The Marland report , officially Education of the Gifted and Talented: Report to Congress , is a 1972 report to the Congress of the United States by Sidney P. Marland Jr., which contains a widely known definition of giftedness of children. It is the first national report on gifted education . One of its most compelling major findings was:
121-493: Gifted and Talented children are, in fact, deprived and can suffer psychological damage and permanent impairment of their abilities to function well which is equal to or greater than the similar deprivation suffered by any other population with special needs served by the Office of Education . (pp. xi-xii) The deleterious effects of failing to provide GT services is corroborated by recent research: National efforts to increase
242-468: A " disorder ", it may be that Einstein's genius and his delay in speaking were developmentally intrinsic to one another. It has been said that gifted children may advance more quickly through stages established by post-Freudian developmentalists such as Jean Piaget . Gifted individuals also experience the world differently, resulting in certain social and emotional issues. Francoy Gagne's (2000) Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT)
363-417: A better world. Buddhists emphasize the practice of loving-kindness toward all sentient beings as a means to eliminate suffering . Many other types of motivation are discussed in the academic literature. Moral motivation is closely related to altruistic motivation. Its motive is to act in tune with moral judgments and it can be characterized as the willingness to "do the right thing". The desire to visit
484-440: A form of desire while Jackson Beatty and Charles Ransom Gallistel see it as a physical process akin to hunger and thirst. Some definitions stress the continuity between human and animal motivation, but others draw a clear distinction between the two. This is often emphasized by the idea that human agents act for reasons and are not mechanistically driven to follow their strongest impulse. A closely related disagreement concerns
605-405: A genuine concern for the well-being of others. It is associated with the desire to assist and help others in a non-transactional manner without the goal of obtaining personal gain or rewards in return. According to the controversial thesis of psychological egoism , there is no altruistic motivation: all motivation is egoistic. Proponents of this view hold that even apparently altruistic behavior
726-408: A goal while the second part is about planning how to realize this goal. Many different types of motivation are discussed in the academic literature. They differ from each other based on the underlying mechanisms responsible for their manifestation, what goals are pursued, what temporal horizon they encompass, and who is intended to benefit. The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
847-597: A hierarchy of means-end relationships. This implies that several steps or lower-level goals may have to be fulfilled to reach a higher-level goal. For example, to achieve the higher-level goal of writing a complete article, one needs to realize different lower-level goals, like writing different sections of the article. Some goals are specific, like reducing one's weight by 3 kg, while others are non-specific, like losing as much weight as possible. Specific goals often affect motivation and performance positively by making it easier to plan and track progress. The goal belongs to
968-547: A key role in the field of economics. In order to predict the behavior of economic actors , it is often assumed that they act rationally. In this field, rational behavior is understood as behavior that is in tune with self-interest while irrational behavior goes against self-interest. For example, based on the assumption that it is in the self-interest of firms to maximize profit, actions that lead to that outcome are considered rational while actions that impede profit maximization are considered irrational. However, when understood in
1089-406: A lower score on an achievement test than on an IQ test neither necessarily indicates that the test-taker is underachieving nor necessarily that the school curriculum is under-challenging. IQ classification varies from one publisher to another. IQ tests have poor reliability for determining test-takers' rank order at higher IQ levels, and are perhaps only effective at determining whether a student
1210-422: A mere hypothetical construct. The term "motivation" is closely related to the term "motive" and the two terms are often used as synonyms. However, some theorists distinguish their precise meanings as technical terms. For example, psychologist Andrea Fuchs understands motivation as the "sum of separate motives". According to psychologist Ruth Kanfer , motives are stable dispositional tendencies that contrast with
1331-494: A minority of cases in most public schools in the English-speaking world. Developing useful identification procedures for students who could benefit from a more challenging school curriculum is an ongoing problem in school administration. Because of the key role that gifted education programs in schools play in the identification of gifted individuals, both children and adults, it is worthwhile to examine how schools define
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#17328980205961452-408: A moral motivation to follow them. Certain forms of psychopathy and brain damage can inhibit moral motivation. Self-determination theorists, such as Edward Deci and Richard Ryan , distinguish between autonomous and controlled motivation. Autonomous motivation is associated with acting according to one's free will or doing something because one wants to do it. In the case of controlled motivation,
1573-783: A multitude of cultures, such as: Gifted children may develop asynchronously: their minds are often ahead of their physical growth, and specific cognitive and emotional functions are often developed differently (or to differing extents) at different stages of development. One frequently cited example of asynchronicity in early cognitive development is Albert Einstein , who was delayed in speech, but whose later fluency and accomplishments belied this initial delay. Psychologist and cognitive scientist Steven Pinker theorized that, rather than viewing Einstein's (and other famously gifted late-talking individuals) adult accomplishments as existing distinct from, or in spite of, his early language deficits, and rather than viewing Einstein's lingual delay itself as
1694-632: A part of a school that offers GATE programs. Within GATE programs, 29% of the students are Latino and Black, and 57% are White (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). Weinstein (2002) suggests that some teachers recommend racial minority students — with the exception of Asian students — to special education and remedial classes more often than gifted and talented classes due to teacher expectancy biases placed on racial minority students. Teachers' expectations of their students' academic performance influence how students perceive themselves. If
