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42-508: Martín Olleta was a Chono chieftain who was an important broker between Spanish authorities in Chiloé Archipelago and indigenous people of the fjords and channels of Patagonia . He is known for rescuing the survivors of from the wreck of HMS  Wager in 1742. He was identified as chieftain by the British and referred to as "gobernadorcillo de dicha nación chonos" ("little governor of

84-466: A clear central area. Many are known from Japan and the southeastern United States, and at least one from South America. The word is of Scandinavian via Middle English derivation (from early Scandinavian; Danish: mødding , Swedish regional: mödding ). The word "midden" is still in everyday use in Scotland and has come by extension to refer to anything that is a mess, a muddle, or chaos. The word

126-421: A distant location. Some shell middens are directly associated with villages, as a designated village dump site. In other middens, the material is directly associated with a house in the village. Each household would dump its garbage directly outside the house. In all cases, shell middens are extremely complex and very difficult to excavate fully and exactly. The fact that they contain a detailed record of what food

168-783: A few tens of metres long are claimed to be middens, but are in fact shell cheniers (beach ridges) re-worked by nest mound-building birds. Some shell middens are regarded as sacred sites, linked to the Dreamtime , such as those of the Anbarra group of the Burarra people of Arnhem Land . The Ohlone and Coast Miwok peoples built over 425 shell mounds in the San Francisco Bay Area. These mounds were used as: The mounds were constructed over thousands of years. They were often discovered by accident during construction, mining, or farming. Some of

210-568: A handful of individuals, others are many metres in length and width and represent centuries of shell deposition. In Brazil , they are known as sambaquis , having been created over a long period between the 6th millennium BCE and the beginning of European colonisation. European shell middens are primarily found along the Atlantic seaboard and in Denmark and primarily date to the 5th millennium BCE ( Ertebølle and Early Funnel Beaker cultures), containing

252-495: Is an archaeological feature consisting mainly of mollusc shells. The Danish term køkkenmøddinger (plural) was first used by Japetus Steenstrup to describe shell heaps and continues to be used by some researchers. A midden, by definition, contains the debris of human activity, and should not be confused with wind- or tide-created beach mounds. Some shell middens are processing remains: areas where aquatic resources were processed directly after harvest and prior to use or storage in

294-473: Is an old dump for domestic waste . It may consist of animal bones , human excrement , botanical material, mollusc shells , potsherds , lithics (especially debitage ), and other artifacts and ecofacts associated with past human occupation. These features provide a useful resource for archaeologists who wish to study the diets and habits of past societies. Middens with damp, anaerobic conditions can even preserve organic remains in deposits as

336-527: Is examining a midden or a beach mound. There are good examples on the Freycinet Peninsula in Tasmania where wave action currently is combining charcoal from forest fire debris with a mix of shells into masses that storms deposit above high-water mark. Shell mounds near Weipa in far north Queensland that are mostly less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) high (although ranging up to 10 metres (33 ft) high) and

378-447: Is known from Spanish sources on Chonos is filtered by a Huilliche worldview, as Huilliches and Huilliche language was used to communicate with Chonos. Together with other canoe-faring peoples of western Patagonia, the Chono people shared the physical features of being of low stature, being long-headed (dolichocephalic) and having a "low face". In the opinion of Robert FitzRoy who saw

420-466: Is no continuity between the human culture seen in the archaeological site of Monte Verde and any historical group. According to archaeologist Ricardo E. Latcham the Chono people along other sea-faring nomads may be remnants from more widespread indigenous groups that were pushed south by "successive invasions" from more northern tribes. The Chono people are believed to be Chiloé Archipelago 's first ethnically identifiable inhabitants. This has led to

462-409: Is now used internationally. The English word "midden" (waste mound) derives from the same Old Norse word that produced the modern Danish one. Shell middens are found in coastal or lakeshore zones all over the world. Consisting mostly of mollusc shells, they are interpreted as being the waste products of meals eaten by nomadic groups or hunting parties. Some are small examples relating to meals had by

