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116-465: The village was founded in the 14th century by the Polish noble family of Pilecki, and was settled by the descendants of German colonists, who called it Markhof . The Pileckis also founded a Catholic parish in the village. During World War II it was under German occupation . On 24 March 1944 a patrol of German police came to the house of Józef and Wiktoria Ulma , where they found eight Jewish members of

232-553: A liege Lord . Unlike absolute monarchs who eventually took reign in most other European countries, the Polish king was not an autocrat and not the szlachta's overlord. The relatively few hereditary noble titles in the Kingdom of Poland were bestowed by foreign monarchs, while in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, princely titles were mostly inherited by descendants of old dynasties. During

348-593: A social class , dominated those states by exercising political rights and power . Szlachta as a class differed significantly from the feudal nobility of Western Europe . The estate was officially abolished in 1921 by the March Constitution . The origins of the szlachta are obscure and the subject of several theories. Traditionally, its members owned land (allods) , often folwarks . The szlachta secured substantial and increasing political power and rights throughout its history, beginning with

464-404: A farm, often little different from a peasant's dwelling, sometimes referred to as drobna szlachta , "petty nobles" or yet, szlachta okoliczna , meaning "local". Particularly impoverished szlachta families were often forced to become tenants of their wealthier peers. They were described as szlachta czynszowa , or "tenant nobles" who paid rent. See " Szlachta categories " for more. The origins of

580-467: A few decades earlier. ..." Escutcheons and hereditary coats of arms with eminent privileges attached is an honor derived from the ancient Germans. Where Germans did not inhabit, and where German customs were unknown, no such thing existed. The usage of heraldry in Poland was brought in by knights arriving from Silesia , Lusatia , Meissen , and Bohemia . Migrations from here were the most frequent, and

696-405: A highly developed sense of solidarity. (See gens .) The starosta (or starszyna ) had judicial and military power over the ród/clan, although this power was often exercised with an assembly of elders. Strongholds called grόd were built where the religious cult was powerful, where trials were conducted, and where clans gathered in the face of danger. The opole was the territory occupied by

812-472: A king, exercised supreme political power over that republic and elected kings as servants of a republic the szlachta regarded as the embodiment of their rights. Over time, numerically most lesser szlachta became poorer, or were poorer than, their few rich peers with the same political status and status in law, and many lesser szlachta were worse off than commoners with land. They were called szlachta zagrodowa , that is, "farm nobility", from zagroda ,

928-406: A lower species. Quoting Bishop of Poznań, Wawrzyniec Goślicki, herbu Grzymała (between 1530 and 1540–1607): "The kingdome of Polonia doth also consist of the said three sortes, that is, the king, nobility and people. But it is to be noted, that this word people includeth only knights and gentlemen. ... The gentlemen of Polonia doe represent the popular state, for in them consisteth a great part of

1044-457: A member of the family would simply use his Christian name (e.g., Jakub, Jan, Mikołaj, etc.), and the name of the coat of arms common to all members of his clan. A member of the family would be identified as, for example, "Jakub z Dąbrówki", herbu Radwan, (Jacob to/at Dąbrówki of the knights' clan Radwan coat of arms ), or "Jakub z Dąbrówki, Żądło ( cognomen ) (later a przydomek/nickname/ agnomen ), herbu Radwan" (Jacob to/at [owning] Dąbrówki with

1160-400: A new term for Lithuanian nobility appearing in the 16th century — šlėkta , a direct loanword from Polish szlachta . Recently, Lithuanian linguists advocated dropping the usage of this Polish loanword. The process of Polonization took place over a lengthy period. At first only the leading members of the nobility were involved. Gradually the wider population became affected. Major effects on

1276-458: A non- Slavic warrior class, forming a distinct element known as the Lechici /Lekhi ( Lechitów ) within the ancient Polonic tribal groupings ( Indo-European caste systems ). Similar to Nazi racial ideology, which dictated the Polish elite were largely Nordic (the szlachta Boreyko coat of arms heralds a swastika ), this hypothesis states this upper class was not of Slavonic extraction and

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1392-514: A person's place of residence, birth or family origin). In antiquity, the szlachta used topographic surnames to identify themselves. The expression " z " (meaning "from" sometimes "at") plus the name of one's patrimony or estate (dominion) carried the same prestige as "de" in French names such as "de Châtellerault", and " von " or " zu " in German names such as "von Weizsäcker" or "zu Rhein" . For example,

1508-464: A policy that was greatly eased in 1596 by the Union of Brest . See, for example, the careers of Senator Adam Kisiel and Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki . The Proto-Slavic suffix "-ьskъ" means "characteristic of", "typical of". This suffix exists in Polish as "-ski" (feminine: "-ska"). It's attached to surnames derived from a person's occupation, characteristics, patronymic surnames, or toponymic surnames (from

1624-474: A representative in the local and national assemblies, the Sejm . His military functions were entirely reduced to supervising a mass mobilization and in practice he ended up as little more than overseer of weights and measures. Appointments to the role were usually made until 1775 by the king. The exceptions were the voivodes of Polock and Vitebsk who were elected by a local poll of male electors for confirmation by

