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116-483: The wide range of elevations and rugged topography of the massif create diverse habitats that transition quickly with changes in altitude. Warm, dense rainforest can be found at lower elevations, followed by shorter forests at higher elevations, followed still by cloud forest , and topped near the peaks with the only remaining undisturbed mountain scrub in Madagascar. Better growing conditions for plants can be found on

232-606: A referendum , in November 2010, to update the constitution. Despite an alleged coup during, this was approved, and new elections were scheduled to be held in July 2013. The second round of the postponed presidential elections was held in December 2013 and the results were announced in January 2014. The winner and the next president was Hery Rajaonarimampianina . He was backed by Rajoelina who led

348-533: A consequence, the area was not permanently settled until the mid-1800s, when refugees fled the Merina Kingdom . Nearly half a century later, another wave of refugees settled in the area, this time fleeing from French colonists. The population in the region, however, remained relatively small, despite a last small wave of immigration following World War I when people from Réunion came to the region to grow vanilla . The population did not increase noticeably until

464-507: A framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic , with a pluralist multi-party system. The President of Madagascar is head of state and the Prime Minister of Madagascar is head of government . Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the bicameral parliament , which is composed of the Senate and

580-629: A large loss of Amazonian rainforest around 2050 due to drought , forest dieback and the subsequent release of more carbon dioxide. Tropical rainforests provide timber as well as animal products such as meat and hides. Rainforests also have value as tourism destinations and for the ecosystem services provided. Many foods originally came from tropical forests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest. Also, plant-derived medicines are commonly used for fever, fungal infections, burns, gastrointestinal problems, pain, respiratory problems, and wound treatment. At

696-537: A majority of supporters of the president, but also significant numbers of independent and regional opposition figures. Following the crisis of 2002, the President replaced provincial governors with appointed PDSs ( Presidents des Delegations Speciales ). Subsequent legislation established a structure of 22 regions to decentralize administration. In September 2004, the Government named 22 Regional Chiefs, reporting directly to

812-490: A moist layer of leaf litter, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. The largest areas of rainforest are tropical or temperate rainforests, but other vegetation associations including subtropical rainforest , littoral rainforest , cloud forest , vine thicket and even dry rainforest have been described. Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no substantial dry season: typically found within 10 degrees north and south of

928-423: A more open canopy layer than other rainforests, and are found in areas of lower rainfall (630–1,100 mm (25–43 in)). They generally have two layers of trees. A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular area. Examples include the emergent, canopy , understory and forest floor layers. The emergent layer contains

1044-420: A mountainside, and its dining area overlooks a forested outcrop of rock, which includes the peak named Ambatotsondrona, or "Leaning Rock". This camp is reported to be the best location for spotting the silky sifaka, although the staff recommend that visitors hire a specialist tracker to aid in the search. The Marojejy Summit Trek continues up the mountain for another 2 km (1.2 mi) to Camp Simpona, which

1160-506: A national emergency. Amazon deforestation jumped by 69% in 2008 compared to 2007's twelve months, according to official government data. However, a January 30, 2009 New York Times article stated, "By one estimate, for every acre of rainforest cut down each year, more than 50 acres of new forest are growing in the tropics." The new forest includes secondary forest on former farmland and so-called degraded forest . Politics of Madagascar Politics of Madagascar takes place in

1276-471: A nearby stream teems with a diverse collection of frog species. Camp Simpona also serves as a basecamp for the steep climb to the summit of Marojejy Massif, one of Madagascar's highest but most accessible peaks. The climb to the peak stretches 2 km (1.2 mi) and takes four to five hours. The Andapa Basin, surrounded by the high, rugged mountains of Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud, was extremely remote and difficult to access until relatively recently. As

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1392-733: A result, the park was closed briefly, but reopened in May 2009. In 2010, the situation improved in Marojejy, but illegal logging intensified in Masoala and the Makira Protected Area . Illegal logging has been facilitated by insufficient governance, unclear forest regulation, and undermined judicial control while the exportation of the acquired logs (in 1992, 2006, and 2009–2010) has been permitted by government decrees that either precede elections or are issued during periods of political instability. The trade

1508-431: A significant amount of gneiss , a high-grade metamorphic rock that formed under high pressure and temperature deep beneath the ancient mountain range. In places where heat and pressure were highest, the rock melted completely and eventually recrystallized at depth as granite, an igneous rock . Later, veins of quartz formed in cracks in the bedrock; these are the source of the quartz and amethyst crystals mined in

1624-513: A small net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, though they may have other climatic effects (on cloud formation, for example, by recycling water vapour ). No rainforest today can be considered to be undisturbed. Human-induced deforestation plays a significant role in causing rainforests to release carbon dioxide, as do other factors, whether human-induced or natural, which result in tree death, such as burning and drought. Some climate models operating with interactive vegetation predict