1815-438: A sense of autonomy and positive feedback from others. In the field of education, intrinsic motivation tends to result in high-quality learning. However, there are also certain advantages to extrinsic motivation: it can provide people with motivation to engage in useful or necessary tasks which they do not naturally find interesting or enjoyable. Some theorists understand the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as
1936-603: A sick friend to keep a promise is an example of moral motivation. It can conflict with other forms of motivation, like the desire to go to the movies instead. An influential debate in moral philosophy centers around the question of whether moral judgments can directly provide moral motivation, as internalists claim. Externalists provide an alternative explanation by holding that additional mental states, like desires or emotions, are needed. Externalists hold that these additional states do not always accompany moral judgments, meaning that it would be possible to have moral judgments without
2057-445: A smaller proportion than their enrollment in school. For example, statistics from 1993 indicate that in the U.S., Black students represented 16.2% of public school students, but only constituted 8.4% of students enrolled in gifted education programs. Similarly, while Hispanic students represented 9% of public school students, these students only represented 4.7% of those identified as gifted. However, Asian students make up only 3.6% of
2178-449: A spectrum rather than a clear dichotomy. This is linked to the idea that the more autonomous an activity is, the more it is associated with intrinsic motivation. A behavior can be motivated only by intrinsic motives, only by extrinsic motives, or by a combination of both. In the latter case, there are both internal and external reasons why the person engages in the behavior. If both are present, they may work against each other. For example,
2299-445: A standardised basis for the diagnosis of giftedness, psychologists are expected to interpret IQ scores in the context of all available information: standardized intelligence tests ignore actual achievement and can fail to detect giftedness. For example, a specific learning disorder such as dyslexia or dyspraxia can easily decrease scores on intelligence tests and hide true intellectual ability. In educational settings, many schools in
2420-469: A sustained dedication over time. The motivational persistence in relation to the chosen goal contrasts with flexibility on the level of the means: individuals may adjust their approach and try different strategies on the level of the means to reach a pursued end. This way, individuals can adapt to changes in the physical and social environment that affect the effectiveness of previously chosen means. The components of motivation can be understood in analogy to
2541-690: A teacher expects more success academically from specific students, those students are prone to displaying behavior and work ethic that will set them apart from others in a positive light, whereas if a teacher only expects the bare minimum from his or her students, those students will merely do what is expected of them (Weinstein, 2002). Racial minority students who are perceived as being disadvantaged from their peers in regards to socioeconomic status tend to have less supportive relations with their teachers (Fitzpatrick, 2015). Due to this lack of support, teachers do not expect these disadvantaged students to go above and beyond, therefore they are often overlooked when it
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#17328980205962662-419: A tendency to seek positive outcomes. Negative emotions are associated with a more pessimistic outlook and tend to lead to the avoidance of bad outcomes. Some theorists have suggested further phases. For example, psychologist Barry J. Zimmerman includes an additional self-reflection phase after the performance. A further approach is to distinguish two parts of the planning : the first part consists in choosing
2783-527: A unique challenge for the educational system. Teachers and educators will need to make special accommodations for their learning deficits (such as remediation), yet adapt the curriculum to meet their advanced learning needs (for instance, through acceleration or enrichment). Twice-exceptional students are considered to be at risk because they are hidden within the general population of their educational environment, and often viewed as either underachievers or average learners. Early identification and intervention
2904-586: A wider sense, rational motivation is a broader term that also includes behavior motivated by a desire to benefit others as a form of rational altruism. Biological motivation concerns motives that arise due to physiological needs . Examples are hunger, thirst, sex, and the need for sleep. They are also referred to as primary, physiological, or organic motives. Biological motivation is associated with states of arousal and emotional changes. Its source lies in innate mechanisms that govern stimulus-response patterns. Cognitive motivation concerns motives that arise from
3025-530: A willingness to invest time and effort over an extended period before the intended goal is reached. It is often a more deliberative process that requires goal-setting and planning. Both short-term and long-term motivation are relevant to achieving one's goals. For example, short-term motivation is central when responding to urgent problems while long-term motivation is a key factor in pursuing far-reaching objectives. However, they sometimes conflict with each other by supporting opposing courses of action. An example
3146-424: A young age, it is possible for them to be constantly aware of the risk of failure. This can be detrimental to their emotional state and academic achievement. If a child comprehends a subject well, but due to a developmental disorder receives poor grades in a subject, the child may have difficulty understanding why there is little success in that subject. Research over the years has shown mixed results when looking at
3267-444: Is "the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct". Others consider the theory not to be sufficiently empirical . This perspective has also been criticized on the grounds that it is ad hoc : that Gardner is not expanding the definition of the word "intelligence", but rather denies the existence of intelligence as traditionally understood, and instead uses
3388-528: Is a central topic in Sigmund Freud 's psychoanalysis . Early theories of motivation often assumed that conscious motivation is the primary form of motivation. However, this view has been challenged in the subsequent literature and there is no academic consensus on the relative extent of their influence. Closely related to the contrast between conscious and unconscious motivation is the distinction between rational and irrational motivation. A motivational state
3509-495: Is a developmental theory that distinguishes giftedness from talent, offering explanation on how outstanding natural abilities (gifts) develop into specific expert skills (talents). According to DMGT theory, "one cannot become talented without first being gifted, or almost so". There are six components that can interact in countless and unique ways that foster the process of moving from having natural abilities (giftedness) to systematically developed skills. These components consist of