1740-516: A representative of the Council of Ministers and, on its behalf, the Prime Minister. The 1999 administrative reform in Poland reduced the numbers of voivodeships from 49 to 16 thus making each voivodeship much larger in size. This caused many discussions, also protests and conflicts and questions regarding the role of the voivodes in the system. The new act of 5 June 1998 on government administration in

1856-414: A representative of the government and the representative of the state's interests could organize control of tasks in the field of government administration, defined detailed objectives of the government's policy in the voivodeship, adapted to local conditions, coordinated the cooperation of all organizational units of government and local government administration operating on in the area of the voivodeship in

1972-462: A retinue, as well. Another group of knights were granted land in allodium , not feudal tenure , by the prince, allowing them the economic ability to serve the prince militarily. A Polish warrior belonging to the military caste living at the time prior to the 15th century was referred to as a "rycerz", very roughly equivalent to the English "knight," the critical difference being the status of "rycerz"

2088-596: A series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland , the existing Lithuanian and Ruthenian nobilities formally joined the szlachta . As the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) evolved and expanded territorially after the Union of Lublin , its membership grew to include the leaders of Ducal Prussia and Livonia . Over time, membership in

2204-473: A single tribe. ( Manteuffel 1982 , p. 44) The family unit of a tribe is called the rodzina , while a collection of tribes is a plemię . Mieszko I of Poland (c. 935 – 25 May 992) established an elite knightly retinue from within his army, which he depended upon for success in uniting the Lekhitic tribes and preserving the unity of his state. Documented proof exists of Mieszko I's successors utilizing such

2320-399: A unifying religious cult, governed by the wiec , an assembly of free tribesmen. Later, when safety required power to be consolidated, an elected prince was chosen to govern. The election privilege was usually limited to elites. The tribes were ruled by clans ( ród ) consisting of people related by blood or marriage and theoretically descending from a common ancestor, giving the ród/clan

2436-606: Is comes palatinus for the principal commander of a military force, deputising for the monarch gradually became the title of territorial governors in Poland, Hungary and the Czech lands and in the Balkans. During the Ottoman administration of Greece , the Ottoman Voivode of Athens resided in the ancient Gymnasium of Hadrian. The Serbian Autonomous Province of Vojvodina descends from

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2552-570: Is used to portray wartime Poland as a "Republic of the Just" of a heroic people. [REDACTED] Media related to Markowa at Wikimedia Commons Szlachta The szlachta ( Polish: [ˈʂlaxta] ; Lithuanian : šlėkta ) were the noble estate of the realm in the Kingdom of Poland , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and, as

2668-636: The bellidux , the military leader in battle. The term has also spread to non-Slavic languages, like Romanian , Hungarian and Albanian , in areas with Slavic influence. During the Byzantine Empire it referred to military commanders mainly of Slavic-speaking populations, especially in the Balkans , the Bulgarian Empire being the first permanently established Slavic state in the region. The title voevodas ( Greek : βοεβόδας ) originally occurs in

2784-648: The Early Middle Ages . It primarily referred to the medieval rulers of the Romanian-inhabited states and of governors and military commanders of Poles, Hungarian , Balkan , Russian people and other Slavic-speaking populations. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , voivode was interchangeably used with palatine . In the Tsardom of Russia , a voivode was a military governor . Among

2900-730: The King of Lithuania . Because of Lithuanian expansion into the lands of Ruthenia in the middle of the 14th century, a new term for nobility appeared — bajorai , from Ruthenian бояре . This word is used to this day in Lithuania to refer to nobility in general, including those from abroad. After the Union of Horodło , the Lithuanian nobility acquired equal status with its Polish counterparts. Over time they became increasingly Polonized , although they did preserve their national consciousness, and in most cases recognition of their Lithuanian family roots. In

3016-699: The Middle East . The second theory involved a presumed szlachta descent from Japheth , one of Noah 's sons. By contrast, the peasantry were said to be the offspring of another son of Noah, Ham — and hence subject to bondage under the Curse of Ham . The Jews were considered the offspring of Shem . Other fanciful theories included its foundation by Julius Caesar , Alexander the Great , or regional leaders who had not mixed their bloodlines with those of 'slaves, prisoners, or aliens'. Another theory describes its derivation from

3132-673: The Proto-Germanic * slagiz , "blow", "strike", and shares the Anglo-Saxon root for "slaughter", or the verb "to slug" – means "breeding" or "gender". Like many other Polish words pertaining to nobility, it derives from Germanic words: the Polish word for "knight" is rycerz , from the German Ritter , meaning "rider". The Polish word for "coat of arms" is herb from the German Erbe ("heritage"). 17th-century Poles assumed szlachta came from

3248-415: The Sejm (parliament) , submitting palatines , or Voivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , receive the title of prince . Sons of a prince were to receive titles of counts and barons . Castellans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were to receive the title of count. This attempt to introduce the hierarchy of noble titles common for European feudal systems for szlachta was rejected. The fact

3364-546: The Serbian Vojvodina , with Stevan Šupljikac as Vojvoda or Duke, that became later Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar . The transition of the voivode from military leader to a high ranking civic role in territorial administration ( Local government ) occurred in most Slavic-speaking countries and in the Balkans during the Late Middle Ages . They included Bulgaria, Bohemia, Moldavia and Poland. Moreover, in

