55 BCE ) further expanded on Epicureanism, highlighting
288-437: A central role in all forms of hedonism. Both pleasure and pain come in degrees corresponding to their intensity. They are typically understood as a continuum ranging from positive degrees through a neutral point to negative degrees. However, some hedonists reject the idea that pleasure and pain form a symmetric pair and suggest instead that avoiding pain is more important than producing pleasure. The nature of pleasure and pain
384-402: A desire for posthumous fame . It is an open question to what extent these cases can be explained as types of pleasure-seeking behavior. Axiological or evaluative hedonism is the view that pleasure is the sole source of intrinsic value . An entity has intrinsic value or is good in itself if its worth does not depend on external factors. Intrinsic value contrasts with instrumental value , which
480-460: A form of egoism , meaning that people strive to increase their own happiness. This implies that a person is only motivated to help others if it is in their own interest because they expect a personal benefit from it. As a theory of human motivation, psychological hedonism does not imply that all behavior leads to pleasure. For example, if a person holds mistaken beliefs or lacks necessary skills, they may attempt to produce pleasure but fail to attain
576-408: A form of psychological hedonism in his early psychoanalytic theory . He stated that the pleasure principle describes how individuals seek immediate pleasure while avoiding pain whereas the reality principle represents the ability to postpone immediate gratification to avoid unpleasant long-term consequences. The 20th century saw various criticisms of hedonism. G. E. Moore (1873–1958) rejected
672-463: A game may enjoy the activity more than a tennis player who tries to maximize their enjoyment. It is controversial to what extent the paradox of hedonism is true since, at least in some cases, the pursuit of pleasure is successful. A related phenomenon, the hedonic treadmill is the theory that people return to a stable level of happiness after significant positive or negative changes to their life circumstances. This suggests that good or bad events affect
768-555: A good life. Asceticism is a lifestyle dedicated to a program of self-discipline that renounces worldly pleasures. It can take various forms, including abstinence from sex and drugs, fasting , withdrawal from society, and practices like prayer and meditation . This lifestyle is often motivated by religious aspirations to become close to the divine, reach a heightened spiritual state, or purify oneself. Most forms of asceticism are opposed to hedonism and its pursuit of pleasure. However, there are forms of ascetic hedonism that combine
864-612: A highly subjective phenomenon, it is difficult to establish a standardized metric. Moreover, asking people to rate their experiences using an artificially constructed scale may not accurately reflect their subjective experiences. A closely related problem concerns comparisons between individuals since different people may use the scales differently and thus arrive at different values even if they had similar experiences. Neuroscientists avoid some of these challenges by using neuroimaging techniques such as PET scans and fMRI . However, this approach comes with new difficulties of its own since
960-639: A key point in his career and the development of modern painting. It reflected Matisse's incipient fascination with primitive art : the intense warm color of the figures against the cool blue-green background and the rhythmical succession of the dancing nudes convey the feelings of emotional liberation and hedonism . At the start of 20th-century Western painting , and initially influenced by Toulouse-Lautrec , Gauguin and other late-19th-century innovators, Pablo Picasso made his first Cubist paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube , sphere and cone . With
1056-504: A member of the jury at the Salon d'Automne where he exhibited three of his dreamlike works: Enigma of the Oracle , Enigma of an Afternoon and Self-Portrait . In 1913 he exhibited his work at the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d'Automne, and his work was noticed by Pablo Picasso , Guillaume Apollinaire , and several others. His compelling and mysterious paintings are considered instrumental to
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#17328758345981152-479: A method used to estimate the value of commodities based on their utility or effect on the owner's pleasure. Animal ethics is the branch of ethics studying human behavior towards other animals. Hedonism is an influential position in this field as a theory about animal welfare . It emphasizes that humans have the responsibility to consider the impact of their actions on how animals feel to minimize harm done to them. Some quantitative hedonists suggest that there
1248-454: A more ascetic lifestyle, a tendency common among Hindu , Buddhist , and Jain schools of thought. In ancient China, Yang Zhu ( c. 440–360 BCE ) argued that it is human nature to follow self-interest and satisfy personal desires. His hedonistic egoism inspired the subsequent school of Yangism . Hedonist philosophy received less attention in medieval philosophy . The early Christian philosopher Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE),