1740-407: A small number of very large trees called emergents , which grow above the general canopy , reaching heights of 45–55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70–80 m tall. They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Eagles , butterflies , bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer. The canopy layer contains

1856-797: A study by Colin Turnbull , The Forest People , in 1962. Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as " Negrito ". There are many tribes in the rainforests of the Malaysian state of Sarawak. Sarawak is part of Borneo, the third largest island in the world. Some of the other tribes in Sarawak are: the Kayan, Kenyah, Kejaman, Kelabit, Punan Bah, Tanjong, Sekapan, and the Lahanan. Collectively, they are referred to as Dayaks or Orangulu which means "people of

1972-450: A threat to the fragile high-altitude scrub. Madagascar's northeastern rain forests are severely threatened by illegal logging of precious hardwood, which not only dries out the forest (making it susceptible to fire), introduces invasive species , degrades habitat , and reduces genetic diversity , but also violates local taboos and traditions. Additional species, such as species of Dombeya , are typically cut to make rafts for floating

2088-437: A trend towards declining populations in rainforests, for example, reptiles that feed on amphibians and reptiles. This trend requires close monitoring. The seasonality of rainforests affects the reproductive patterns of amphibians, and this in turn can directly affect the species of reptiles that feed on these groups, particularly species with specialized feeding, since these are less likely to use alternative resources. Despite

2204-499: A variety of microclimates and a visible change in habitat, making it one of the few places in the world where cloud-covered rainforest rapidly transitions to high mountain shrubland over a distance that can be covered on foot. Also due to the rugged topography, the vegetative mosaic varies between the crests and slopes of the massif, even at the same elevations. For example, crests and adjoining slopes often have less than 20% of their flowering plant species in common. Temperatures in

2320-571: A variety of amphibians and reptiles, such as leaf-tailed geckos, leaf chameleons (genus Brookesia ), and many types of frogs. The next 2 km (1.2 mi) along the path is known as the Simpona Trek; the name comes from the Malagasy name for the silky sifaka, which is found in the area. The trail leads to Camp Marojejia, located at an elevation of 775 m (2,543 ft) at the transition between lowland and montane rain forest. The camp sits on

2436-436: A very broad array of fauna , including mammals , reptiles , amphibians , birds and invertebrates . Mammals may include primates , felids and other families. Reptiles include snakes , turtles , chameleons and other families; while birds include such families as vangidae and Cuculidae . Dozens of families of invertebrates are found in rainforests. Fungi are also very common in rainforest areas as they can feed on

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2552-509: Is 4.5 km (2.8 mi) further along the path. The camp is in the lowland rain forest above the Manantenina River at an elevation of 450 m (1,480 ft). The camp is 800 m (2,600 ft) from the Humbert waterfalls , and offers opportunities to see lemurs, such as the northern bamboo lemur ( Hapalemur occidentalis ); many species of bird, such as the helmet vanga; as well as

2668-503: Is abundant. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are present in the understory. Only about 5% of the sunlight shining on the rainforest canopy reaches the understory. This layer can be called a shrub layer , although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer. The forest floor , the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks , swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth

2784-499: Is centered on the chain of mountains known as Marojejy Massif . Despite a scientific survey of some of the other mountains in the region by the 1929 Mission Zoologique Franco-Anglo-Américaine , Marojejy was not surveyed until 1937 when L.-J. Arragon of the Service Géographique de Madagascar ascended Marojejy Est . Arragon did not conduct any field research during his visit. The massif was not geologically described until after

2900-402: Is considered the iconic bird species of the park. One path leads from the entrance of the park to the summit. There are three camps along the route: Camp Mantella at 450 m (1,480 ft) in elevation in lowland rainforest, Camp Marojejia at 775 m (2,543 ft) at the transition between lowland and montane rain forest, and Camp Simpona at 1,250 m (4,100 ft) in the middle of

3016-419: Is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste. More than half of the world's species of plants and animals are found in rainforests. Rainforests support

3132-438: Is in the middle of the moist montane forest at an elevation of 1,250 m (4,100 ft). There is a ridge with a viewing platform built on it near the camp. Despite the stunted height of the trees in this high-altitude region, silky sifakas can occasionally be spotted from the bungalows. The rufous-headed ground-roller ( Atelornis crossleyi ) and yellow-bellied sunbird-asity ( Neodrepanis hypoxantha ) can be seen here, and

3248-532: Is not found outside of the park. Marojejy National Park is best known for its two iconic species, the helmet vanga ( Euryceros prevostii ) and the critically endangered silky sifaka or simpona ( Propithecus candidus ). The silky sifaka has been listed as one of " The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates " since the inception of the list in 2000. According to estimates, fewer than 1,000 individuals of this species remain, and none exist in captivity. The wealth of species of well-known groups of animals demonstrates

3364-410: Is open all year, with Bradt Travel Guides recommending April to May and September to December as the best times to visit due to less rainfall. The park is one of the only national parks in Madagascar offering wooden chalets or bungalows, in addition to having a kitchen and toilet facilities at each of its three main camps inside a primary rainforest. The housing provides beds and basic bedding, while