3480-456: The chairman of the Council of Ministers and to individual ministers. He retained a double position in the voivodeship: he was a representative of the central government in the voivodeship, as well as the head of the general administration bodies subordinated to him. As part of the first function, apart from representing the government at state ceremonies, the voivode was responsible for coordinating

3596-653: The szlachta grew to encompass around 8% to 15% of Polish-Lithuanian society, which made the membership an electorate that was several times larger than most noble classes in other countries; by contrast, nobles in Italy and France encompassed 1% during the early modern period . Despite often enormous differences in wealth and political influence, few distinctions in law existed between the great magnates and lesser szlachta . The juridic principle of szlachta equality existed because szlachta land titles were allodial , not feudal , involving no requirement of feudal service to

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3712-477: The szlachta in Poland. Members of the szlachta had the personal obligation to defend the country ( pospolite ruszenie ), thereby becoming within the kingdom a military caste and aristocracy with political power and extensive rights secured. Inclusion in the warrior caste was almost exclusively based on inheritance. Concerning the early Polish tribes, geography contributed to long-standing traditions. The Polish tribes were internalized and organized around

3828-501: The 16th century, some of the Lithuanian nobility claimed that they were descended from the Romans, and that the Lithuanian language was derived from Latin. This led to a conundrum: Polish nobility claimed its own ancestry from Sarmatian tribes, but Sarmatians were considered enemies of the Romans. Thus, a new Roman-Sarmatian theory was created. Strong cultural ties with Polish nobility led to

3944-451: The 17th century, was a cognomen ) Voivode Voivode ( / ˈ v ɔɪ v oʊ d / VOY -vohd ), also spelled voivod , voievod or voevod and also known as vaivode ( / ˈ v aɪ v oʊ d , ˈ v eɪ -/ V(A)Y -vohd ), voivoda , vojvoda or wojewoda , is a title denoting a military leader or warlord in Central , Southeastern and Eastern Europe in use since

4060-412: The Council of Ministers. The Small Constitution of 1992 did not assign any special tasks to the voivodes in the field of taking care of the development of the voivodeship or the development of its resources, because already then it was realized that the administrative division into 49 administrative units does not meet the requirements of the time and that the voivode is in fact not the host of region, but

4176-496: The Czech lands, but also in the Balkans, it was an aristocratic title corresponding to dux , Duke or Prince . Many noble families of the Illyricum still use this title despite the disputes about the very existence of nobility in the Balkans. Grand Duke of Bosnia ( Serbo-Croatian : Veliki Vojvoda Bosanski ; Latin : Bosne supremus voivoda / Sicut supremus voivoda regni Bosniae )

4292-533: The Danube principalities, voivode was considered a princely title. The term voivode comes from two roots. вой(на) ( voi [ na ]) means "war, fight," while водя ( vodya ) means 'leading' in Old Slavic , together meaning 'war leader' or ' warlord '. The Latin translation is comes palatinus for the principal commander of a military force, serving as a deputy for the monarch. In early Slavic, vojevoda meant

4408-445: The German schlachten , "to slaughter" or "to butcher", and was therefore related to the German word for battle, Schlacht . Some early Polish historians thought the term might have derived from the name of the legendary proto-Polish chief, Lech , mentioned in Polish and Czech writings. The szlachta traced their descent from Lech, who allegedly founded the Polish kingdom in about the fifth century. The Polish term szlachta designated

4524-613: The German occupation and the Holocaust in five Polish homes. The Markowa Ulma-Family Museum of Poles Who Saved Jews in World War II is located in the village. However, memory of the tragedy in Markowa has been politically used to support a view that can be summed up as follows: Since Poles saved Jews, it cannot be that Poles murdered Jews or handed them over to the Germans. Memory of the tragedy

4640-531: The Germans robbed the house and workshop of the Ulma family and organized an alcoholic libation. On the 60th anniversary of this tragedy, a memorial was erected in memory of the family. The family was beatified by the Catholic Church, with the ceremony taking place in Markowa on 10 September 2023 by papal delegate Cardinal Marcello Semeraro . Other Polish families also hid Jews in Markowa, and at least 17 Jews survived

4756-402: The Grand Duchy, Ruthenia 's nobility gradually rendered loyalty to the multilingual and cultural melting pot that was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Many noble Ruthenian families intermarried with Lithuanians. The rights of Orthodox nobles were nominally equal to those enjoyed by the Polish and Lithuanian nobility, but they were put under cultural pressure to convert to Catholicism. It was

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4872-709: The Greek and Turkish residents of Athens and making powerful enemies at the Porte . In 16th-century Poland and Lithuania, the wojewoda was a civic role of senatorial rank and neither heritable nor a title of nobility . His powers and duties depended on his location. The least onerous role was in Ruthenia while the most powerful wojewoda was in Royal Prussia . The role began in the crown lands as that of an administrative overseer, but his powers were largely ceremonial. Over time he became