1344-567: A more balanced pursuit of pleasure that aligns with virtue and rationality. Following a similar approach, Aristotle (384–322 BCE) associated pleasure with eudaimonia or the realization of natural human capacities, like reason. Epicurus (341–271 BCE) developed a nuanced form of hedonism that contrasts with the indulgence in immediate gratification proposed by the Cyrenaics. He argued that excessive desires and anxiety result in suffering, suggesting instead that people practice moderation, cultivate
1440-427: A nine-point scale from -4 for the most unpleasant experiences, to +4 for the most pleasant ones. Some methods rely on memory and ask individuals to retrospectively assess their experiences. A different approach is for individuals to evaluate their experiences while they are happening to avoid biases and inaccuracies introduced by memory. In either form, the measurement of pleasure and pain poses various challenges. As
1536-438: A person and only consider two factors: intensity and duration. Some theorists formulate hedonism in terms of happiness rather than pleasure and pain. According to a common interpretation, happiness is the balance of pleasure over pain. This means that a person is happy if they have more pleasure than pain and unhappy if the balance is overall negative. There are also other ways to understand happiness that do not fully align with
1632-441: A person's happiness temporarily but not in the long term—their overall level of happiness tends to revert to a baseline as they get used to the changed situation. For instance, studies on lottery winners indicate that their happiness initially increases as the newly acquired wealth augments their living standards but returns to its original level after about one year. If true, this effect would undermine efforts to increase happiness in
1728-436: A person. According to a common view, pleasure is one component of well-being. It is controversial whether it is the only factor and what other factors there are, such as health, knowledge, and friendship. Another approach focuses on desires, saying that well-being consists in the satisfaction of desires. The view that the balance of pleasure over pain is the only source of well-being is called prudential hedonism . Eudaimonia
1824-414: A reason not to do so. However, a person would be free to harm others, and would even be morally required to, if they overall benefit from it. Utilitarian hedonism, also called classical utilitarianism , asserts that everyone's happiness matters. It says that a person should maximize the sum total of happiness of everybody affected by their actions. This sum total includes the person's own happiness, but it
1920-596: A search for more realism in the depiction of common life, as found in the work of painters such as Jean-François Millet . The advocates of realism stood against the idealism of the tradition-bound academic art that enjoyed public and official favor. The most successful painters of the day worked either through commissions or through large public exhibitions of their work. There were official, government-sponsored painters' unions, while governments regularly held public exhibitions of new fine and decorative arts. The Impressionists argued that people do not see objects but only
2016-502: A single theory but to a family of theories about the role of pleasure . These theories are often categorized into psychological , axiological , and ethical hedonism depending on whether they study the relation between pleasure and motivation , value , or right action. While these distinctions are common in contemporary philosophy, earlier philosophers did not always clearly differentiate between them and sometimes combined several views in their theories. The word hedonism derives from
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#17328758345982112-483: A specific location in the body and do not arise in isolation since they are always directed at an object that people enjoy or suffer. Both philosophers and psychologists are interested in methods of measuring pleasure and pain to guide decision-making and gain a deeper understanding of their causes. A common approach is to use self-report questionnaires in which people are asked to quantify how pleasant or unpleasant an experience is. For example, some questionnaires use
2208-471: A thing, like a landscape, a painting, or a song, has aesthetic value if people are pleased by it or get aesthetic pleasure from it. It is a subjective theory because it focuses on how people respond to aesthetically engaging things. It contrasts with objective theories, which assert that aesthetic value only depends on objective or mind-independent features of things, like symmetry or harmonic composition. Some aesthetic hedonists believe that any type of pleasure
2304-558: Is a form of well-being rooted in ancient Greek thought , serving as a foundation of many forms of moral philosophy during this period. Aristotle understood eudaimonia as a type of flourishing in which a person is happy by leading a fulfilling life and manifesting their inborn capacities. Ethical theories based on eudaimonia often share parallels with hedonism, like an interest in long-term happiness, but are distinguished from it by their emphasis of virtues , advocating an active lifestyle focused on self-realization . The paradox of hedonism