3480-596: Is organized and operated by high-ranking officials and influential businessmen. Additionally, the trade in Malagasy rosewood is not regulated under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ( CITES ). Literature cited Rainforest Rainforests are forests characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy , moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and

3596-467: Is the harvesting of precious hardwoods, such as rosewood and palissandre. Semi-precious gemstones, such as amethyst , are still mined within the boundaries of the park, while slash and burn agriculture and wood collection for firewood and construction continue to cause the periphery to recede. These pressures are growing strong as the population in the region continues to increase. In 2003, approximately 200,000 people lived within 40 km (25 mi) of

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3712-461: The Amazon rainforest ), Central America (e.g. Bosawás , the southern Yucatán Peninsula - El Peten - Belize - Calakmul ), Australia , and on Pacific Islands (such as Hawaiʻi ). Tropical forests have been called the "Earth's lungs ", although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis . Tropical forests cover a large part of

3828-832: The Intertropical Convergence Zone . The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn . Tropical rainforests exist in Southeast Asia (from Myanmar (Burma) ) to the Philippines , Malaysia , Indonesia , Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka ; also in Sub-Saharan Africa from the Cameroon to the Congo ( Congo Rainforest ), South America (e.g.

3944-708: The Lokoho River , which is sourced from the western and southern slopes of Marojejy, and the Androranga River , which originates from the northern slopes of Marojejy. Both rivers travel towards Sambava and drain into the Indian Ocean . Marojejy is connected to the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve by the Betaolana corridor , a narrow mid-elevation strip of forest extending west and slightly south. As with

4060-703: The Madagascar sucker-footed bat ( Myzopoda aurita ) The reptile and amphibian diversity at Marojejy is also rich, higher than any other protected area in Madagascar. A total of 148 species have been inventoried, and 17 of these are found only in Marojejy, including Brookesia karchei and Chamaeleo peyrieresi , two species of several chameleons found there. The panther chameleon ( Furcifer pardalis ), leaf-tailed geckos (genus Uroplatus ), and many species of frogs are also reported from this locality. Invertebrates include large millipedes , spiders , and an abundance of small leeches . Marojejy National Park

4176-664: The National Assembly . The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Madagascar's first President, Philibert Tsiranana , was elected when his Social Democratic Party gained power at independence in 1960 and was reelected without opposition in March 1972. However, he resigned only 2 months later in response to massive anti-government demonstrations. The unrest continued, and Tsiranana's successor, Gen. Gabriel Ramanantsoa , resigned on February 5, 1975, handing over executive power to Lt. Col. Richard Ratsimandrava , who

4292-418: The equator . Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in). Many of the world's tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough , also known as

4408-488: The "jewels of the Earth" and the " world's largest pharmacy ", because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there. Rainforests as well as endemic rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation , the resulting habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere . Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, high humidity, the presence of moisture-dependent vegetation,

4524-512: The 1998 Constitution, which considerably strengthened the presidency. In December 2001, a presidential election was held in which both major candidates claimed victory. The Ministry of the Interior declared incumbent Ratsiraka of the AREMA party victorious. Marc Ravalomanana contested the results and claimed victory. A political crisis followed in which Ratsiraka supporters cut major transport routes from

4640-444: The 2009 coup and still was very influential political figure. In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Former president Andry Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. He was previously president from 2009 to 2014. Former president Marc Ravalomana lost

4756-400: The 20th century and the area covered by rainforests around the world is shrinking. Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being driven to extinction (possibly more than 50,000 a year; at that rate, says E. O. Wilson of Harvard University , a quarter or more of all species on Earth could be exterminated within 50 years) due to the removal of habitat with destruction of

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4872-417: The Earth, but one to two hundred feet above it, extending over thousands of square miles." A true exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows . Exploration of the canopy is still in its infancy, but other methods include the use of balloons and airships to float above the highest branches and

4988-561: The French botanist Jean-Henri Humbert from the National Museum of Natural History in Paris explored the mountains in 1948. Humbert had previously explored numerous mountain ranges in continental Africa before going to Marojejy. Between November 1948 and November 1950, he spent five months collecting 4,039 dried plant ( herbarium ) specimens for study. After several expeditions, he published

5104-631: The National Assembly. For its part, the National Assembly can pass a motion of censure and require the Prime Minister and council of ministers to step down. The Constitutional Court approves the constitutionality of new laws. The Parliament has two chambers . The National Assembly ( Antenimieram-Pirenena/Assemblée Nationale ) has 160 members, elected for a five-year term in single-member and two-member constituencies . The Senate ( Sénat ) has 33 members; 22 are indirectly elected, one from each of