4988-521: The Middle Ages and in the early modern period. The Polish clan name and cry ritualized the ius militare, i.e., the power to command an army; and they had been used sometime before 1244 to define knightly status. ( Górecki 1992 , pp. 183–185). "In Poland, the Radwanice were noted relatively early (1274) as the descendants of Radwan , a knight [more properly a "rycerz" from the German " ritter "] active

5104-583: The Piasts attempted to deprive them of their independence. These możni (Magnates) constantly sought to undermine princely authority . In Gall Anonym's chronicle, there is noted the nobility's alarm when the Palatine Sieciech "elevated those of a lower class over those who were noble born" entrusting them with state offices. ( Manteuffel 1982 , p. 149) In Lithuania Propria and in Samogitia , prior to

5220-460: The Presidium of National Councils were transformed into a comprehensively recognized office ( Polish : urząd ) with the help of which the voivode was to perform his tasks as state administration body. The Voivodes were to be appointed by the Prime Minister following a consultation with the respective Voivodeship National Council . Their competencies included The Voivode, providing conditions for

5336-601: The Ruthenian and Lithuanian nobility from before the old Commonwealth. In the past, a misconception sometimes led to the mistranslation of " szlachta " as "gentry" rather than "nobility". This mistaken practice began due to the inferior economic status of many szlachta members compared to that of the nobility in other European countries (see also Estates of the Realm regarding wealth and nobility ). The szlachta included those rich and powerful enough to be great magnates down to

5452-576: The Szall and Goldman families. At first the Germans executed all the Jews. Then they shot the pregnant Wiktoria and her husband. When the six children began to scream at the sight of their parents' bodies, Joseph Kokott, a German police officer ( Volksdeutsche from Koblov in Hlučín Region ), shot them after consulting with his superior. The other killers were Eilert Dieken, Michael Dziewulski and Erich Wilde. Afterwards

5568-543: The Voivodeship National Council to perform its statutory tasks, participated in its sessions and meetings of its presidium, ensured the implementation of the WRN resolutions and decisions of the presidium and submitted reports on their implementation, presented the WRN with draft plans for the social and economic development of the voivodeship and the budget, submitted reports from their implementation and cooperated with

5684-428: The activities of each body conducting administrative enforcement for a specified period of time. On the other hand, the non-combined administration bodies ( Polish : Administracja niezespolona ) were obliged to agree with the voivode on the drafts of local law enacted by them, in order to ensure compliance of their activities with the voivode's orders and to submit annual information to the voivode on their activities in

5800-486: The activities of each body conducting administrative enforcement for a specified period of time. Special administration bodies and municipal bodies, within the scope of government administration tasks performed by them, were obliged to provide the voivode, at his request, with explanations in every case conducted in the voivodeship. The voivode also issued opinions on the appointment and dismissal of heads of special administration and appointed and dismissed, in consultation with

5916-542: The activities of the entire state administration in the voivodeship in accordance with the basic political line of the government. The Polish Committee of National Liberation (PKWN) in its Manifesto of 22 July 1944, referred to the March Constitution of 1921 , but at the same time stated that it exercises power through voivodeship, poviat, city and commune national councils and through authorized representatives. Where national councils do not exist, democratic organizations are obliged to establish them immediately. According to

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6032-405: The basic rights and duties of the voivode as the representative of the government, the executive and managing body of the Voivodeship National Council and the local state administration body at the voivodeship level." An important competence of the voivode in this function was to exercise control over the implementation of voters' postulates and motions. The voivode, on the basis of the guidelines of

6148-445: The belief only rycerstwo (those combining military prowess with high/aristocratic birth) could serve as officials in state administration. Select rycerstwo were distinguished above the other rycerstwo, because they descended from past tribal dynasties, or because early Piasts' endowments made them select beneficiaries. These rycerstwo of great wealth were called możni (Magnates) . They had the same political status and status in law as

6264-456: The communal and living needs of the population. It was also specified that the voivode performed and organized the performance of tasks in the voivodeship resulting from the provisions of generally applicable law, orders of the Prime Minister and resolutions of the WRN. Voivodes also controlled the performance by units subordinated and not subordinated to national councils of tasks resulting from laws and other acts of law. In this regard, they had

6380-411: The competent Voivodeship National Council. The dismissal of a voivode by the appointing authority required a request from the minister of public administration. The voivode's resignation could be demanded by the voivodeship national council on its own initiative or on the initiative of one of the poviat national councils. The tasks of the voivode with the help of the voivodeship departments: From 1946

6496-408: The competent minister, heads of services, inspections and other organizational units. However, in relation to state-owned companies, the voivode issued opinions on candidates for members of supervisory bodies appointed by the representative of the state treasury and had the right to nominate candidates for members of the company's supervisory body. The position of voivodes at that time was justified by

6612-493: The council and elected by it), reporting to the provincial national council in this regard. In according to statue of 20 March 1950, the institution of the Voivode was abolished and his competences was transferred to the Voivodeship National Council and it's presidium. As part of the 1972-1975 administrative reform, the Voivode position was reintroduced according to the law published on 22 November 1973. receiving powers which were at