3630-497: Is a federal government statutory definition of gifted and talented students in the United States. The term "gifted and talented" when used in respect to students, children, or youth means students, children, or youth who give evidence of high-performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who require services or activities not ordinarily provided by
3751-475: Is a married person who is tempted to have a one-night stand. In this case, there may be a clash between the short-term motivation to seek immediate physical gratification and the long-term motivation to preserve and nurture a successful marriage built on trust and commitment. Another example is the long-term motivation to stay healthy in contrast to the short-term motivation to smoke a cigarette. The difference between egoistic and altruistic motivation concerns who
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3872-529: Is a person in a clothing store who states that they want to buy a shirt and then goes on to buy one. Unconscious motivation involves motives of which the person is not aware. It can be guided by deep-rooted beliefs, desires, and feelings operating beneath the level of consciousness. Examples include the unacknowledged influences of past experiences, unresolved conflicts, hidden fears, and defense mechanisms . These influences can affect decisions, impact behavior, and shape habits. An example of unconscious motivation
3993-482: Is a person who plays basketball during lunch break only because they enjoy it. Extrinsic motivation arises from external factors, such as rewards, punishments, or recognition from others. This occurs when people engage in an activity because they are interested in the effects or the outcome of the activity rather than in the activity itself. For instance, if a student does their homework because they are afraid of being punished by their parents then extrinsic motivation
4114-517: Is a positive step toward diminishing teacher expectancy bias. Weinstein and colleagues (1991) aimed to change the low expectations attached to racial minority students of an urban high school that placed many Black and Latino students in remedial programs rather than college preparatory or honor classes. The study aimed to prepare these racial minority students for college-level academic work while attending high school. With positive teacher attitudes toward students and greater teacher self-efficacy ,
4235-455: Is a scientist who believes that their research effort is a pure expression of their altruistic desire to benefit science while their true motive is an unacknowledged need for fame. External circumstances can also impact the motivation underlying unconscious behavior. An example is the effect of priming , in which an earlier stimulus influences the response to a later stimulus without the person's awareness of this influence. Unconscious motivation
4356-410: Is a significant indicator of high academic potential. Because of this consideration, if a student scores highly on an IQ test, but performs at an average or below-average level academically, school officials may think that this issue warrants further investigation as an example of underachievement. However, scholars of educational testing point out that a test-taker's scores on any two tests may vary, so
4477-456: Is a strictly quantitative difference, measurable by IQ tests, some authors on the "experience of being" have described giftedness as a fundamentally different way of perceiving the world, which in turn affects every experience had by the gifted individual. This view is doubted by some scholars who have closely studied gifted children longitudinally. Characteristics and attributes associated with giftedness varies across cultures. While intelligence
4598-523: Is also known as high potential . It is a characteristic of children, variously defined, that motivates differences in school programming. It is thought to persist as a trait into adult life, with various consequences studied in longitudinal studies of giftedness over the last century. These consequences sometimes include stigmatizing and social exclusion . There is no generally agreed definition of giftedness for either children or adults, but most school placement decisions and most longitudinal studies over
4719-439: Is always true. For example, it has been suggested that in cases of rational deliberation, it may be possible to act against one's strongest motive. Another problem is that this view may lead to a form of determinism that denies the existence of free will . Persistence is the long-term component of motivation and refers to how long an individual engages in an activity. A high level of motivational persistence manifests itself in
4840-555: Is attributed to a multiplicity of factors including cultural bias of testing procedures, selective referrals and educator bias, and reliance on deficit-based paradigms. To address the inequities in assessment procedures, researchers suggest the use of multiple tests and alternative methods of testing, such as performance-based assessment measures, oral-expressiveness measures as well as non-verbal ability assessments (such as Naglieri Nonverbal Abilities Tests ( NNAT ) or Raven's Matrix Analogies Tests). According to 2013-2014 data collected by
4961-460: Is based on the source or origin of the motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual and is driven by internal factors, like enjoyment, curiosity, or a sense of fulfillment. It occurs when people pursue an activity for its own sake. It can be due to affective factors, when the person engages in the behavior because it feels good, or cognitive factors, when they see it as something good or meaningful. An example of intrinsic motivation
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5082-447: Is caused by egoistic motives. For example, they may claim that people feel good about helping other people and that their egoistic desire to feel good is the true internal motivation behind the externally altruistic behavior. Many religions emphasize the importance of altruistic motivation as a component of religious practice. For example, Christianity sees selfless love and compassion as a way of realizing God's will and bringing about
5203-399: Is critical; however, giftedness in the twice-exceptional population is often identified later than in the average population as it is masked by the disability. The disabilities may include auditory processing weaknesses, sensory-motor integration issues, visual perceptual difficulties, spatial disorientation, dyslexia, and attention deficits. Recognition of learning difficulties among the gifted
5324-423: Is disputed. It contrasts with amotivation , which is a state of apathy or listlessness. Motivation is studied in fields like psychology , neuroscience, motivation science, and philosophy . Motivational states are characterized by their direction, intensity , and persistence. The direction of a motivational state is shaped by the goal it aims to achieve. Intensity is the strength of the state and affects whether