2400-453: Is a pleasure, including the joy of watching a sunset, whereas anything that feels bad is a pain, including the sorrow of losing a loved one. A traditionally influential position says that pleasure and pain are specific bodily sensations, similar to the sensations of hot and cold. A more common view in contemporary philosophy holds that pleasure and pain are attitudes of attraction or aversion toward objects. This view implies that they do not have
2496-426: Is a reduced ability to experience pleasure, and hedonophobia , which is a fear or aversion to pleasure. Positive psychology in general and hedonic psychology in particular are relevant to hedonism by providing a scientific understanding of the experiences of pleasure and pain and the processes impacting them. In the field of economics , welfare economics examines how economic activities affect social welfare . It
2592-621: Is an authentic connection between pleasure and reality. In response to these and similar criticisms, Fred Feldman (1941–present) has developed a modified form of hedonism. Drawing on Brentano's attitudinal theory of pleasure, he has defended the idea that even though pleasure is the only source of intrinsic goodness, its value must be adjusted based on whether it is appropriate or deserved. Peter Singer (1946–present) has expanded classical hedonism to include concerns about animal welfare . He has advocated effective altruism , relying on empirical evidence and reason to prioritize actions that have
2688-532: Is closely related to Modernism . Although modern sculpture and architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the 19th century, the beginnings of modern painting can be located earlier. Francisco Goya is considered by many as the Father of Modern Painting without being a Modernist himself, a fact of art history that later painters associated with Modernism as a style, acknowledge him as an influence. The date perhaps most commonly identified as marking
2784-474: Is desirable. The idea that most pleasures are valuable in some form is relatively uncontroversial. However, the stronger claim that all pleasures are valuable and that they are the only source of intrinsic value is subject to debate. Some critics assert that certain pleasures are worthless or even bad, like disgraceful and sadistic pleasures. A different criticism comes from value pluralists , who contend that other things besides pleasure have value. To support
2880-415: Is disputed and affects the plausibility of various versions of hedonism. In everyday language, these concepts are often understood in a narrow sense associated with specific phenomena, like the pleasure of food and sex or the pain of an injury. However, hedonists usually take a wider perspective in which pleasure and pain cover any positive or negative experiences. In this broad sense, anything that feels good
2976-470: Is good for an individual. It states that pleasure and pain are the sole factors of well-being, meaning that how good a life is for a person only depends on its balance of pleasure over pain. Prudential hedonism allows for the possibility that other things than well-being have intrinsic value, such as beauty or freedom. According to quantitative hedonism, the intrinsic value of pleasure depends solely on its intensity and duration. Qualitative hedonists hold that
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3072-637: Is no significant difference between the pleasure and pain experienced by humans and other animals. As a result of this view, moral considerations about promoting the happiness of other people apply equally to all sentient animals. This position is modified by some qualitative hedonists, who argue that human experiences carry more weight because they include higher forms of pleasure and pain. While many religious traditions are critical of hedonism, some have embraced it or certain aspects of it, such as Christian hedonism . Elements of hedonism are also found in various forms of popular culture , such as consumerism ,
3168-436: Is often understood as a form of consequentialism , which asserts that an act is right if it has the best consequences. It is typically combined with axiological hedonism, which links the intrinsic value of consequences to pleasure and pain. As a result, the arguments for and against axiological hedonism also apply to ethical hedonism. Aesthetic hedonism is a theory about the nature of aesthetic value or beauty. It states that
3264-508: Is often understood as a form of normative economics that uses considerations of welfare to evaluate economic processes and policies. Hedonist approaches to welfare economics state that pleasure is the main criterion of this evaluation, meaning that economic activities should aim to promote societal happiness. The economics of happiness is a closely related field studying the relation between economic phenomena, such as wealth, and individual happiness. Economists also employ hedonic regression ,
3360-403: Is one thing in life that matters but not the only thing. Another form argues that some pleasures are good while others are bad. The strongest rejection of hedonism, sometimes termed anti-hedonism , claims that all pleasures are bad. Motivations to adopt this view include the idea that pleasure is an irrational emotion and that the pursuit of pleasure is an obstacle that prevents people from leading
