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39-520: According to Ginsburger, her doctorate was made possible by a favorable context and environment, at a time when women were not pursuing academic careers. Krug studied under Friedrich Ratzel at Leipzig University , a few years after Ellen Churchill Semple , the first known woman geography student in Germany. Krug met Alfred Hettner in Leipzig, who made her publish several articles on the teaching of geography in

78-687: A 14-page article she wrote on German geography. She then obtained a teaching position at the Beacon School in Hartford, Connecticut , a secondary school for young women where she taught geography. She was an expert in school geography, in both countries; she established herself alongside Semple in the Association of American Geographers , and the International Congress of Geography in Washington. At

117-583: A collection of more than 800 prescriptions. It lists over 700 different drugs. In ancient India, the Sushruta Samhita , a compendium on the practice of medicine and medical formulations, has been traced back to the 1st century BC. The Shen-nung pen ts'ao ching , a Chinese book on agriculture and medicinal plants (3rd century AD), is considered a foundational material for Chinese medicine and herbalism and became an important source for Chinese apothecaries. The book, which documented 365 treatments, had

156-470: A focus on roots and grass. It had treatments which came from minerals, roots and grass, and animals. Many of the mentioned drugs and their uses are still followed today. Ginseng's use as a sexual stimulant and aid for erectile dysfunction stems from this book. Ma huang, an herb first mentioned in the book, led to the introduction of the drug ephedrine into modern medicine. According to Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, and S. Hadzovic, apothecary shops existed during

195-606: A map of knowledge in the field of oceanography . In 1901, Krug joined her fiancée zoologist, Karl Wilhelm Genthe, in Boston when he secured an assistant professorship at Trinity College in Connecticut. Their marriage is recorded in 1901 at Richmond County (Staten Island), New York , stating that he was born in Leipzig and she in Chemnitz . In 1901, National Geographic magazine published

234-711: A more favorable position, at least in pre-university education." Friedrich Ratzel Friedrich Ratzel (August 30, 1844 – August 9, 1904) was a German geographer and ethnographer , notable for first using the term Lebensraum ("living space") in the sense that the National Socialists later would. Ratzel's father was the head of the household staff of the Grand Duke of Baden. Friedrich attended high school in Karlsruhe for six years before being apprenticed at age 15 to apothecaries . In 1863, he went to Rapperswil on

273-527: Is apoteker , which was borrowed from the Dutch apotheker . In Yiddish the word is אַפּטייק apteyk . Use of the term in the names of businesses varies with time and location. It is generally an Americanism, though some areas of the United States use it to invoke an experience of nostalgic revival and it has been used for a wide variety of businesses; while in other areas such as California its use

312-453: Is a historically-driving force, pushing peoples with great Kultur to naturally expand. Space, for Ratzel, was a vague concept, theoretically unbounded. Raum was defined as where German peoples live, and other weaker states could serve to support German peoples economically, and German culture could fertilize other cultures. However, it ought to be noted that Ratzel's concept of raum was not overtly aggressive, but he theorized simply as

351-484: Is a regional study of the economic factors driving the evolution of Hartford 's urban system as the preeminent center of the Connecticut River Valley . In 1911, she returned to Germany, and retired. Krug-Genthe had a short (a decade) but very visible career, at a very restrictive time for women. Ginsburger mentions that: "we don't know if she had to go abroad to follow her husband and promote his career to

390-459: Is an archaic English term for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses materia medica (medicine) to physicians , surgeons and patients. The modern terms 'pharmacist' and 'chemist' (British English) have taken over this role. In some languages and regions, "apothecary" is not archaic and has become those languages' term for "pharmacy" or a pharmacist who owns one. Apothecaries' investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients

429-1099: Is current and used to designate a pharmacist/chemist, such as Dutch and German Apotheker , Hungarian patikus , Irish poitigéir , Latvian aptiekārs and Luxembourgish Apdikter . Likewise, "pharmacy" translates as apotek in Danish , Norwegian and Swedish , apteekki in Finnish , apoteka in Bosnian , patika in Hungarian, aptieka in Latvian , апотека ( apoteka ) in Serbian , аптека ( apteka ) in Russian , Bulgarian , Macedonian and Ukrainian , Apotheke in German and apteka in Polish . The word in Indonesian

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468-468: Is legally obligated to be run at all times by at least one Apotheker (male) or Apothekerin (female), who actually has an academic degree as a pharmacist – in German Pharmazeut (male) or Pharmazeutin (female) – and has obtained the professional title Apotheker by either working in the field for numerous years, usually by working in a pharmacy store, or taking additional exams. Thus a Pharmazeut

507-489: Is noon apothecarie, I shal myself to herbes techen yow, That shul been for youre hele and for youre prow. In modern English, this can be translated as: ... and you should not linger, Though in this town there is no apothecary, I shall teach you about herbs myself, That will be for your health and for your pride. In Renaissance Italy , Italian Nuns became a prominent source for medicinal needs. At first they used their knowledge in non-curative uses in