5445-612: Is driven by external factors like obtaining rewards and avoiding punishment . For conscious motivation, the individual is aware of the motive driving the behavior, which is not the case for unconscious motivation. Other types include rational and irrational motivation, biological and cognitive motivation, short-term and long-term motivation, and egoistic and altruistic motivation. Theories of motivation are conceptual frameworks that seek to explain motivational phenomena. Content theories aim to describe which internal factors motivate people and which goals they commonly follow. Examples are
5566-518: Is extremely important in Western and some other cultures, such an emphasis is not consistent throughout the world. For example, in Japan , there is more of a value placed on an individual's motivation and diligence. When Japanese students are given a task, they attribute success to factors like effort, whereas American students tend to attribute success to ability. Similarly, when Japanese students fail, they refer
5687-427: Is further pertinent in the fields of personal development , health, and criminal law. Motivation is often understood as an internal state or force that propels individuals to engage and persist in goal-directed behavior. Motivational states explain why people or animals initiate, continue, or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. Motivational states are characterized by the goal they aim for, as well as
5808-600: Is gifted rather than distinguishing among levels of giftedness. The Wechsler test manuals have standard score ceilings of 160. However, higher ceilings, including scores into the exceptionally and profoundly gifted range, exist for the WISC-IV and WISC-V, which were specifically normed on large samples of gifted children. Today, the Wechsler child and adult IQ tests are by far the most commonly used IQ tests in hospitals, schools, and private psychological practice. Older versions of
5929-636: Is incorporated in the curriculum and furthermore when the curriculum itself is designed to be culturally and linguistically compatible. A culturally diverse curriculum and instruction encourages gifted minority students to experience a sense of belonging and validation as scholars. Furthermore, the educator's role in this process is significant as Lee et al. argue that "[t]eacher awareness and understanding of students' racial and cultural differences and their ability to incorporate multicultural perspectives into curricular content and instructional techniques may counter gifted minority students' discomfort in being one of
6050-413: Is intended to benefit from the anticipated course of action. Egoistic motivation is driven by self-interest: the person is acting for their own benefit or to fulfill their own needs and desires. This self-interest can take various forms, including immediate pleasure , career advancement, financial rewards, and gaining respect from others. Altruistic motivation is marked by selfless intentions and involves
6171-500: Is interested in consequences. The role of goals in motivation is sometimes paired with the claim that it leads to flexible behavior in contrast to blind reflexes or fixed stimulus-response patterns. This is based on the idea that individuals use means to bring about the goal and are flexible in regard to what means they employ. According to this view, the feeding behavior of rats is based on motivation since they can learn to traverse through complicated mazes to satisfy their hunger, which
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#17328980205966292-560: Is interested in the underlying neurological mechanisms, such as the involved brain areas and neurotransmitters . Philosophy aims to clarify the nature of motivation and understand its relation to other concepts. Motivation is not directly observable but has to be inferred from other characteristics. There are different ways to do so and measure it. The most common approach is to rely on self-reports and use questionnaires . They can include direct questions like "how motivated are you?" but may also inquire about additional factors in relation to
6413-432: Is made extremely difficult by virtue of their ability to compensate. Among the signs that the student may be twice-exceptional are apparent inconsistencies between abilities and results, deficits in short-term memory and attention, and negative behaviors such as being sarcastic, negative, or aggressive. A child prodigy who demonstrates qualities to be twice-exceptional may encounter additional difficulties. With insight at
6534-617: Is not an innate reflex but a flexible response to the available information that is based on past experiences and expected outcomes. It is associated with the explicit formulation of desired outcomes and engagement in goal-directed behavior to realize these outcomes. Some theories of human motivation see biological causes as the source of all motivation. They tend to conceptualize human behavior in analogy to animal behavior. Other theories allow for both biological and cognitive motivation and some put their main emphasis on cognitive motivation. Short-term and long-term motivation differ in regard to
6655-412: Is not the case for the stimulus-bound feeding behavior of flies. Some psychologists define motivation as a temporary and reversible process. For example, Robert A. Hinde and John Alcock see it as a transitory state that affects responsiveness to stimuli. This approach makes it possible to contrast motivation with phenomena like learning which bring about permanent behavioral changes. Another approach
6776-437: Is nothing special to consider when we are looking to support gifted individuals on their developmental journey. Motivation Motivation is an internal state that propels individuals to engage in goal -directed behavior . It is often understood as a force that explains why people or animals initiate, continue, or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. It is a complex phenomenon and its precise definition
6897-655: Is one frequently mentioned conceptualization of giftedness. Renzulli's definition, which defines gifted behaviors rather than gifted individuals, is composed of three components as follows: Gifted behavior consists of behaviors that reflect an interaction among three basic clusters of human traits—above average ability, high levels of task commitment, and high levels of creativity. Individuals capable of developing gifted behavior are those possessing or capable of developing this composite set of traits and applying them to any potentially valuable area of human performance. Persons who manifest or are capable of developing an interaction among
7018-652: Is particularly evident in the reexamination of "giftedness" by Sternberg and Davidson in their collection of articles Conceptions of Giftedness (1986; second edition 2005). The many different conceptions of giftedness presented, although distinct, are interrelated in several ways. Most of the investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple qualities, not all of which are intellectual. IQ scores are often viewed as inadequate measures of giftedness. Motivation , high self-concept , and creativity are key qualities in many of these broadened conceptions of giftedness. Joseph Renzulli 's (1978) "three ring" definition of giftedness