3456-425: Is only driven by pleasure and pain when people actively reflect on the overall consequences. Another version is genetic hedonism, which accepts that people desire various things besides pleasure but asserts that each desire has its origin in a desire for pleasure. Proponents of psychological hedonism often highlight its intuitive appeal and explanatory power, arguing that many desires directly focus on pleasure while
3552-424: Is only one factor among many without any special preference compared to the happiness of others. As a result, utilitarian hedonism sometimes requires of people to forego their own enjoyment to benefit others. For example, philosopher Peter Singer argues that good earners should donate a significant portion of their income to charities since this money can produce more happiness for people in need. Ethical hedonism
3648-410: Is pleasant is the root of all human motivation. John Locke (1632–1704) stated that pleasure and pain are the only sources of good and evil. Joseph Butler (1692–1752) formulated an objection to psychological hedonism, arguing that most desires, like wanting food or ambition, are not directed at pleasure itself but at external objects. According to David Hume (1711–1776), pleasure and pain are both
3744-407: Is relevant to the aesthetic value of a thing. Others offer a more nuanced characterization, saying that aesthetic value is only based on how people with a well-developed taste respond to it. Outside the academic contexts of philosophy and psychology, the word hedonism is often used in a more narrow sense as a pejorative term. Sometimes called folk hedonism , it describes a lifestyle dedicated to
3840-488: Is the theory that the underlying motivation of all human behavior is to maximize pleasure and avoid pain . As a form of egoism , it suggests that people only help others if they expect a personal benefit. Axiological hedonism is the view that pleasure is the sole source of intrinsic value . It asserts that other things, like knowledge and money, only have value insofar as they produce pleasure and reduce pain. This view divides into quantitative hedonism, which only considers
3936-414: Is the thesis that the direct pursuit of pleasure is counterproductive. It says that conscious attempts to become happy usually backfire, acting as obstacles to one's personal happiness. According to one interpretation, the best way to produce pleasure is to follow other endeavors, with pleasure being a by-product rather than the goal itself. For example, this view suggests that a tennis player who tries to win
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4032-445: Is the value of things that lead to other good things. According to axiological hedonism, pleasure is intrinsically valuable because it is good even when it produces no external benefit. Money, by contrast, is only instrumentally good because it can be used to obtain other good things but lacks value apart from these uses. Axiological hedonism asserts that only pleasure has intrinsic value whereas other things only have instrumental value to
4128-432: Is through a beatific vision of God. In Islamic philosophy , the problem of pleasure played a central role in the philosophy of al-Razi ( c. 864—925 or 932 CE ). Similar to Epicureanism, he recommended a life of moderation avoiding the extremes of excess and asceticism . Both al-Farabi ( c. 878–950 CE ) and Avicenna (980–1037 CE) asserted that a form of intellectual happiness, reachable only in
4224-432: Is usually identified as its earliest philosophical proponent. As a student of Socrates ( c. 469–399 BCE ), he formulated a hedonistic egoism, arguing that personal pleasure is the highest good. He and the school of Cyrenaics he inspired focused on the gratification of immediate sensory pleasures with little concern for long-term consequences. Plato ( c. 428–347 BCE ) critiqued this view and proposed
4320-525: The Ancient Greek word ἡδονή ( hēdonē ), meaning ' pleasure ' . Its earliest known use in the English language is from the 1850s. Psychological or motivational hedonism is the view that all human actions aim at increasing pleasure and avoiding pain . It is an empirical view about what motivates people, both on the conscious and the unconscious levels. Psychological hedonism is usually understood as
4416-528: The Charvaka school in ancient India , and Yangism in ancient China . It attracted less attention in the medieval period but became a central topic in the modern era with the rise of utilitarianism. Various criticisms of hedonism emerged in the 20th century, while its proponents suggested new versions to meet these challenges. Hedonism remains relevant to many fields, ranging from psychology and economics to animal ethics . The term hedonism refers not to
4512-837: The New York Times reported that Rancho Mirage's city manager "...said he had no idea who the architect was or what the house represented". The chairman of the preservation group, the Palm Springs Modern Committee, Peter Moruzzi, said that the house was "without a doubt the most significant piece of architecture in Rancho Mirage, and now it is gone". 33°45′17″N 116°25′48″W / 33.7548°N 116.4300°W / 33.7548; -116.4300 Modern art Art of Central Asia Art of East Asia Art of South Asia Art of Southeast Asia Art of Europe Art of Africa Art of
4608-451: The 1980s and 1990s, as evidenced by the rise of neo-expressionism and the revival of figurative painting . Towards the end of the 20th century, many artists and architects started questioning the idea of "the modern" and created typically Postmodern works . (Roughly chronological with representative artists listed.) Hedonism Hedonism is a family of philosophical views that prioritize pleasure . Psychological hedonism