5220-409: The President, to implement its decentralization plans. Financing and specific powers for the regional administrations remain to be clarified. After being re-elected in 2006, Ravalomanana's government was dissolved in March 2009, in a militarily-backed uprising led by Andry Rajoelina . Rajoelina formed a High Transitional Authority of which he was the 'Transitional Head of State'. So far he has held

5336-415: The absence of wildfire. Rainforests can be generally classified as tropical rainforests or temperate rainforests , but other types have been described. Estimates vary from 40% to 75% of all biotic species being indigenous to the rainforests. There may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests have been called

5452-542: The approval of park employees and that areas within the park were being cleared for agriculture. In January 2006, the Park Logistics Coordinator was fired for moving boundary markers while employed as the Park Conservation Agent and selling the 9 ha (0.035 sq mi) of park land to a local farmer for 2 million Malagasy francs (~ US$ 200 ). In 2010, a new demarcation adjusted the size

5568-419: The book "A Marvel of Nature" in 1955, in which he claimed the massif was the most impressive range in all of Madagascar because of its size, floral diversity, and pristine natural state. Marojejy was set aside as one of Madagascar's strict nature reserves in 1952 largely due to Humbert's enthusiasm and support. Under this protection, only research scientists were permitted to visit the site. In 1998, Marojejy

5684-464: The building of cranes and walkways planted on the forest floor. The science of accessing tropical forest canopy using airships or similar aerial platforms is called dendronautics . The understory or understorey layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. It is home to a number of birds , snakes and lizards , as well as predators such as jaguars , boa constrictors and leopards . The leaves are much larger at this level and insect life

5800-535: The case of many large groups, such as invertebrates , very little is known and much remains to be discovered. The vegetation of Marojejy National Park is extremely diverse due to the various microclimates. The microclimates also affect plant growth rates, with the wet eastern slopes showing faster plant growth, the dry western slopes exhibiting slower plant growth, and the plants on the ridge tops hindered by high winds and poor soils. More than 2,000  species of flowering plants (angiosperms) have been discovered at

5916-417: The decomposing remains of plants and animals. The great diversity in rainforest species is in large part the result of diverse and numerous physical refuges , i.e. places in which plants are inaccessible to many herbivores, or in which animals can hide from predators. Having numerous refuges available also results in much higher total biomass than would otherwise be possible. Some species of fauna show

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6032-551: The depth of the biodiversity found at Marojejy National Park. For example, 75 of the 118 species of birds (64%) found in or around Marojejy are forest-dwelling birds, a total that surpasses any other mountain site in Madagascar. All of these forest-dependent bird species are endemic to Madagascar and utilize the forest for some portion of their life-cycle. One of these birds is the Madagascar serpent-eagle ( Eutriorchis astur ), which prior to being reported in 1990, had not been seen by ornithologists since 1932. In addition to

6148-466: The early 1970s when construction of the Andapa–Sambava road was completed, connecting the region to the coast. This improved transportation route encouraged agricultural development and spawned another wave of immigration. Over the next 30 years, it was estimated that the population tripled, with more than 100,000 people living in the region by 2003. With 37 villages surrounding Marojejy,

6264-549: The eastern side of the mountains, which receives more rain than the western side. This habitat diversity lends itself to high levels of biodiversity . At least 118 species of bird, 148 species of reptile and amphibian, and 11 species of lemur are known to occur within Marojejy National Park. One of the lemurs, the silky sifaka ( Propithecus candidus ) is listed among " The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates ". The helmet vanga ( Euryceros prevostii )

6380-422: The eastern slopes of the massif receive most of the rainfall, since the western slopes lie in the rain shadow of the mountain and consequently experience a prolonged dry period. The tops of the ridges experience strong winds and offer poor soil conditions. The effect can be seen in the plant life and their growth rates. The wide range in elevations and the rugged topography also play a crucial role in creation of

6496-425: The economy and "Malgasization" of the education system crippled the economy, leaving traces even today of a highly centralized economic system and a high level of illiteracy . National elections in 1982 and 1989 returned Ratsiraka for a second and third 7-year presidential term. For much of this period, only limited and restrained political opposition was tolerated, with no direct criticism of the president permitted in

6612-451: The edges of the reserve. In the years following these events, many communities living near the borders of the park have become more involved in forest surveillance, and deforestation has fallen off sharply to only a few hectares a year. In 1998, the WWF requested that the government of Madagascar relax the restrictions on the reserve to allow for ecotourism , the revenue from which could benefit

6728-738: The formation of more political parties in 1990, were insufficient to placate a growing opposition movement known as Hery Velona ("Active Forces"). A number of already existing political parties and their leaders, among them Albert Zafy and Manandafy Rakotonirina , anchored this movement which was especially strong in Antananarivo and the surrounding high plateau. In response to largely peaceful mass demonstrations and crippling general strikes, Ratsiraka replaced his prime minister in August 1991 but suffered an irreparable setback soon thereafter when his troops fired on peaceful demonstrators marching on Iavoloha ,