7139-413: Is partly because motivation is a complex phenomenon with many aspects and different definitions often focus on different aspects. Some definitions emphasize internal factors. This can involve psychological aspects in relation to desires and volitions or physiological aspects regarding physical needs. For example, John Dewey and Abraham Maslow use a psychological perspective to understand motivation as
7260-406: Is possible to be motivated while lacking the corresponding ability. Effort is the physical and mental energy invested when exercising an ability. It depends on motivation and high motivation is associated with high effort. The quality of the resulting performance depends on the ability, effort, and motivation. Motivation to perform an action can be present even if the action is not executed. This
7381-419: Is rational if it is based on a good reason. This implies that the motive of the behavior explains why the person should engage in the behavior. In this case, the person has an insight into why the behavior is considered valuable. For example, if a person saves a drowning child because they value the child's life then their motivation is rational. Rational motivation contrasts with irrational motivation, in which
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#17328980205967502-424: Is responsible. Intrinsic motivation is often more highly regarded than extrinsic motivation. It is associated with genuine passion, creativity , a sense of purpose, and personal autonomy . It also tends to come with stronger commitment and persistence. Intrinsic motivation is a key factor in cognitive, social, and physical development. The degree of intrinsic motivation is affected by various conditions, including
7623-440: Is sometimes discussed in terms of three main components: direction, intensity, and persistence. Direction refers to the goal people choose. It is the objective in which they decide to invest their energy. For example, if one roommate decides to go to the movies while the other visits a party, they both have motivation but their motivational states differ in regard to the direction they pursue. The pursued objective often forms part of
7744-440: Is the case, for instance, if there is a stronger motivation to engage in a different action at the same time. Motivation is a complex phenomenon that is often analyzed in terms of different components and stages. Components are aspects that different motivational states have in common. Often-discussed components are direction, intensity , and persistence. Stages or phases are temporal parts of how motivation unfolds over time, like
7865-412: Is the phase in which the direction of motivation is determined. It involves considering the reasons for and against different courses of action and then committing oneself to a goal one aims to achieve. The goal-setting process by itself does not ensure that the plan is carried out. This happens in the goal-striving stage, in which the individual tries to implement the plan. It starts with the initiation of
7986-518: Is time for gifted and talented education program nominations. Research suggests that teacher expectancy bias can also be diminished by matching the racial demographics of students to that of teachers. Gershenson and colleagues (2016) found that non-Black teachers held low expectations of their black students, specifically in relation to black male students and math, whereas Black teachers held high expectations of black male students in regards to math. This finding suggests that racial diversity among educators
8107-413: Is to provide a very broad characterization to cover many different aspects of motivation. This often results in very long definitions by including many of the factors listed above. The multitude of definitions and the lack of consensus have prompted some theorists, like psychologists B. N. Bunnell and Donald A. Dewsbury, to doubt that the concept of motivation is theoretically useful and to see it instead as
8228-400: Is usually based on IQ scores. The threshold of IQ = 130 is defined by statistical rarity. By convention, the 5% of scores who fall more than two standard deviations from the mean (or more accurately 1.96 ) are considered atypical . In the case of intelligence, these 5% are partitioned to both sides of the range of scores, and include the 2.5% who score more than two standard deviations below
8349-592: The Stanford-Binet form L-M, which has long been obsolete, as the only test with a sufficient ceiling to identify the exceptionally and profoundly gifted, despite the Stanford-Binet L-M never having been normed on a representative national sample. Because the instrument is outdated, current results derived from the Stanford-Binet L-M generate inflated and inaccurate scores. The IQ assessment of younger children remains debated. While many people believe giftedness
8470-414: The gift (G) itself, chance (C), environmental catalyst (EC), intrapersonal catalyst (IC), learning/practice (LP) and the outcome of talent (T). It is important to know that (C), (IC), and (EC) can facilitate but can also hinder the learning and training of becoming talented. The learning/practice is the moderator. It is through the interactions, both environmental and intrapersonal that influence
8591-479: The hierarchy of needs , the two-factor theory , and the learned needs theory. They contrast with process theories, which discuss the cognitive, emotional, and decision-making processes that underlie human motivation, like expectancy theory , equity theory , goal-setting theory , self-determination theory , and reinforcement theory . Motivation is relevant to many fields. It affects educational success, work performance , athletic success, and economic behavior . It
8712-556: The Achievement Gap Between Minority and Nonminority Children by Increasing Access to Gifted Programs" Olszewski-Kubilius et al. write that minority students are "less likely to be nominated by teachers as potential candidates for gifted programs and, if nominated, are less likely to be selected for the program, particularly when such traditional measures as I.Q. and achievement tests are used for identification." This underrepresentation of such students in gifted programs
8833-821: The Office of Civil Rights of the Department of Education, White students have more opportunities and exposure to attending schools that offer gifted and talented education programs (GATE) than racial and ethnic minority students, specifically Black and Latino students. Data collected by the Office of Civil Rights department of the Department of Education also reveal that racial/ethnic minority students are underrepresented in gifted and talented education programs. Forty-nine percent of all students enrolled in schools that offer GATE programs are White, whereas 42% of all students enrolled in schools that offer GATE programs are Latino and Black, thus revealing that white people have more opportunities to be
8954-521: The Stanford-Binet test, now obsolete, and the Cattell IQ test purport to yield IQ scores of 180 or higher, but those scores are not comparable to scores on currently normed tests. The Stanford-Binet Third Revision (Form L-M) yields consistently higher numerical scores for the same test-taker than scores obtained on current tests. This has prompted some authors on identification of gifted children to promote