4704-495: The Americas Art of Oceania Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the styles and philosophies of the art produced during that era. The term is usually associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with fresh ideas about
4800-540: The absence of mental illness . On the individual level, it investigates experiences of pleasure and pain and the role of character traits . On the societal level, it examines how social institutions impact human well-being. Hedonic psychology or hedonics is one of the main pillars of positive psychology by studying pleasurable and unpleasurable experiences. It investigates and compares different states of consciousness associated with pleasure and pain, ranging from joy and satisfaction to boredom and sorrow. It also examines
4896-526: The afterlife, is the highest human good. At the transition to the early modern period, Lorenzo Valla ( c. 1406–1457 ) synthesized Epicurean hedonism with Christian ethics , suggesting that earthly pleasures associated with the senses are stepping stones to heavenly pleasures associated with Christian virtues. Hedonism gained prominence during the Age of Enlightenment . According to Thomas Hobbes 's (1588–1679) psychological hedonism, self-interest in what
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#17328758345984992-484: The attention of curators and critics, at the expense of more traditional media. Larger installations and performances became widespread. By the end of the 1970s, when cultural critics began speaking of "the end of painting" (the title of a provocative essay written in 1981 by Douglas Crimp ), new media art had become a category in itself, with a growing number of artists experimenting with technological means such as video art . Painting assumed renewed importance in
5088-567: The birth of modern art as a movement is 1863, the year that Édouard Manet showed his painting Le déjeuner sur l'herbe in the Salon des Refusés in Paris. Earlier dates have also been proposed, among them 1855 (the year Gustave Courbet exhibited The Artist's Studio ) and 1784 (the year Jacques-Louis David completed his painting The Oath of the Horatii ). In the words of art historian H. Harvard Arnason : "Each of these dates has significance for
5184-421: The course with the highest overall contribution to happiness. Bentham considered several factors for each pleasurable experience: its intensity and duration, the likelihood that it occurs, its temporal distance, the likelihood that it causes further experiences of pleasure and pain, and the number of people affected. Some simplified versions of the hedonic calculus focus primarily on what is intrinsically valuable to
5280-494: The development of modern art, but none categorically marks a completely new beginning .... A gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years." The strands of thought that eventually led to modern art can be traced back to the Enlightenment . The modern art critic Clement Greenberg , for instance, called Immanuel Kant "the first real Modernist" but also drew a distinction: "The Enlightenment criticized from
5376-425: The development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubists Georges Braque , André Derain , Raoul Dufy , Jean Metzinger and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild," multi-colored, expressive landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism . Matisse's two versions of The Dance signified
5472-521: The early beginnings of Surrealism . Song of Love (1914) is one of the most famous works by de Chirico and is an early example of the surrealist style, though it was painted ten years before the movement was "founded" by André Breton in 1924. The School of Paris , centered in Montparnasse flourished between the two world wars. World War I brought an end to this phase but indicated the beginning of many anti-art movements, such as Dada , including
5568-402: The egoistic pursuit of short-term gratification. For example, a person who indulges in sex and drugs without concern for the long-term consequences of their behavior is acting hedonistically in this sense. The negative connotation of the term is associated with a lack of interest or foresight regarding the potential harm or ethical implications of such actions. Negative consequences can impact both
5664-444: The extent that they influence pleasure and pain. Theories of ethical hedonism can be divided into egoistic and utilitarian theories. Egoistic hedonism says that each person should only pursue their own pleasure. According to this controversial view, a person only has a moral reason to care about the happiness of others if this happiness impacts their own well-being. For example, if a person feels guilty about harming others, they have
5760-433: The extent that they lead to pleasure or the avoidance of pain. The overall value of a thing depends on both its intrinsic and instrumental value. In some cases, even unpleasant things, like a painful surgery, can be overall good, according to axiological hedonism, if their positive consequences make up for the unpleasantness. Prudential hedonism is a form of axiological hedonism that focuses specifically well-being or what