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504-638: Is used by farmers in Britain to describe the place where farm yard manure from cows or other animals is collected. Grants are sometimes available to protect these from rain to avoid runoff and pollution . In the animal kingdom, some species establish ground burrows , also known as middens, that are used mostly for food storage. For example, the North American red squirrel ( Tamiasciurus hudsonicus ) usually has one large active midden in each territory with perhaps an inactive or auxiliary midden. A midden may be

546-568: The Cuncos settled in Chiloé Island in pre-Hispanic times as a consequence of a push from more northern Huilliches who in turn were being displaced by the Mapuche . As such, some historians consider that places as far north as the coast of Osorno and Llanquihue Lake were once within the range of Chono nomadism. Archaeologist and ethnographer Ricardo E. Latcham built upon these notions and held

588-470: The cabildo of Castro explained the decline of the Chono that had settled in Jesuit missions as caused by a shortage of women. Historian Rodolfo Urbina Burgos follows up on this thought and argues the Chono as a whole went extinct as a distinctive group because of a chronic shortage of women. Urbina Burgos argues this meant Chono were being married to indigenous women of Veliche, Caucahué , or Payo stock. Thus

630-601: The dalcas of Olleta's party and headed north. Martín Olleta led the survivors through an unusual route across Presidente Ríos Lake in Taitao Peninsula avoiding the common route through San Tadeo River and San Rafael Lake . Before handing over the English to Spanish authorities, Martín Olleta's party stopped somewhere south of Chiloé Island to hide all iron objects, likely to avoid have them confiscated. When Spanish authorities learned that Lieutenant Hamilton had been lost in

672-515: The encomienda system of servitude. Spanish interest in the lands of the Chono appear to have declined after the 1675 Antonio de Vea expedition . Nevertheless, in 1710 a large group of Chono arrived voluntarily at the Spanish settlement of Calbuco escaping from internal conflicts. The Spaniards decided to settle this group in Guar Island . Interest in the Chono lands arose again in the 1740s when

714-494: The Chono miscegenated and assimilated into the indigenous cultures of Chiloé by replacement of women. Chono women were responsible for diving in cold waters for shellfish , and this may have been the cause of a short life expectancy among them. Chonos who fled south of Taitao Peninsula in the 18th century may have ended up being absorbed into the Kawésqar . Inhabitants in the island of Laitec, which has strong historical links to

756-433: The Chono arrived to Guaitecas Archipelago from Chiloé Archipelago after these were invaded by groups of Mapuche culture (Huilliche, Cuncos, etc.) from the mainland in the 13th century. The Chono people met Europeans for the first time when the naval expedition of Francisco de Ulloa arrived at their lands in 1553. In the late 16th-century and early 17th-century there were various Spanish incursions aimed to bring Chono to

798-449: The Chono did not always tell the truth and sometimes misled the navigators. Indeed, the Chono managed to keep Spanish explorers away from Presidente Ríos Lake so effectively that it became officially known to Chileans only in 1945. As a consequence of their proximity to the Spanish settlements in Chiloé, the Chono were the canoe-faring peoples of Patagonia with the most intense contact with

840-567: The Chono nation") by the Spanish governor of Chiloé Victoriano Martínez de Tineo . He used a rod with a silver handle as symbol of authority. Olleta led a party of indigenous Chono that visited Captain Cheap's stranded group in Wager Island , Guayaneco Archipelago . This happened fifteen days after a group of British sailors returned to Wager Island after failing to round Taitao Peninsula with an improvised barge. The Spanish language proficiency of

882-569: The Chono people in the 1830s, they were more muscular and with a more beautiful appearance when compared to canoe-farers further south. Alberto Achacaz Walakial , himself a Kawésqar born around 1929, said that the Chono people were taller and of darker skin than his people. He also added that their noses and faces were longer. Study of Chono bones reveal they were prone to suffer joint problems, infectious diseases and in some cases traumatic injuries . These diseases were associated with their lifestyle. Scholar Alberto Trivera considers that there

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924-429: The Chono, have an indigenous genetic admixture averaging 80%. It is not known to which extent miscegenated descendants of Chono on this island retain aspects of Chono culture. The custom of the inhabitants of Melinka to bring dogs on board in their travels may be rooted in Chono traditions. Culturally, the Chono had much in common with southern sea-farers such as the Kawésqar , yet the Chono also had influences from