546-497: Is not always an Apotheker . Magdalena Neff became the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Germany when she studied pharmacy at the Technical University of Karlsruhe and later passed the apothecary's examination in 1906. Apothecaries used their own measurement system, the apothecaries' system , to provide precise weighing of small quantities. Apothecaries dispensed vials of poisons as well as medicines, and as

585-401: Is restricted to licensed pharmacies. The profession of apothecary can be dated back at least to 2600 BC to ancient Babylon , which provides one of the earliest records of the practice of the apothecary. Clay tablets have been found with medical texts recording symptoms, prescriptions, and the directions for compounding. The Papyrus Ebers from ancient Egypt, written around 1500 BC, contain

624-404: Is still the case, medicines could be either beneficial or harmful if inappropriately used. Protective methods to prevent accidental ingestion of poisons included the use of specially-shaped containers for potentially poisonous substances such as laudanum . Apothecary businesses were typically family-run, and wives or other women of the family worked alongside their husbands in the shops, learning

663-500: The American geostrategist Alfred Thayer Mahan , Ratzel wrote of aspirations for German naval reach, agreeing that sea power was self-sustaining, as the profit from trade would pay for the merchant marine , unlike land power . Ratzel's idea of Raum (space) would grow out of his organic state conception. His early concept of lebensraum was not political or economic but spiritual and racial nationalist expansion. The Raum-motiv

702-545: The Lake of Zurich , Switzerland , where he began to study the classics . After a further year as an apothecary at Moers near Krefeld in the Lower Rhine region (1865–1866), he spent a short time at the high school in Karlsruhe and became a student of zoology at the universities of Heidelberg , Jena and Berlin , finishing in 1868. He studied zoology in 1869, publishing Sein und Werden der organischen Welt on Darwin . After

741-759: The Middle Ages in Baghdad , operated by pharmacists in 754 during the Abbasid Caliphate , or Islamic Golden Age . Apothecaries were also active in Al-Andalus by the 11th century. By the end of the 14th century, Geoffrey Chaucer ( c.  1342 –1400) was mentioning an English apothecary in the Canterbury Tales , specifically " The Nun's Priest's Tale " as Pertelote speaks to Chauntecleer (lines 181–184): ... and for ye shal nat tarie, Though in this toun

780-470: The 1904 International Geographical Congress in Washington, Martha Krug-Genthe was chosen to deliver the "Tribute", a speech commemorating Friedrich Ratzel , the most influential cultural geographer of that time. She also presented an article on “School geography in the United States” in the section devoted to geography and education, the only section open to women. She is one of the 48 founding members of

819-725: The AAG, the only woman alongside Ellen Churchill Semple , and also the only one of the 48 founders of the AAG present in Philadelphia to have a doctorate in geography. Martha Krug-Genthe was named associate editor of the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society . This affiliation strengthened her professional credentials. In 1907, the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society published her work Valley Towns of Connecticut . This

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858-720: The German and American school systems, in the journal he founded in 1895, the Geographische Zeitschrift . She obtained a doctorate in geography, in 1901 in Heidelberg , under the supervision of Alfred Hettner . In her thesis, Martha Krug examined how hydrographic charts are used to map ocean currents . In particular, she analyzed the extension of the Gulf Stream to the northeast, the North American current, in order to draw up

897-829: The Italian peninsula. From the 15th century to the 16th century, the apothecary gained the status of a skilled practitioner. In London, the apothecaries merited their own livery company , the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries , founded in 1617. Its roots, however, go back much earlier to the Guild of Pepperers formed in London in 1180. Similarly in Ireland, Apothecaries were organized since before 1446. In Ireland and Great Britain they were allowed to diagnose in addition to compounding and dispensing, becoming regulated general medical practitioners and

936-552: The best place to study people because life is "blended, compressed, and accelerated" in cities, and they bring out the "greatest, best, most typical aspects of people". Ratzel had traveled to cities such as New York , Boston , Philadelphia , Washington , Richmond , Charleston , New Orleans , and San Francisco . Upon his return in 1875, Ratzel became a lecturer in geography at the Technical High School in Munich . In 1876, he

975-623: The completion of his schooling Ratzel began a period of travels that saw him transform from zoologist/biologist to geographer. He began field work in the Mediterranean , writing letters of his experiences. These letters led to a job as a traveling reporter for the Kölnische Zeitung ("Cologne Journal"), which provided him the means for further travel. Ratzel embarked on several expeditions, the lengthiest and most important being his 1874-1875 trip to North America , Cuba , and Mexico . This trip

1014-410: The convents to solidify the sanctity of religion among their sisters. As they progressed in skill they started to expand their field to create profit. This profit they used towards their charitable goals. Because of their eventual spread to urban society, these religious women gained "roles of public significance beyond the spiritual realm (Strocchia 627). Later apothecaries led by nuns were spread across

1053-494: The detriment of her own, or if she chose to give up a very hypothetical university post in Germany to invest herself in school geography which was the only option open to her, being little valued in Germany but booming in the United States. She found there an undeniable form of recognition, in an American field of study that was then much less prestigious than in Germany, but which valued the skills of this outsider and offered women