9075-490: The State of Texas: "gifted and talented student" means a child or youth who performs at or shows the potential for performing at a remarkably high level of accomplishment when compared to others of the same age, experience, or environment, and who The major characteristics of these definitions are (a) the diversity of areas in which performance may be exhibited (e.g., intellectual, creativity, artistic, leadership, academically), (b)
9196-466: The US use a variety of assessments of students' capability and potential when identifying gifted children. These may include portfolios of student work, classroom observations, achievement tests, and IQ test scores. Most educational professionals accept that no single criterion can be used in isolation to accurately identify a gifted child. One of the criteria used in identification may be an IQ test score. Until
9317-496: The act of motivating someone and to a reason or goal for doing something. It comes from the Latin term movere (to move). The traditional discipline studying motivation is psychology. It investigates how motivation arises, which factors influence it, and what effects it has. Motivation science is a more recent field of inquiry focused on an integrative approach that tries to link insights from different subdisciplines. Neurology
9438-547: The action and includes putting in effort and trying different strategies to succeed. Various difficulties can arise in this phase. The individual has to muster the initiative to get started with the goal-directed behavior and stay committed even when faced with obstacles without giving in to distractions . They also need to ensure that the chosen means are effective and that they do not overexert themselves. Goal-setting and goal-striving are usually understood as distinct stages but they can be intertwined in various ways. Depending on
9559-435: The allocation of limited resources: direction, intensity, and persistence determine where to allocate energy, how much of it, and for how long. For effective action, it is usually relevant to have the right form of motivation on all three levels: to pursue an appropriate goal with the required intensity and persistence. The process of motivation is commonly divided into two stages: goal-setting and goal-striving. Goal-setting
9680-464: The availability of a variety of appropriate instructional and out-of-school provisions must be a high priority since research indicates that many of the emotional or social difficulties gifted students experience disappear when their educational climates are adapted to their level and pace of learning ." [emphasis added] The other summary conclusions in the Marland Report are as follows: Regarding
9801-403: The comparison with other groups (e.g., those in general education classrooms or of the same age, experience, or environment), and (c) the use of terms that imply a need for development of the gift (e.g., capability and potential). Another understanding of giftedness is that of asynchronous development. This asynchrony has also been referred to as “dyssynchrony” (Terrassier 1985). It can be within
9922-464: The course of individual lives have followed people with IQs in the top 2.5 percent of the population —that is, IQs above 130 . Definitions of giftedness also vary across cultures. The various definitions of intellectual giftedness include either general high ability or specific abilities. For example, by some definitions, an intellectually gifted person may have a striking talent for mathematics without equally strong language skills. In particular,
10043-429: The development of adult giftedness. The identification of giftedness first emerged after the development of IQ tests for school placement. It has since become an important issue for schools, as the instruction of gifted students often presents special challenges . During the twentieth century, gifted children were often classified via IQ tests; other identification procedures have been proposed but are only used in
10164-412: The dynamic nature of motivation as a fluctuating internal state. Motivation is closely related to ability , effort, and action . An ability is a power to perform an action, like the ability to walk or to write. Individuals can have abilities without exercising them. They are more likely to be motivated to do something if they have the ability to do it, but having an ability is not a requirement and it
10285-426: The effort to engage in this activity. However, this view is not generally accepted and it has been suggested that at least in some cases, actions are motivated by other mental phenomena, like beliefs or rational deliberation. For example, a person may be motivated to undergo a painful root canal treatment because they conclude that it is a necessary thing to do even though they do not actively desire it. Motivation
10406-751: The eighteenth century. Autistic savantism refers to the exceptional abilities occasionally exhibited by people with autism or other pervasive developmental disorders . These abilities often come with below-age-level functioning in most, if not all areas of skilled performance. The term was introduced in a 1978 article in Psychology Today describing this condition. It is also proposed that there are savants with normal or superior IQ such as those with Asperger syndrome , who demonstrate special abilities involving numbers, mathematics, mechanical, and spatial skills. The majority of students enrolled in gifted programs are White; Black and Hispanic students constitute
10527-821: The failure to lack of effort. On the other hand, American students believe failure is due to a lack of ability. There are conceptions in rural Kenya that identify four types of intelligence: initiative (paro), knowledge and skills (rieko), respect (luoro), and comprehension of how to handle real-life problems (winjo). Chan cites the Chinese belief that aspects of giftedness are innate, but that people can become gifted through industriousness, perseverance, and learning. Not all who are intellectually gifted display every noticeable characteristic. There are many reasons gifted students who have various backgrounds are not as successful at Western intelligence/achievement tests: Many traits that demonstrate intellectual giftedness are identified across
10648-600: The few minority students in gifted programs." The term twice-exceptional was coined by James J. Gallagher to denote students who are both gifted and have disabilities. In other words, twice-exceptional students are those who have two special needs. For instance, they might have gifted learning needs and a learning disability . Or, they may be a gifted learner and have a developmental disability , such as autism spectrum disorder . People have known about twice-exceptional students for decades; however, identification and program strategies remain ambiguous. These students represent
10769-620: The final point, after nearly five decades, the Federal government's stance is unchanged, allocating 0.02% of its budget (approximately $ 13.5 million of $ 66.6 billion in FY 2021) to GT education via the Jacob Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act . A partial electronic version of the Marland Report is available online. Intellectual giftedness Intellectual giftedness is an intellectual ability significantly higher than average and