5856-412: The first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by Synthetic cubism , practiced by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger , Juan Gris , Albert Gleizes , Marcel Duchamp and several other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter. The notion of modern art
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#17328758345985952-496: The first decade of the 20th century were Fauvism , Cubism , Expressionism , and Futurism . Futurism took off in Italy a couple years before World War I with the publication of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti 's Futurist Manifesto . Benedetta Cappa Marinetti , wife of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, created the second wave of the artistic movement started by her husband. "Largely thanks to Benedetta, her husband F.T. Marinetti re orchestrated
6048-473: The focal point of new artistic movements. The 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of Abstract Expressionism , Color field painting , Conceptual artists of Art & Language , Pop art , Op art , Hard-edge painting , Minimal art , Lyrical Abstraction , Fluxus , Happening , video art , Postminimalism , Photorealism and various other movements. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, Land art , performance art , conceptual art, and other new art forms attracted
6144-425: The future. The emergence of positive psychology at the turn of the 21st century has led to an increased interest in the empirical exploration of various topics of hedonism. Positive psychology studies how to cultivate happiness and promote optimal human functioning. Unlike traditional psychology , which often focuses on psychopathology , positive psychology emphasizes that optimal functioning goes beyond merely
6240-542: The goal is to increase overall happiness for everyone, whereas egoistic versions state that each person should only pursue their own pleasure. Outside the academic context, hedonism is a pejorative term for an egoistic lifestyle seeking short-term gratification. Hedonists typically understand pleasure and pain broadly to include any positive or negative experience . While traditionally seen as bodily sensations, contemporary philosophers tend to view them as attitudes of attraction or aversion toward objects. Hedonists often use
6336-560: The hedonistic idea that pleasure is the only source of intrinsic value. According to his axiological pluralism , there are other sources, such as beauty and knowledge , a criticism also shared by W. D. Ross (1877–1971). Both C. D. Broad (1887–1971) and Richard Brandt (1910–1997) held that malicious pleasures, like enjoying the suffering of others, do not have inherent value. Robert Nozick (1938–2002) used his experience machine thought experiment about simulated pleasure to argue against traditional hedonism, which ignores whether there
6432-461: The house was sold for $ 2.45 million through Sotheby's , who also later held an auction of the Maslons’ art collection. The new owner of the house applied for a demolition permit, which was approved by the city of Rancho Mirage; the house was demolished within a week. Following the house's demolition the listing agent for the sale described herself as "Devastated, absolutely devastated, and embarrassed to have been any part of it". Brad Dunning, writing in
6528-465: The idea that beauty is an additional source of value, G. E. Moore used a thought experiment involving two worlds: one exceedingly beautiful and the other a heap of filth. He argued that the beautiful world is better even if there is no one to enjoy it. Another influential thought experiment, proposed by Robert Nozick , involves an experience machine able to create artificial pleasures. Based on his observation that most people would not want to spend
6624-547: The importance of excellence and self-overcoming instead, stating that suffering is necessary to achieve greatness rather than something to be avoided. An influential view about the nature of pleasure was developed by Franz Brentano (1838–1917). He dismissed the idea that pleasure is a sensation located in a specific area of the body, proposing instead that pleasure is a positive attitude that people can have towards various objects —a position also later defended by Roderick Chisholm (1916–1999). Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) developed
6720-407: The importance of overcoming obstacles to personal happiness, such as the fear of death. In ancient India , the Charvaka school developed a hedonistic egoism, starting between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. Their belief in the non-existence of God or an afterlife led them to advocate for enjoying life in the present to the fullest. Many other Indian traditions rejected this view and recommended
6816-421: The indignity of rubbing elbows with lesser creations... This was Neutra with deep pockets on a breathtaking site with luxurious appointments. Its soaring, exaggerated (even for Neutra) flat-roof overhangs protected the artwork within from the harsh desert sun. Ingenious built-ins camouflaged resort necessities, like barbecues, charcoal bins and steam trays. Posh living on the links." Following Luella Maslon's death