966-483: The Chonos maintained a chiefly marine-based diet over centuries or millennia until after the time of Spanish contact (c. 1550), when land-based food became more important in the Chono diet. Iron objects were highly valued by the Chono and were usually obtained from the Spanish settlements in Chiloé, either by trade or theft. In some cases, iron was scavenged from European shipwrecks. Midden#Shells A midden

1008-519: The Chonos was enough to communicate with the Spanish-speaking surgeon of the British party. After some negotiation, the Chono agreed to guide Cheap's group to a small Spanish settlement up the coast, using an overland route to avoid the peninsula. The castaways traded the barge and iron objects for the journey. Iron was highly valued by the Chono as this metal was even scarce in the Spanish settlements further north. The survivors of HMS Wager boarded

1050-657: The Mapuche world. Authors such as Harb D. et al. (1998) list the Chono people as culturally " Fuegian " in contrast to more northern Mapuche groups. Urbina Burgos (2007) mentions the Chiloé Archipelago as the frontier between Mapuche culture and the culture of the "southern peoples". The putative Chono language is known only from local toponyms and from an untranslated catechism . Men hunted marine mammals, especially sea lions , while women gathered shellfish and seaweed . The Chono used nets and spears to gather food from

1092-457: The Spaniards learned about the wreck of the British warship HMS  Wager on Wager Island in western Patagonia. As a result of a corsair and pirate menace the Spanish authorities were ordered to depopulate the archipelagos of Chono and Guaiteca to deprive their enemies of any eventual support from the native populations. This then led to the transfer of population to Chiloé Archipelago in

1134-446: The Spaniards. Anecdotal evidence shows that the Chono became increasingly acculturated into Spanish culture over the 17th and 18th centuries. For example, Cristóbal Talcapillán , who was interviewed by the Spanish authorities in the 1670s, understood the difference between the Spaniards and the English. In the 1740s Martín Olleta was able to understand the importance of the wreckage of HMS Wager and profited from it by handing over

1176-409: The Spanish dominions of Chiloé. These incursions turned into outright slave raids following the 1608 decree of King Philip III of Spain that legalized slavery of "indigenous rebels". This was an abuse of the law since the Chono, in contrast to the Mapuche who had destroyed seven Spanish cities in their 1598–1604 uprising, had never rebelled. The Chono people were not the only ones to suffer from

1218-422: The assumption that the Chono were the people who left behind most of the abundant shell middens ( Spanish : conchales ) of Chiloé Archipelago, yet this claim is unverified. There are various place names in Chiloé Archipelago with Chono etymologies despite the main indigenous language of the archipelago at the arrival of the Spaniards being Veliche . A theory postulated by chronicler José Pérez García holds

1260-535: The coast and are several meters deep. The midden in Namu, British Columbia is over 9 metres (30 ft) deep and spans over 10,000 years of continuous occupation. Shell middens created in coastal regions of Australia by Indigenous Australians exist in Australia today. Middens provide evidence of prior occupation and are generally protected from mining and other developments. One must exercise caution in deciding whether one

1302-514: The debris of daily life are tossed on the pile. Each individual toss will contribute a different mix of materials depending upon the activity associated with that particular toss. During the course of deposition sedimentary material is deposited as well. Different mechanisms, from wind and water to animal digs, create a matrix which can also be analysed to provide seasonal and climatic information. In some middens individual dumps of material can be discerned and analysed. A shell midden or shell mound

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1344-592: The first archaeological excavations of the Omori Shell Mounds in Tokyo, Japan in 1877, which led to the discovery of a style of pottery described as "cord-marked", translated as " Jōmon ", which came to be used to refer to the early period of Japanese history when this style of pottery was produced. Shell middens were studied in Denmark in the latter half of the 19th century. The Danish word køkkenmødding (kitchen mound)