6844-669: The globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in a few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions. They occur in North America (in the Pacific Northwest in Alaska , British Columbia , Washington , Oregon and California ), in Europe (parts of the British Isles such as the coastal areas of Ireland and Scotland , southern Norway , parts of

6960-400: The goal of protecting the environment and promoting livelihoods centered on the remaining forest. Limited and responsible ecotourism is also seen as a long-term alternative to continued deforestation . The protections normally afforded to national parks have not halted the degradations of Marojejy National Park. The hunting of lemurs, including the silky sifaka, is a persistent problem, as

7076-422: The growth of vegetation in a tropical rainforest, soil quality is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus . The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red colour and sometimes produces mineral deposits such as bauxite . Most trees have roots near the surface because there are insufficient nutrients below

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7192-409: The hardest and most resistant, whereas the dark minerals, which are mostly biotite mica and hornblende , are softer and weather out faster. This layered composition, in combination with the north-facing 45-degree angle at which the rocks are tilted, accounts for the asymmetric character of the peaks. The northern slopes dip moderately, while the southern faces are typically near-vertical cliffs where

7308-423: The heavier hardwoods down rivers and out of the parks. Rosewood trees are cut into multiple logs for easier transport, and five or more high-buoyancy trees are cut per hardwood log. To tie the rafts together, the loggers cut thousands of lianas or vines, which are used by 75% of the forest fauna as avenues for moving around in the canopy. The logging activities are labor-intensive and dangerous. The labor employs

7424-511: The highest peak. The path into the rain forest is divided into three treks that vary in length and lead to each of the three main camps, each of which is situated at different altitudes and offer views of their own distinctive flora and fauna. The first section of the path, known as the Mantella Trek, takes visitors just inside the park entrance, and leads to a picnic area after the first 2.5 km (1.6 mi). The first camp, Camp Mantella,

7540-457: The highland Merina tribe. After the end of the 2002 political crisis, President Ravalomanana began many reform projects, forcefully advocating "rapid and durable development" and the launching of a battle against corruption. December 2002 legislative elections gave his newly formed TIM (Tiako-I-Madagasikara) (I Love Madagascar) Party a commanding majority in the National Assembly. November 2003 municipal elections were conducted freely, returning

7656-473: The hillsides in preference to irrigated rice fields. Coffee was an important cash crop before market prices fell in the 1970s, but vanilla remains an important crop for the area. Until the mid-2000s, vanilla prices were high, but they have since fallen off significantly. The crash of vanilla prices, along with a rapidly growing population and steady decrease in cultivatable land, has resulted in widespread and extreme poverty . Between January and April, before

7772-422: The impoverished local population, but the officials who facilitate the process primarily benefit. In 2005, illegal logging of rosewood was reported to have occurred more than 20 times. In 2007 at the port cities of Vohémar , Antalaha , and Toamasina , authorities confiscated thousands of logs valued at millions of dollars ( US$ ). Some of this material was reportedly logged from eastern and northeastern parts of

7888-468: The increasing deforestation rate, especially in Indonesia, is the expansion of oil palm plantations to meet growing demand for cheap vegetable fats and biofuels . In Indonesia, palm oil is already cultivated on nine million hectares and, together with Malaysia , the island nation produces about 85 percent of the world's palm oil. Several countries, notably Brazil , have declared their deforestation

8004-469: The interior". About half of Sarawak's 1.5 million people are Dayaks. Most Dayaks, it is believed by anthropologists, came originally from the South-East Asian mainland. Their mythologies support this. Tropical and temperate rainforests have been subjected to heavy legal and illegal logging for their valuable hardwoods and agricultural clearance ( slash-and-burn , clearcutting ) throughout

8120-506: The island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. The tribes are in danger because of the deforestation, especially in Brazil. Central African rainforest is home of the Mbuti pygmies , one of the hunter-gatherer peoples living in equatorial rainforests characterised by their short height (below one and a half metres, or 59 inches, on average). They were the subject of

8236-560: The kitchen and eating areas are covered and offer basic cooking utensils. These three camps have basic tent sites for campers. Tent campsites are also offered outside the park, while the only other overnight accommodations outside the park are in Andapa and Sambava. The park is unable to accommodate large groups. Because of the rugged terrain and variable temperatures, the Bradt Travel Guide also recommended advanced planning for visiting

8352-516: The leader of the Hery Velona movement, Albert Zafy, defeated Ratsiraka. Zafy was sworn in as President on March 27, 1993. After President Zafy's impeachment by the National Assembly in 1996 and the short quasi-presidency of Norbert Ratsirahonana , the 1997 elections once again pitted Zafy and Ratsiraka, with Ratsiraka this time emerging victorious. A National Assembly dominated by members of President Ratsiraka'a political party AREMA subsequently passed