10890-599: The gifted' was coined." (Neihart, 1999, p.10). This event also sparked the birth of the organization SENG, founded by Dr. James T. Webb, as a way to support and educate the gifted community about these needs. A 2016 review of research facilitated by the National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC) in the United States continues to show that, as a whole, gifted children and young adults are not more susceptible to social and emotional challenges than their typically developing peers. That does not mean, however, that there
11011-406: The goals, feelings, and effort invested in a particular activity. Another approach is based on external observation of the individual. This can concern studying behavioral changes but may also include additional methods like measuring brain activity and skin conductance. Many academic definitions of motivation have been proposed but there is little consensus on its precise characterization. This
11132-413: The host not to offer it to their guests. But if they are not aware of the poison then politeness may be their motivating reason to offer it. The intensity of motivation corresponds to how much energy someone is willing to invest into a particular task. For instance, two athletes engaging in the same drill have the same direction but differ concerning the motivational intensity if one gives their best while
11253-408: The individual's motivational reason and explains why they favor an action and engage in it. Motivational reasons contrast with normative reasons, which are facts that determine what should be done or why a course of action is objectively good. Motivational reasons can be in tune with normative reasons but this is not always the case. For example, if a cake is poisoned then this is a normative reason for
11374-423: The initial goal-setting stage in contrast to the following goal-striving stage. A closely related issue concerns the different types of mental phenomena that are responsible for motivation, like desires , beliefs , and rational deliberation. Some theorists hold that a desire to do something is an essential part of all motivational states. This view is based on the idea that the desire to do something justifies
11495-408: The intensity and duration of the effort devoted to the goal. Motivational states have different degrees of strength. If a state has a high degree then it is more likely to influence behavior than if it has a low degree. Motivation contrasts with amotivation , which is a lack of interest in a certain activity or a resistance to it. In a slightly different sense, the word "motivation" can also refer to
11616-400: The late 1960s, when "giftedness" was defined solely based on an IQ score, a school district simply set an arbitrary score (usually in the 130 range) and a student either did or did not "make the cut". This method is still used by many school districts because it is simple and objective. Although a high IQ score is not the sole indicator of giftedness, usually if a student has a very high IQ, that
11737-423: The late 90s, the development of the brain of people with high IQ scores has been shown to be different to that of people with average IQ scores. A longitudinal study over 6 years has shown that high-IQ children have a thinner cerebral cortex when young, which then grows quickly and becomes significantly thicker than the other children's by the time they become teenagers. In psychology, identification of giftedness
11858-420: The mean and the 2.5% who score more than two standard deviations above the mean. Because the average of IQ is 100 and its standard deviation is 15, this rule places the threshold for intellectual disability at IQ = 70, and the symmetrical threshold for giftedness at IQ = 130 (rounded). This arbitrary threshold is used by most psychologists in most countries. While IQ testing has the advantage of providing
11979-438: The needs of a greater number of children (Colangelo, 2003). Savants are individuals who perform exceptionally in a single field of learning. More often, the terms savant and savantism describe people with a competence level in a single field of learning well beyond what is considered normal, even among the gifted community. Such individuals are alternatively termed idiot savants ─ a term that has been mentioned as early as
12100-432: The norm. This asynchrony increases with higher intellectual capacity. The uniqueness of the gifted renders them particularly vulnerable and requires modifications in parenting, teaching and counseling in order for them to develop optimally.” This definition shares many commonalities with the definitions above, but also emphasizes the parenting and counseling differences gifted students may need to be fully supported. Since
12221-419: The other only puts in minimal effort. Some theorists use the term "effort" rather than "intensity" for this component. The strength of a motivational state also affects whether it is translated into action. One theory states that different motivational states compete with each other and that only the behavior with the highest net force of motivation is put into action. However, it is controversial whether this
12342-401: The performance during the striving phase, the individual may adjust their goal. For example, if the performance is worse than expected, they may lower their goals. This can go hand in hand with adjusting the effort invested in the activity. Emotional states affect how goals are set and which goals are prioritized. Positive emotions are associated with optimism about the value of a goal and create
12463-413: The person has no good reason that explains the behavior. In this case, the person lacks a clear understanding of the deeper source of motivation and in what sense the behavior is in tune with their values. This can be the case for impulsive behavior , for example, when a person spontaneously acts out of anger without reflecting on the consequences of their actions. Rational and irrational motivation play
12584-400: The person is aware. It includes the explicit recognition of goals and underlying values. Conscious motivation is associated with the formulation of a goal and a plan to realize it as well as its controlled step-by-step execution. Some theorists emphasize the role of the self in this process as the entity that plans, initiates, regulates, and evaluates behavior. An example of conscious motivation
12705-444: The person; where the child has distinctly different development levels socially, emotionally, physically, or even between different academic areas. It can also be asynchrony between the child and their social and/or academic environment. The Columbus Group came together in 1991 to talk about their concerns that the current trends in gifted education focused overwhelmingly on achievement and the future impact these students could have on
12826-458: The presence of a strong extrinsic motivation, like a high monetary reward, can decrease intrinsic motivation. Because of this, the individual may be less likely to further engage in the activity if it does not result in an external reward anymore. However, this is not always the case and under the right circumstances, the combined effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation leads to higher performance. Conscious motivation involves motives of which