6728-502: The council of ministers, also prepared draft plans for the socio-economic development of the voivodeship and draft budgets, implemented the plan and budget adopted by the voivodeship national council and performed other tasks related to the comprehensive development of the voivodeship and meeting the needs of society, focusing on key problems, especially concerning the complex of agriculture and food economy, improving market supply, housing construction and housing management, as well as meeting

6844-474: The creation of the Kingdom of Lithuania by Mindaugas , nobles were called die beste leuten in German sources. In Lithuanian, nobles were named ponai . The higher nobility were named kunigai or kunigaikščiai (dukes) — a loanword from Scandinavian konung . They were the established local leaders and warlords. During the development of the state, they gradually became subordinated to higher dukes, and later to

6960-459: The cry [ vocitatio ], [that is], the godło, [by the name of] Nagody, and I established them in the said land of mine, Masovia , [on the military tenure described elsewhere in the charter]." The documentation regarding Raciborz and Albert's tenure is the earliest surviving of the use of the clan name and cry defining the honorable status of Polish knights. The names of knightly genealogiae only came to be associated with heraldic devices later in

7076-517: The decree of the Polish Committee of National Liberation of 21 August 1944, these "authorised representatives" were voivodes and starostes. The provincial department ( Polish : Wydział wojewódzki ), introduced for the first time in Poland, was the executive body of the Voivodeship National Council. The chairman was the voivode or his deputy. Voivodes were initially appointed by the PKWN at the request of

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7192-581: The distinguishing name Żądło of the knights' clan Radwan coat of arms ), or "Jakub Żądło, herbu Radwan". The Polish state paralleled the Roman Empire in that full rights of citizenship were limited to the szlachta. The szlachta in Poland , where Latin was written and spoken far and wide, used the Roman naming convention of the tria nomina (praenomen, nomen, and cognomen) to distinguish Polish citizens/szlachta from

7308-460: The fact that there was no self-government voivodeship, and the administrative voivodeship was strictly governmental in nature and was headed by the voivode as the land manager, who, together with the local government assembly, represented the voivodeship outside. However, its position was not as strong as before 1990, because the Constitutional Act of 1992 clearly indicated that local government

7424-539: The family name of counts Litwiccy (Litwicki ) was formed with the patronymic suffix -ic from the ethnic name Litwa, i.e. Lithuania, 'nation of Lithuanians'. It refers to the early modern empire of Central Europe, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648). In Polish "z Dąbrówki" and "Dąbrowski" mean the same thing: "of, from Dąbrówka." More precisely, "z Dąbrówki" means owning the patrimony or estate Dąbrówka, not necessarily originating from. Almost all

7540-435: The field of preventing threats to human life and health, environmental threats, maintaining public order and state security, protecting civil rights, preventing natural disasters, preventing threats as well as combating and removing their effects. The voivode also coordinated tasks in the field of defense and state security in the voivodeship, represented the government at state ceremonies and performed other tasks commissioned by

7656-436: The fifth century. Lechia was the name of Poland in antiquity, and the szlachta's own name for themselves was Lechici /Lekhi. Richard Holt Hutton argued an exact counterpart of szlachta society was the system of tenure of southern India—an aristocracy of equality—settled as conquerors among a separate race. Some elements of the Polish state paralleled the Roman Empire in that full rights of citizenship were limited to

7772-479: The formalized, hereditary aristocracy of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which constituted the nation itself, and ruled without competition. In official Latin documents of the old Commonwealth , the hereditary szlachta were referred to as " nobilitas " from the Latin term, and could be compared in legal status to English or British peers of the realm , or to the ancient Roman idea of cives , "citizen". Until

7888-487: The general administration authorities in the regions were voivodes. Contrary to the provisions of the Act of 1919, the competences of the voivode according to the new legislation was much more wide-ranging. It granted the voivode special supervisory and intervention powers in relation to non-combined administration ( Polish : Administracja niezespolona ). It could convene meetings of heads of non-combined administration bodies for

8004-582: The government of the Commonwealth via the lower legislative chamber of the Sejm (bicameral national parliament) , composed of representatives elected at local sejmiks (local szlachta assemblies). Sejmiks performed various governmental functions at local levels, such as appointing officials and overseeing judicial and financial governance, including tax-raising. The szlachta assumed various governing positions, including voivode , marshal of voivodeship , castellan , and starosta . In 1413, following

8120-541: The government, and they are as a Seminarie from whence Councellors and Kinges are taken." The szlachta were a caste , a military caste, as in Hindu society. In the year 1244, Bolesław, Duke of Masovia , identified members of the knights ' clan as members of a genealogia: "I received my good servitors [Raciborz and Albert] from the land of [Great] Poland , and from the clan [ genealogia ] called Jelito , with my well-disposed knowledge [i.e., consent and encouragement] and

8236-557: The hands of the Presidium of the Voivodeship National Councils . Thus, the model of the collegial structure of administrative bodies was abandoned. Although the presidiums were left in the system of national councils, their role and position was reduced to the internal organ of the council, representing the council outside. Since the publishing of the law amending the Act on National Councils of 1973, departments and other organizational units previously subordinated directly to