8468-789: The main rice harvest, many people in the region do not receive enough food to eat. The Sava Region , which includes Marojejy, is the poorest region in Madagascar, and in 2011, continued rises in global food prices —particularly that of imported rice—has made obtaining food more difficult for rural families. Not only have international environmental organizations (such as Conservation International , Wildlife Conservation Society , World Wide Fund for Nature , and Care International ) established programs to help local residents, many local people work to improve their situation through environmental and health education programs. An increase in sustainable agriculture , silviculture , conservation awareness, and improved education and health care have also furthered

8584-437: The majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres (98 ft) to 45 metres (148 ft) tall. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species. Epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches , and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on

8700-482: The massif form an east–west line with a series of distinct peaks along its irregular structure, which consists of parallel or divergent crest lines broken apart by steep and irregular slopes. Rising 2,000 m (6,600 ft) over as little as 8 km (5.0 mi), the Marojejy Massif has some of the most precipitous terrain in Madagascar. As a result of this sharp rise in elevation and rugged topography , it has

8816-417: The montane rainforest. Camp Simpona acts as a base camp for the trek to the summit, a route that stretches 2 km (1.2 mi) and can take up to four or five hours to traverse. Marojejy National Park is located in the northeast of Madagascar between the towns of Andapa and Sambava and extends approximately 32 km (20 mi) from east to west and 22 km (14 mi) from north to south. It

8932-405: The most rainfall during the warm season, from November through April, when heavy rain and occasional cyclones are delivered from the northwest by monsoons . During the cooler season, between May and October, lighter rains are delivered by winds from the southeast. Both temperature and rainfall vary significantly by location within the park. Lower temperatures are found at higher elevations, and

9048-525: The new Constitution was put to a nationwide referendum in August 1992 and approved by a wide margin, despite efforts by federalists to disrupt balloting in several coastal areas. Presidential elections were held on November 25, 1992, after the High Constitutional Court had ruled, over Hery Velona objections, that Ratsiraka could become a candidate. Runoff elections were held in February 1993, and

9164-478: The northwest lost agricultural land. Approximately 5,000 ha (19 sq mi) had been illegally cleared within the park and are still part of the park. There are now 91 boundary markers and the boundaries are georeferenced . Intermediate boundary markers are placed between existing markers to demarcate the edges of the park during disputes with the local community. During October 2005, reports surfaced showing that boundary markers were being moved with

9280-458: The park down to 55,500 ha (214 sq mi). Marojejy National Park covers 55,500 ha (214 sq mi) and protects almost the entire massif, which ranges in elevation from 75 to 2,132 m (246 to 6,995 ft) at the summit. The massif is part of a mountain chain that stretches from Tsaratanana in the northwest to the Masoala Peninsula in the south. The crests of

9396-536: The park so far. At least four plant families are found at all elevations: Clusiaceae and Poaceae are generally common, while Myrsinaceae and Elaeocarpaceae are rare. There are four basic types of forest found at Marojejy: Of the many plant species found in Marojejy, 35 are palms, several of which are critically endangered and have extremely low populations. Only three of these palm species can be found outside of Madagascar, and seven can only be found at Marojejy. More than 275 fern species are present in

9512-428: The park was established in 1952. With a second decree (no. 66-242) from the government of Madagascar in 1966, the park's status as a strict nature reserve was reaffirmed, and its boundaries were marked by 89 points. From these markers, the size of the park was estimated at 60,150 ha (232.2 sq mi). At the time, two families were living 450 m (1,480 ft) within the park boundaries, which initially

9628-401: The park, 80% of whom were farmers that were still dependent upon the forest for agricultural land and various products, such as honey, firewood, and plant fibers, as well as tree bark from plants of the family Rutaceae (primarily genus Evodia ) used to ferment betsabetsa , a local sugarcane spirit. Additionally, inappropriate use of the park or excessive visitation by guests could also pose

9744-588: The park. Payment of the entrance fees, renting of the facilities, and hiring of guides, cooks, and porters are handled at either the park headquarters in Andapa or the Park Visitor Center in Manantenina, which is along the main Andapa-Sambava road, 66 km (41 mi) from Sambava and 40 km (25 mi) from Andapa. The park has a single trail that leads from the information center in Manantenina to

9860-457: The park. At the start of the Malagasy political crisis in March 2009, thousands of woodcutters intensely logged precious hardwoods for six to eight weeks in the SAVA Region. An estimated 52,000 tons of rosewood lumber, or nearly 100,000 trees, were logged that year, with one-third of the total coming from Marojejy National Park and the remainder from nearby Masoala National Park . As

9976-474: The people living in the periphery of the park. With a decree (no. 98-375) in May 1998, the reserve became a national park. The boundaries were renegotiated, particularly in the western and northwestern regions of the park, and this time using clear natural landmarks, such as ridge crests, as markers. The size of the park was adjusted to 60,050 ha (231.9 sq mi), with some western communities gaining access to untouched forest zones while communities in