1092-799: The first woman to be licensed to practice medicine in Britain by passing the examination of the Society of Apothecaries. By the end of the 19th century, the medical professions had taken on their current institutional form, with defined roles for physicians and surgeons, and the role of the apothecary was more narrowly conceived, as that of pharmacist (dispensing chemist in British English). In German-speaking countries, such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland, pharmacies or chemist stores are still called apothecaries or in German Apotheken . The Apotheke ("store")

1131-686: The forerunners of General Practitioners there. However, there were ongoing tensions between apothecaries and other medical professions, as is illustrated by the publication of 'A Short View of the Frauds and Abuses Committed by Apothecaries' by the Physician Christopher Merrett in 1669 and the experiences of Susan Reeve Lyon and other women apothecaries in 17th century London. Often women (who were prohibited from entering medical school) became apothecaries which took away business from male physicians. In 1865 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became

1170-437: The foundations of human geography in his two-volume Anthropogeographie in 1882 and 1891. This work was misinterpreted by many of his students, creating a number of environmental determinists . He published his work on political geography , Politische Geographie , in 1897. It was in this work that Ratzel introduced concepts that contributed to Lebensraum and Social Darwinism . His three volume work The History of Mankind

1209-460: The natural expansion of strong states into areas controlled by weaker states. The book for which Ratzel is acknowledged all over the world is Anthropogeographie . It was completed between 1872 and 1899. The main focus of this monumental work is on the effects of different physical features and locations on the style and life of the people. Here are his other notable writings: Apothecary Apothecary ( / ə ˈ p ɒ θ ə k ər i / )

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1248-415: The past such as urine, fecal matter, earwax, human fat, and saliva, are no longer used and are generally considered ineffective or unsanitary. Trial and error were the main source for finding successful remedies, as little was known about the chemistry of why certain treatments worked. For instance, it was known that drinking coffee could help cure headaches, but the existence and properties of caffeine itself

1287-463: The trade in tobacco which was imported as a medicine. The term "apothecary" derives from the Ancient Greek ἀποθήκη ( apothḗkē , "a repository, storehouse") via Latin apotheca ("repository, storehouse, warehouse", cf. bodega and boutique ), Medieval Latin apothecarius ("storekeeper"), and eventually Old French apotecaire . In some European and other languages, the term

1326-920: The trade themselves. Women were still not allowed to train and be educated in universities so this allowed them a chance to be trained in medical knowledge and healing. Previously, women had some influence in other women's healthcare, such as serving as midwives and other feminine care in a setting that was not considered appropriate for males. Though physicians gave medical advice, they did not make medicine, so they typically sent their patients to particular independent apothecaries, who did also provide some medical advice, in particular remedies and healing. Many recipes for medicines included herbs, minerals, and pieces of animals (meats, fats, skins) that were ingested, made into paste for external use, or used as aromatherapy. Some of these are similar to natural remedies used today, including catnip , chamomile , fennel , mint , garlic , and witch hazel . Many other ingredients used in

1365-617: The war. Influenced by thinkers including Darwin and zoologist Ernst Heinrich Haeckel , he published several papers. Among them is the essay Lebensraum (1901) concerning biogeography , creating a foundation for the uniquely German variant of geopolitics : Geopolitik . Ratzel's writings coincided with the growth of German industrialism after the Franco-Prussian war and the subsequent search for markets that brought it into competition with Britain . His writings served as welcome justification for imperial expansion . Influenced by

1404-484: Was a precursor to the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology . In addition to dispensing herbs and medicine, apothecaries offered general medical advice and a range of services that are now performed by other specialist practitioners, such as surgeons and obstetricians . Apothecary shops sold ingredients and the medicines they prepared wholesale to other medical practitioners, as well as dispensing them to patients. In 17th-century England, they also controlled

1443-686: Was a turning point in Ratzel's career. He studied the influence of people of German origin in America , especially in the Midwest , as well as other ethnic groups in North America. He produced a written account of his travels in 1876, Städte-und Kulturbilder aus Nordamerika (Profile of Cities and Cultures in North America), which would help establish the field of cultural geography . According to Ratzel, cities are

1482-435: Was promoted to assistant professor, then rose to full professor in 1880. While at Munich, Ratzel produced several books and established his career as an academic. In 1886, he accepted an appointment at Leipzig University . His lectures were widely attended, notably by the influential American geographer Ellen Churchill Semple as well as Martha Krug-Genthe , the first woman to obtain a doctorate in geography. Ratzel produced

1521-569: Was published in English in 1896 and contained over 1100 excellent engravings and remarkable chromolithography . Ratzel continued his work at Leipzig until his sudden death on August 9, 1904, in Ammerland, Lake Starnberg , Germany. Ratzel, a scholar of versatile academic interest, was a staunch German. During the outbreak of Franco-Prussian war in 1870, he joined the Prussian army and was wounded twice during

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