8352-462: The impoverished with an aristocratic lineage, but with no land, no castle, no money, no village, and no subject peasants. Historian M.Ross wrote in 1835: "At least 60,000 families belong to this class, of which, however, only about 100 are wealthy; all the rest are poor." A few exceptionally wealthy and powerful szlachta members constituted the magnateria and were known as magnates ( magnates of Poland and Lithuania ). Adam Zamoyski argues that

8468-453: The land and plow," that even an educated peasant would always remain a peasant, because "it is impossible to transform a dog into a lynx ." The szlachta were noble in the Aryan (see Alans ) sense -- "noble" in contrast to the people over whom they ruled after coming into contact with them. The szlachta traced their descent from Lech/Lekh , who allegedly founded the Polish kingdom in about

8584-527: The legal basis for establishing voivodeships and restoring the institution of the voivode was the Act of 2 August 1919. The Ordinance of the President of the Republic of Poland of 19 January 1928 did not depart from the voivodeships and the voivodes who headed them. internal affairs, adopted by the Council of Ministers ), from 14 December 1922, President of the Republic of Poland. Pursuant to the Act of 2 August 1919,

8700-670: The lesser Lithuanian nobility occurred after various sanctions were imposed by the Russian Empire , such as removing Lithuania from the names of the Gubernyas shortly after the November Uprising . After the January Uprising the sanctions went further, and Russian officials began to intensify Russification , and banned the printing of books in Lithuanian . After the principalities of Halych and Volhynia became integrated with

8816-576: The local electorate but as representatives/emissaries of the central government's Council of Ministers . They are appointed by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers and among their main tasks are budgetary control and supervision of the administrative code. Following the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , the rank of Vojvoda was continued in the Independent State of Croatia as Vojskovodja . The rank

8932-567: The minister of public administration. The Voivode was appointed and dismissed by the PKWN, from 31 December 1944, the Provisional Government did so at the request of the minister of public administration, and after the adoption of the Small Constitution of 1947 the President of the Republic of Poland at the request of the minister of public administration in consultation with the president of the Council of Ministers after consulting

9048-547: The monarch. In 1791, it was decided to adopt the procedure throughout the country but the 18th-century Partitions of Poland put a stop to it. Polish voivodes were subject to the Law of Incompatibility (1569) which prevented them from simultaneously holding ministerial or other civic offices in their area. Following the declaration of independence and the establishment of the Second Polish Republic and its armed forces ,

9164-584: The peasantry and foreigners, hence why multiple surnames are associated with many Polish coat of arms. Example – Jakub: Radwan Żądło-Dąbrowski (sometimes Jakub: Radwan Dąbrowski-Żądło) Praenomen Jakub Nomen (nomen gentile—name of the gens / ród or knights' clan): Radwan Cognomen (name of the family branch/ sept within the Radwan gens): For example—Braniecki, Dąbrowski, Czcikowski, Dostojewski, Górski, Nicki, Zebrzydowski , etc. Agnomen (nickname, Polish przydomek ): Żądło (prior to

9280-451: The population and socio-economic development of the area; organized control over the performance of state administration tasks in the voivodeship resulting from acts and ordinances, resolutions and orders of the chief state administration bodies; ensured the cooperation of organizational units operating in the voivodeship in the field of maintaining law and order, as well as preventing natural disasters and removing their effects. In addition, he

9396-405: The presidium of the WRN in matters related to the implementation of the tasks of the presidium and the preparation of the council session, applied to the presidium to convene a session of the WRN and the subject of its deliberations. In addition, the voivode cooperated with the WRN committees and councillors, assisted them in the implementation of tasks, in maintaining communication with residents and

9512-403: The purpose of coordination their work from the point of view of the interests of the state, demand explanations from them in specific matters and suspend the enforcement of orders contrary to government policy, could also interfere in personnel matters of non-combined administration bodies. The voivode was nominated by the president, personally subordinated to the minister of internal affairs, to

9628-504: The reign of King Casimir III the Great between 1333 and 1370 in the Kingdom of Poland until the decline and end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century. Apart from providing officers for the army, its chief civic obligations included electing the monarch and filling honorary and advisory roles at court that would later evolve into the upper legislative chamber, the Senate . The szlachta electorate also took part in

9744-474: The request of the staroste, with the opinion of the competent head of the combined service, inspection or voivodeship guard, could create, transform and liquidate organizational units constituting the auxiliary apparatus of the heads of poviat services, inspections and guards, unless separate provisions provided otherwise. Governor could appoint and dismiss the heads of combined services, inspections and guards voivodeships, except for Voivodeship Police Commander, who

9860-453: The residents' self-government and in conducting control activities, and presented drafts of major ordinances and decisions to the WRN committees for consultation and informed about the implementation of the committee's conclusions. Voivodes were served by voivodeship offices. The voivode could also perform some of his tasks with the help of "united field offices, enterprises, plants and institutions" subordinated to him. The functions and status of

9976-445: The right to issue legal acts with force in the territory of the voivodeship. The process of organizing and unifying the territorial administration intensified in the 1920s, especially after the May coup. Their culmination was the regulation of the President of the Republic of Poland of 1928 on the organization and scope of operation of general administration authorities. This act stipulated that