10092-473: The poor soil quality. First is that the soil is highly acidic. The roots of plants rely on an acidity difference between the roots and the soil in order to absorb nutrients. When the soil is acidic, there is little difference, and therefore little absorption of nutrients from the soil. Second, the type of clay particles present in tropical rainforest soil has a poor ability to trap nutrients and stop them from washing away. Even if humans artificially add nutrients to

10208-675: The population density is one of the highest in Madagascar and it continues to grow. The dominant ethnic groups in the region are the Tsimihety (the first settlers) and the Betsimisaraka , although other groups from the southern part of the island have also established themselves. The local people have traditionally utilized material from the forest, whether for use in their architecture , to make pirogues (dugout canoes), to provide fiber for weaving, to provide firewood, to gather leaves for traditional medicine , or to flavor their drinks. Most of

10324-462: The press. With an easing of restrictions on political expression, beginning in the late 1980s, the Ratsiraka regime came under increasing pressure to make fundamental changes. In response to a deteriorating economy, Ratsiraka relaxed socialist economic policies and instituted some liberal , private-sector reforms. These, along with political reforms like the elimination of press censorship in 1989 and

10440-499: The primary port city to the capital city, a stronghold of Ravalomanana support. Sporadic violence and considerable economic disruption continued until July 2002 when Ratsiraka and several of his prominent supporters fled to exile in France . In addition to political differences, ethnic differences played a role in the crisis and continue to play a role in politics. Ratsiraka is from the coastal Betsimisaraka tribe and Ravalomanana comes from

10556-472: The rainforests of the massif, 18 of which are tree ferns and seven are found only at Marojejy. Many of these fern species are very rare and have highly restricted distributions. Marojejy also contains several types of rare rosewood and palisandre (genus Dalbergia ), all of which are endemic to Madagascar. Rosewood, or andramena in Malagasy, is a type of hardwood with a lustrous deep red color, while palisandre, such as Dalbergia madagascariensis , lacks

10672-703: The rainforests. Another factor causing the loss of rainforest is expanding urban areas . Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles. Forests are being destroyed at a rapid pace. Almost 90% of West Africa 's rainforest has been destroyed. Since the arrival of humans, Madagascar has lost two thirds of its original rainforest. At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years and Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years. According to Rainforest Rescue , an important reason for

10788-493: The red color. Of the three species of Dalbergia found in Marojejy, D. madagascariensis and D. baronii are listed as " vulnerable " on the IUCN Red List , while D. louvelii is listed as " endangered ." The park has few large specimens of the former two due to overexploitation , and specimens are rarely found in the surrounding 5 km (3.1 mi) surrounding the park. The latter, D. louvelii ,

10904-475: The region are fairly constant, with both the daily temperature range and the seasonal range varying only slightly. February is the hottest month, averaging 25 °C (77 °F), while August is the coolest, averaging 19 °C (66 °F). Climbing the peaks, temperature decreases by 1 °C per 200 m of increased altitude (1 °F per 360 ft), and temperatures on the summit decline to 1.5 °C (34.7 °F) in July. The relative humidity for

11020-472: The region hovers around 87% throughout most of the year, although it rises to 97% between March and April. Rain falls every month on the southern side of the mountain, with the region receiving at least 2,300 mm (91 in) of rain annually, making it one of the wettest areas in Madagascar. The northern side of the mountain is more tropical, with a 6-month dry season, and receives about 1,500 mm (59 in) of rain per year. The general region receives

11136-502: The region today. In more recent geological times, the area's abundant quartzite formed when quartz-rich sands were deposited on the bedrock, and were then buried and recrystallized ( metamorphosed ). The soil pH is expected to be acidic to neutral. The highest, most rugged peaks of Marojejy owe their form to the gneiss from which they are made. The gneiss consists of alternating bands of light and dark colored minerals. The light minerals, consisting mostly of quartz and feldspar , are

11252-464: The residents are subsistence rice farmers who cultivate irrigated paddies in valleys or who plant on hillsides that have been cleared and burned ( slash and burn agriculture, known locally as tavy ). The swamps which formerly covered vast areas of Andapa Basin have been converted to rice paddies which are intensively cultivated; however the Tsimihety traditionally practice slash and burn techniques on

11368-502: The rest of Madagascar, the rocks of Marojejy National Park were once part of the supercontinent of Gondwana , which began to break up 160 million years ago to form the southern continents. However, the bedrock of Marojejy formed over 500 million years ago during the Precambrian beneath an ancient mountain range that has since eroded away completely. The bedrock is composed mostly of granitic rocks, although it also contains

11484-563: The rocks fractured counter to the layered grain. The cliff named Ambatotsondrona, with its sheer, south-facing rock wall, is an example. Marojejy National Park is noted for its rich biodiversity, which can appeal to both scientist and ecotourist. There are a wide range of habitats within the park, and many of its plants and animals are endemic to the area. Scientific expeditions regularly discover species that are either not previously documented in Marojejy, or in some cases, completely new to science. Some new species are highly endangered . In