12947-552: The process of learning and practice along with/without chance that natural abilities are transformed into talents. Multiple intelligences has been associated with giftedness or overachievement of some developmental areas (Colangelo, 2003). Multiple intelligences has been described as an attitude towards learning, instead of techniques or strategies (Cason, 2001). Howard Gardner proposed in Frames of Mind (Gardner 1983/1994) that intellectual giftedness may be present in areas other than
13068-437: The psychological level. They include affiliation, competition, personal interests, and self-actualization as well as desires for perfection, justice, beauty, and truth. They are also called secondary, psychological, social, or personal motives. They are often seen as a higher or more refined form of motivation. The processing and interpretation of information play a key role in cognitive motivation. Cognitively motivated behavior
13189-442: The psychological well-being of gifted children, according to a 1999 review of research by Neihart. The timeline of research into the impact of giftedness on mental health shows swings from the view point that it increases risk in the late 19th century to Terman's research that the gifted experienced fewer adjustment issues than others. In 1981, a gifted high school student died of suicide and "the phrase, 'social and emotional needs of
13310-480: The relationship between artistic ability or musical ability and the high academic ability usually associated with high IQ scores is still being explored, with some authors referring to all of those forms of high ability as "giftedness", while other authors distinguish "giftedness" from "talent". There is still much controversy and much research on the topic of how adult performance unfolds from trait differences in childhood, and what educational and other supports best help
13431-601: The role of awareness and rationality . Definitions emphasizing this aspect understand motivation as a mostly conscious process of rationally considering the most appropriate behavior. Another perspective emphasizes the multitude of unconscious and subconscious factors responsible. Other definitions characterize motivation as a form of arousal that provides energy to direct and maintain behavior. For instance, K. B. Madsen sees motivation as "the 'driving force' behind behavior" while Elliott S. Vatenstein and Roderick Wong emphasize that motivation leads to goal-oriented behavior that
13552-406: The school in order to fully develop such capabilities." (The Improving America’s Schools Act of 1994, P.L. 103–382, Title XIV, p. 388) This definition has been adopted partially or completely by the majority of the individual states in the United States (which have the main responsibility for education policy as compared to the federal government). Most states have a definition similar to that used in
13673-508: The state is translated into action and how much effort is employed. Persistence refers to how long an individual is willing to engage in an activity. Motivation is often divided into two phases: in the first phase, the individual establishes a goal, while in the second phase, they attempt to reach this goal. Many types of motivation are discussed in the academic literature. Intrinsic motivation comes from internal factors like enjoyment and curiosity . It contrasts with extrinsic motivation, which
13794-473: The student body, yet constitute 14% in the gifted programs. Poor students are also underrepresented in gifted programs, even more than Black and Hispanic students are. Lack of equity and access in programs for the gifted has been acknowledged since the early twentieth century. In the 1920s, research by Lillian Steele Proctor pointed to systemic racism as a contributor to the relative invisibility of gifted African American youth. In their 2004 study, "Addressing
13915-461: The students who were once on track to being recommended for remedial classes were performing at advanced academic levels after 2 years of intervention. They were also more heavily involved in leadership roles at their high school. This study supports the claim that teacher expectancy contributes to how a student sees him or herself in regards to achievements (Weinstein et al., 1991). Gifted students of color experience success when multicultural content
14036-403: The temporal horizon and the duration of the underlying motivational mechanism. Short-term motivation is focused on achieving rewards immediately or in the near future. It is associated with impulsive behavior. It is a transient and fluctuating phenomenon that may arise and subside spontaneously. Long-term motivation involves a sustained commitment to goals in a more distant future. It encompasses
14157-490: The term "gifted". Since Lewis Terman in 1916, psychometricians and psychologists have sometimes equated giftedness with high IQ. Later researchers (e.g., Raymond Cattell , J. P. Guilford , and Louis Leon Thurstone ) have argued that intellect cannot be expressed in such a unitary manner, and have suggested more multifaceted approaches to intelligence. Research conducted in the 1980s and 1990s has provided data that supports notions of multiple components to intelligence. This
14278-410: The three clusters require a wide variety of educational opportunities and services that are not ordinarily provided through regular instructional programs. In Identifying Gifted Children: A Practical Guide , Susan K. Johnsen explains that gifted children all exhibit the potential for high performance in the areas included in the United States' federal definition of gifted and talented students: There
14399-490: The typical intellectual realm. The concept of Multiple Intelligences (MI) makes the field aware of additional potential strengths and proposes a variety of curricular methods. Gardner argued that there are eight intelligences, or different areas in which people assimilate or learn about the world around them: interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, naturalistic, and spatial-visual. The most common criticism of Gardner's MI theory
14520-520: The word "intelligence" where other people have traditionally used words like "ability" and " aptitude ". Identification of gifted students with MI is a challenge since there is no simple test to determine the giftedness of MI. Assessing by observation is potentially most accurate, but potentially highly subjective. MI theory can be applied to not only gifted students, but it can be a lens through which all students can be assessed. This more global perspective may lead to more child-centered instruction and meet
14641-533: The world, and were missing focusing on and valuing who those children are in the moment, and what their lived experiences were like. They created a definition of giftedness that centers around asynchrony and intensity, which first appeared in print in an article titled “Giftedness: The View from Within” (Morelock, 1992). It states that: “Giftedness is asynchronous development in which advanced cognitive abilities and heightened intensity combine to create inner experiences and awareness that are qualitatively different from
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