1386-624: The largest mounds in the Bay Area include: Emeryville Shellmound Located between Oakland and Berkeley, this mound was estimated to be 60 feet high and 350 feet in diameter. It was demolished in 1924. Huichuin Located in Berkeley, this mound was 20 feet high and was the site of the first human settlement on the shores of San Francisco Bay. West Berkeley and Ellis Landing These mounds measured almost 200 meters in diameter and rose 9 meters above

1428-537: The late 19th century. Alberto Achacaz Walakial , himself a Kawésqar born around 1929, claimed to have met Chonos when young. Writer Benjamín Subercaseaux visited Taitao Peninsula in 1946 reporting having seen footsteps and fresh human feces he thought indicated that nomadic Chono, as known from the historical record, still existed. Ricardo Vásquez led an expedition in 2006 to remote parts of Taitao Peninsula partly motivated by possible indications that Chono were still living in isolation there. In 1743, members of

1470-459: The north while some Chono moved south of Taitao Peninsula , effectively depopulating the territory. The Chono in Chiloé ended up being absorbed by the mestizo and indigenous Huilliche population there. Chono served as maritime pilots in many of the expeditions undertaken by the Spaniards to the Patagonian archipelagoes. Yet it was noted by some Spaniards like José de Moraleda y Montero that

1512-648: The remains of the earliest Neolithisation process (pottery, cereals and domestic animals). Younger shell middens are found in Latvia (associated with Comb Ware ceramics), Sweden (associated with Pitted Ware ceramics), the Netherlands (associated with Corded Ware ceramics) and Schleswig-Holstein ( Late Neolithic and Iron Age ). All these are examples where communities practised a mixed farming and hunting/gathering economy. On Canada 's west coast, there are shell middens that run for more than 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) along

1554-554: The sea, but supplemented their catch with potatoes and other plants from small gardens. Their healing places consisted of caves or leather structures. The Chono had small dows they used to travel with in their dalcas. Some evidence suggest the dogs were used for fishing, and were not themselves a source of food in the Chono diet. Both the Chono people and Kawésqars used Pilgerodendron uviferum for firewood, as well as wood for oars, paddles, boats and houses. Isotope studies of human bones found in former Chono territory suggest

1596-661: The shoreline. Shell mounds are also credited with the creation of tropical hardwood hammocks , one example being the Otter Mound Preserve in Florida , where shell deposits from Calusa natives provided flood free high areas in otherwise large watered areas. There are instances in which shell middens may have doubled as areas of ceremonial construction or ritual significance. The Woodland period Crystal River site provides an example of this phenomenon. Some shell mounds, known as shell rings , are circular or open arcs with

1638-638: The slave raids organized by the Spanish from Chiloé; so did also the Huilliche of Valdivia, Osorno, and indigenous groups from Nahuel Huapi Lake across the Andes. Some Chono slaves may have been exported north to the Spanish settlements of Central Chile which was becoming a melting pot for uprooted indigenous peoples. The Spanish not only obtained the Chono people as slaves during raids but also from other Chono people who sold their own people. While some Chono people were turned into outright slaves, others ended up in

1680-415: The survivors to the Spanish authorities while keeping valuable metal objects obtained from the wreck. The proficiency in Spanish of the Chono led by Martín Olleta was good enough to communicate with the Spanish-speaking surgeon of the British party. The Chono largely disappear from the historical record after the 18th century, but sporadic references remained. Thomas Bridges reported having met Chonos in

1722-504: The way north, they compelled Olleta to go back south and find him, which he actually did. Scholar Ximena Urbina conjectures that Martín Olleta must have lived close to the Spanish and heard from other natives of the wreckage. Thus the rescue was not by chance but an enterprise done with prior knowledge of the Spanish interest in foreigners and of the valuable loot to be found at the wreckage. Chono people The Chono people lived as hunter-gatherers traveling by canoe. Much of what

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1764-485: Was eaten or processed and many fragments of stone tools and household goods makes them invaluable objects of archaeological study. Shells have a high calcium carbonate content, which tends to make the middens alkaline . This slows the normal rate of decay caused by soil acidity, leaving a relatively high proportion of organic material (food remnants, organic tools, clothing, human remains) available for archaeologists to find. Edward Sylvester Morse conducted one of

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