10092-411: The right to take the necessary decisions to ensure their full implementation. In 1988 further regulations clarified the voivode's competences and tasks compared to the earlier regulations of 1975 and 1983. As the representative of the central government in the voivodeship, the voivode coordinated the work of all state administration bodies operating in the voivodeship in the field of meeting the needs of

10208-459: The rycerstwo from which they all originated and to which they would return were their wealth lost. ( Manteuffel 1982 , pp. 148–149) The Period of Division from, A.D., 1138 – A.D., 1314 , which included nearly 200 years of fragmentation and which stemmed from Bolesław III 's division of Poland among his sons, was the genesis of the political structure where the great landowning szlachta ( możni/Magnates, both ecclesiastical and lay ), whose land

10324-420: The scope of commissioned government administration tasks carried out by these bodies. The voivode, as a representative of the government, also performed tasks commissioned by the Council of Ministers. The voivode, as a representative of the government, had the right to issue recommendations to local government administration bodies operating in the voivodeship and, in particularly justified cases, he could suspend

10440-629: The second half of the 19th century, the Polish term obywatel (which now means "citizen") could be used as a synonym for szlachta landlords. Today the word szlachta simply translates as "nobility". In its broadest sense, it can also denote some non-hereditary honorary knighthoods and baronial titles granted by other European monarchs, including the Holy See . Occasionally, 19th-century landowners of commoner descent were referred to as szlachta by courtesy or error, when they owned manorial estates, but were not in fact noble by birth. Szlachta also denotes

10556-443: The surnames of genuine Polish szlachta can be traced back to a patrimony or locality, despite time scattering most families far from their original home. John of Zamość called himself John Zamoyski , Stephen of Potok called himself Potocki . At least since the 17th century the surnames/ cognomens of szlachta families became fixed and were inherited by following generations, remaining in that form until today. Prior to that time,

10672-545: The szlachta were equal before the king and deliberately opposed becoming a feudal nobility became a matter of law embedded as a constitutional principle of equality. The republicanism of ancient Rome was the szlachta's ideal. Poland was known as the Most Serene Republic of Poland, Serenissima Res Publica Poloniae. The szlachta, not as a feudal nobility or gentry, but as an electorate, and an aristocracy and warrior caste , with no feudal dependence on

10788-470: The szlachta were not exactly the same as the European nobility nor a gentry , as the szlachta fundamentally differed in law, rights, political power, origin, and composition from the feudal nobility of Western Europe. The szlachta did not rank below the king, as the szlachta's relationship to the Polish king was not feudal. The szlachta stood as equals before the king. The king was not an autocrat , nor

10904-409: The szlachta's overlord, as szlachta land was in allodium , not feudal tenure . Feudal dependence upon a Polish king did not exist for the szlachta and earlier in history some high-ranking szlachta ( magnates ) descending from past tribal dynasties regarded themselves as co-proprietors of Piast realms and constantly sought to undermine Piast authority. In 1459 Ostroróg presented a memorandum to

11020-490: The szlachta, while ancient, have always been considered obscure. As a result, its members often referred to it as odwieczna (perennial). Two popular historical theories about its origins have been put forward by its members and early historians and chroniclers. The first theory involved a presumed descent from the ancient Iranian tribe known as Sarmatians , who in the 2nd century AD, occupied lands in Eastern Europe , and

11136-507: The szlachta. According to British historian Alexander Bruce Boswell  [ pl ] , the 16th-century szlachta ideal was a Greek polis —a body of citizens, a small merchant class, and a multitude of laborers. The laborers consisted of peasants in serfdom . The szlachta had the exclusive right to enter the clergy until the time of the three partitions of Poland–Lithuania , and the szlachta and clergy believed they were genetically superior to peasants. The szlachta regarded peasants as

11252-592: The territorial division of the country, where communes were the basic territorial division units, while the voivodeship was the basic territorial division unit for the performance of government administration. In this concept, the voivode as a body of general government administration, in particular: The voivode was also a higher-ranking authority within the meaning of the regulations of the Code of Administrative Procedure in relations to heads of regional offices of general government administration and local government bodies within

11368-509: The three successive Partitions of Poland between 1772 and 1795, most of the szlachta began to lose legal privileges and social status, while szlachta elites became part of the nobilities of the three partitioning powers. In Polish, a nobleman is called a " szlachcic " and a noblewoman a " szlachcianka ". The Polish term szlachta derived from the Old High German word slahta . In modern German Geschlecht – which originally came from

11484-412: The time period was the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. However, unlike other European chivalry , coats of arms were associated with Polish knights' clans' ( genealogiae ) names and war cries ( godło ), where heraldic devices came to be held in common by entire clans, fighting in regiments. ( Górecki 1992 , pp. 183–185). Around the 14th century, there was little difference between knights and

11600-411: The turn of the 17th century. The governors of provinces and sanjaks would appoint someone from their own households or someone from the local elites to collect the revenues. The chief Ottoman administrator of Athens was also called the voivode. One such holder of this title, Hadji Ali Haseki , was voivode on five separate occasions before his final banishment and execution in 1795 after angering both