6912-408: The individual and the people around them, affecting areas such as health, financial stability, relationships, and societal responsibilities. Most philosophical hedonists reject the idea that a lifestyle characterized by folk hedonism leads to long-term happiness. Pleasure and pain are fundamental experiences about what is attractive and aversive, influencing how people feel, think, and act. They play
7008-443: The intended outcome. The standard form of psychological hedonism asserts that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the only sources of all motivation. Some psychological hedonists propose weaker formulations, suggesting that considerations of pleasure and pain influence most actions to some extent or limiting their role to certain conditions. For example, reflective or rationalizing hedonism says that human motivation
7104-438: The intensity and duration of pleasures, and qualitative hedonism, which holds that the value of pleasures also depends on their quality. The closely related position of prudential hedonism states that pleasure and pain are the only factors of well-being . Ethical hedonism applies axiological hedonism to morality , arguing that people have a moral obligation to pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Utilitarian versions assert that
7200-433: The light that they reflect, and therefore painters should paint in natural light ( en plein air ) rather than in studios and should capture the effects of light in their work. Impressionist artists formed a group, Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs ("Association of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers") which, despite internal tensions, mounted a series of independent exhibitions. The style
7296-417: The long term, including personal efforts to lead a healthy lifestyle and social efforts to create a free, just, and prosperous society. While there is some empirical support for this effect, it is controversial how strong this tendency is and whether it applies to all fields or only to certain aspects of life. Non-hedonist theories reject certain aspects of hedonism. One form of non-hedonism says that pleasure
7392-399: The measure of ethical value and the main motivators fueling the passions. The libertine novels of Marquis de Sade (1740–1814) depicted an extreme form of hedonism, emphasizing full indulgence in pleasurable activities without moral or sexual restraint . Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) developed an influential form of hedonism known as classical utilitarianism . One of his key innovations
7488-421: The most significant positive impact. Inspired by the philosophy of Albert Camus (1913–1960), Michel Onfray (1959–present) has aimed to rehabilitate Epicurean hedonism in a modern form. David Pearce (1959–present) has developed a transhumanist version of hedonism, arguing for the use of modern technology, ranging from genetic engineering to nanotechnology , to reduce suffering and possibly eliminate it in
7584-467: The nature of materials and functions of art. A tendency away from the narrative , which was characteristic of the traditional arts, toward abstraction is characteristic of much modern art. More recent artistic production is often called contemporary art or Postmodern art . Modern art begins with the heritage of painters like Vincent van Gogh , Paul Cézanne , Paul Gauguin , Georges Seurat and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec all of whom were essential for
7680-422: The neurological basis of happiness is not yet fully understood. Based on the idea that individual experiences of pleasure and pain can be quantified, Jeremy Bentham proposed the hedonistic calculus as a method to combine various episodes to arrive at their total contribution to happiness. This makes it possible to quantitatively compare different courses of action based on the experiences they produce to choose
7776-453: The others have an indirect focus by aiming at the means to bring about pleasure. Critics of psychological hedonism often cite apparent counterexamples in which people act for reasons other than their personal pleasure. Proposed examples include acts of genuine altruism , such as a soldier sacrificing themselves on the battlefield to save their comrades or a parent wanting their children to be happy. Critics also mention non-altruistic cases, like
7872-402: The outside ... . Modernism criticizes from the inside." The French Revolution of 1789 uprooted assumptions and institutions that had for centuries been accepted with little question and accustomed the public to vigorous political and social debate. This gave rise to what art historian Ernst Gombrich called a "self-consciousness that made people select the style of their building as one selects
7968-434: The painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of African tribal masks and his new Cubist inventions. Analytic cubism was jointly developed by Picasso and Georges Braque , exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism,
8064-448: The pattern of a wallpaper." The pioneers of modern art were Romantics , Realists and Impressionists . By the late 19th century, additional movements which were to be influential in modern art had begun to emerge: Post-Impressionism and Symbolism . Influences upon these movements were varied: from exposure to Eastern decorative arts, particularly Japanese printmaking , to the coloristic innovations of Turner and Delacroix , to