11600-482: The same time, rainforests are usually not used sustainably by non-native peoples but are being exploited or removed for agricultural purposes . On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes. The province of Irian Jaya or West Papua in

11716-420: The seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. President Rajoelina could rule as a strongman . In November 2023, Andry Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the election . Turnout

11832-453: The second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Ravalomana was president from 2002 to 2009. The most recent president Hery Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president. In June 2019 parliamentary elections the party of president Andry Rajoelina won absolute majority of

11948-417: The silky sifaka, Marojejy is home to 10 other species of lemur , several of which are also endangered due mainly to habitat loss . The nocturnal aye-aye has only been seen once at the park, although one old nest and traces of its feeding have been found at various elevations. Other mammals include at least 15 species of tenrec , seven species of native rodent , the fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ), and

12064-421: The soil, the nutrients mostly wash away and are not absorbed by the plants. Finally, these soils are poor due to the high volume of rain in tropical rainforests washes nutrients out of the soil more quickly than in other climates. A natural rainforest emits and absorbs vast quantities of carbon dioxide . On a global scale, long-term fluxes are approximately in balance, so that an undisturbed rainforest would have

12180-532: The status of the park. They began clearing the outer edges of the reserve to start plantations of vanilla and coffee . In 1993, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the Service des Eaux et Forêts renewed conservation efforts in the area, evicted the people living inside the reserve, and renegotiated the borders with the local community, based on the 1966 decree. Trails and posts were then used to clearly mark

12296-448: The suburban presidential palace, killing more than 30. In an increasingly weakened position, Ratsiraka acceded to negotiations on the formation of a transitional government . The resulting " Panorama Convention " of October 31, 1991, stripped Ratsiraka of nearly all of his powers, created interim institutions, and set an 18-month timetable for completing a transition to a new form of constitutional government. The High Constitutional Court

12412-443: The supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer but more diverse. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently developed practical methods of exploring it. As long ago as 1917, naturalist William Beebe declared that "another continent of life remains to be discovered, not upon

12528-433: The surface; most of the trees' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run-off, and beginning a process of soil erosion . Eventually, streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible. There are several reasons for

12644-484: The varied habitats distributed across the mountain slopes by affecting air temperature , fluctuations in temperature, and humidity levels. The interplay between these factors impacts the growth and development of plants, which form the foundation of the ecosystem. The result is an extremely varied and unevenly distributed forest that covers 90% of the park. The mountains of both Marojejy and nearby Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve feed several drainage basins , including

12760-730: The western Balkans along the Adriatic coast, as well as in Galicia and coastal areas of the eastern Black Sea , including Georgia and coastal Turkey ), in East Asia (in southern China , Highlands of Taiwan , much of Japan and Korea , and on Sakhalin Island and the adjacent Russian Far East coast), in South America (southern Chile ) and also in Australia and New Zealand . Dry rainforests have

12876-429: Was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history. The president is elected by direct universal suffrage for a 5-year term, renewable twice. A Prime Minister and council of ministers carries out day-to-day management of government. The President appoints the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister and members of Parliament initiate legislation and the government executes it. The President can dissolve

12992-507: Was assassinated 6 days later. A provisional military directorate then ruled until a new government was formed in June 1975, under Didier Ratsiraka . During the 16 subsequent years of President Ratsiraka's rule, Madagascar continued under a government committed to revolutionary socialism based on the 1975 Constitution establishing a highly centralized state. During this period a strategy of nationalization of private enterprises, centralization of

13108-430: Was converted into a national park and thus became open to visitors. Originally seen as a transition zone between the eastern rainforests and the central highlands , Marojejy is now recognized as having its own unique features, with some of the richest biodiversity on the island. Several studies from the early 1970s through the 1990s surveyed the mountain ecosystems and inventoried the flora and fauna. In 2007, Marojejy

13224-610: Was listed as a World Heritage Site as part of the Rainforests of the Atsinanana . Due to illegal logging and trafficking of valuable hardwoods, and especially after the 2009 political crisis in Madagascar , the Rainforests of the Atsinanana was added to the list of World Heritage in Danger in 2010. The boundaries of Marojejy National Park were originally established by approximation when

13340-410: Was permitted under the conditions that they did not extend their cultivated land into the park or allow others to join them. The families were later expelled for violating these conditions. Many families from the local communities did not understand why such a large area so rich in resources and necessary for their survival was forbidden to them, and between the late 1980s and 1993, they stopped honoring

13456-477: Was retained as the ultimate judicial arbiter of the process. In March 1992, a widely representative National Forum organized by the FFKM ( Malagasy Christian Council of Churches ) drafted a new Constitution. Troops guarding the proceedings clashed with pro-Ratsiraka " federalists " who tried to disrupt the forum in protest of draft constitutional provisions preventing the incumbent president from running again. The text of

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