8160-417: The quality of pleasure is an additional factor. They argue, for instance, that subtle pleasures of the mind, like the enjoyment of fine art and philosophy, can be more valuable than simple bodily pleasures, like enjoying food and drink, even if their intensity is lower. Proponents of axiological hedonism often focus on intuitions about the relation between pleasure and value or on the observation that pleasure
8256-437: The quality of pleasures as an additional factor, arguing that higher pleasures of the mind are more valuable than lower pleasures of the body. Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900) further refined utilitarianism and clarified many of its core distinctions, such as the contrast between ethical and psychological hedonism and between egoistic and impartial hedonism. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) rejected ethical hedonism and emphasized
8352-414: The rest of their lives in this type of pleasant illusion, he argued that hedonism cannot account for the values of authenticity and genuine experience. Ethical or normative hedonism is the thesis that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the highest moral principles of human behavior. It implies that other moral considerations, like duty , justice , or virtue , are relevant only to
8448-436: The role or biological function of these states, such as signaling to individuals what to approach and avoid, and their purpose as reward and punishment to reinforce or discourage future behavioral patterns. Additionally, hedonic psychology explores the circumstances that evoke these experiences, on both the biological and social levels. It includes questions about psychological obstacles to pleasure, such as anhedonia , which
8544-719: The shifting ideologies of Futurism to embrace feminine elements of intuition, spirituality, and the mystical forces of the earth." She painted up until his death and spent the rest of her days tending to the spread and growth of this period in Italian art, which celebrated technology, speed and all things new. During the years between 1910 and the end of World War I and after the heyday of cubism , several movements emerged in Paris. Giorgio de Chirico moved to Paris in July 1911, where he joined his brother Andrea (the poet and painter known as Alberto Savinio ). Through his brother, he met Pierre Laprade,
8640-501: The term happiness for the balance of pleasure over pain. The subjective nature of these phenomena makes it difficult to measure this balance and compare it between different people. The paradox of hedonism and the hedonic treadmill are proposed psychological barriers to the hedonist goal of long-term happiness. As one of the oldest philosophical theories, hedonism was discussed by the Cyrenaics and Epicureans in ancient Greece ,
8736-421: The traditional account of hedonism. One view defines happiness as life satisfaction. This means that a person is happy if they have a favorable attitude toward their life, for example, by being satisfied with their life as a whole or by judging it to be good overall. This attitude may be affected by the balance of pleasure over pain but can also be shaped by other factors. Well-being is what is ultimately good for
8832-483: The two views, for example, by asserting that the right form of ascetic practice leads to higher overall happiness by replacing simple sensory pleasures with deeper and more meaningful spiritual pleasures. Hedonism is one of the oldest philosophical theories and some interpreters trace it back to the Epic of Gilgamesh , written around 2100–2000 BCE. A central topic in ancient Greek thought , Aristippus of Cyrene (435-356 BCE)
8928-518: The work of Marcel Duchamp , and of Surrealism . Artist groups like de Stijl and Bauhaus developed new ideas about the interrelation of the arts, architecture, design, and art education. Modern art was introduced to the United States with the Armory Show in 1913 and through European artists who moved to the U.S. during World War I. It was only after World War II , however, that the U.S. became
9024-463: Was adopted by artists in different nations, in preference to a "national" style. These factors established the view that it was a "movement." These traits—establishment of a working method integral to the art, the establishment of a movement or visible active core of support, and international adoption—would be repeated by artistic movements in the Modern period in art. Among the movements that flowered in
9120-416: Was critical of the hedonism found in ancient Greek philosophy, warning of the dangers of earthly pleasures as obstacles to a spiritual life dedicated to God. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE) developed a nuanced perspective on hedonism, characterized by some interpreters as spiritual hedonism. He held that humans are naturally inclined to seek happiness, arguing that the only way to truly satisfy this inclination
9216-532: Was the rejection of egoistic hedonism, advocating instead that individuals should promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people. He introduced the idea of the hedonic calculus to assess the value of an action based on the pleasurable and painful experiences it causes, relying on factors such as intensity and duration. His student John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) feared that Bentham's quantitative focus on intensity and duration would lead to an overemphasis on simple sensory pleasures. In response, he included
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