11716-522: The voivode was a representative of the government, exercising state authority in the voivodeship on its behalf; responsible executor of the orders of individual ministers; the head of authorities and offices in the area subordinated to him; supervisors of employees of these offices. The scope of the voivode was therefore broad and went beyond the area of matters belonging to the Ministry of the Interior. He also had

11832-447: The voivode was subjected to social control of the voivodeship national council and was obliged to submit periodic reports to it (actually the presidium) on the general line of his activities. The voivode ceased to be the chairman of the voivodeship national council, but due to the position he held, he was a member of the voivodeship national council. Instead, he was the chairman of the provincial government department (the executive body of

11948-523: The voivode were clarified in January 1978 in the regulation of the Council of Ministers . The preamble to this act states, inter alia, that "the voivode, while performing his tasks in the field of managing the national economy in the voivodeship, is guided by the resolutions of the Polish United Workers' Party as the guiding political force of society in socialist construction. This regulation specified

12064-421: The voivodeship it was specified that the voivode is: The voivode, as a representative of the Council of Ministers, was responsible for implementing the government's policy. The voivode's powers also included issuing orders binding on all government administration bodies, and in emergency situations also binding on the bodies of local government units. The voivode could also, in particularly justified cases, suspend

12180-404: The voivodeship. The reactivation, by the Act of 8 March 1990, of a self-governing commune with legal personality, its own sphere of public tasks, its own authorities and territory, independent of other local bodies of state (government) administration, forced a new look at the role of the voivode as a local body of state administration. The legal position of the voivode after 1990 was in line with

12296-512: The voivodeship. In addition, the voivode's competences included all matters in the field of government administration not reserved for other bodies and supervision over the activities of local government units, representing the State Treasury in relation to state property and exercising other powers resulting from representing the State Treasury and exercising the powers and duties of the founding body towards state-owned enterprises. The voivode, at

12412-426: The work of the 10th-century Byzantine emperor Constantine VII in his De Administrando Imperio , in reference to Hungarian military leaders. The title was used in medieval: Bohemia , Bosnia , Bulgaria , Croatia , Greece , Hungary , Macedonia , Moldavia , Poland , Rügen , Russian Empire , Ukraine , Serbia , Transylvania and Wallachia . In the Late Middle Ages the voivode, Latin translation

12528-533: Was a court title in the Kingdom of Bosnia , bestowed by the king to highest military commanders, usually reserved for most influential and most capable among highest Bosnian nobility who already held title of vojvoda. To interpret it as an office post rather than a court rank could be even more accurate. Unlike usage in Western Europe, Central Europe, or in various Slavic lands from Central to North-East Europe, where analogy between grand duke and grand prince

12644-598: Was almost strictly hereditary; the group of all such warriors was known as the "rycerstwo". Representing the wealthier families of Poland and itinerant knights from abroad seeking their fortunes, this other group of rycerstwo, which became the szlachta ("szlachta" becomes the proper term for Polish aristocracy beginning about the 15th century), gradually formed apart from Mieszko I's and his successors' elite retinues. This rycerstwo/ aristocracy secured more rights granting them favored status. They were absolved from particular burdens and obligations under ducal law, resulting in

12760-622: Was appointed after consultation opinion of the voivode. In addition, the voivode has powers and responsibilities regarding defense in the voivodeship, as specified in the Homeland Defence Act : In 2001 the powers and competences of the voivodes was reduced as some of their authority was transferred to the Voivodeship sejmik . Voivodes continue to have a role in local government in Poland today, as authorities of voivodeships and overseers of self-governing local councils, answerable not to

12876-466: Was in allodium , not feudal tenure , were economically elevated above the rycerstwo they originated from. The prior political structure was one of Polish tribes united into the historic Polish nation under a state ruled by the Piast dynasty , this dynasty appearing circa 850 A.D. Some możni (Magnates) descending from past tribal dynasties regarded themselves as co-proprietors of Piast realms, even though

12992-555: Was of a different origin than the Slavonic peasants ( kmiecie ; Latin: cmethones ) over which they ruled. In old Poland, there were two nations – szlachta and peasants. The szlachta were differentiated from the rural population. In harshly stratified and elitist Polish society, the szlachta's sense of distinction led to practices that in later periods would be characterized as racism. Wacław Potocki , herbu Śreniawa (1621–1696), proclaimed peasants "by nature" are "chained to

13108-423: Was responsible for the ad hoc tasks commissioned by the council of ministers, the government presidium, the prime minister and the minister responsible for administration. Such a definition of competences constituted a qualitative change in relation to the amended regulation. Acting as a government representative, the voivode also represented the central authorities at state ceremonies and during official meetings in

13224-553: Was significant, with both titles corresponding to sovereign lower than king but higher than duke. In Bosnia, the title grand duke corresponded more to the Byzantine military title megas doux . It is possible to register some similarities with equivalent titles in neighboring Slavic lands, such as Serbia; however, in neighboring countries, the title duke , in Slavic vojvoda , also had military significance, but in that sense "grand duke"

13340-696: Was specifically, even exclusively, Bosnian title. In some provinces and vassal states of the Ottoman Empire , the title of voivode (or voyvoda ) was employed by senior administrators and local rulers. This was common to the extent in Ottoman Bosnia , but especially in the Danubian Principalities , which protected the northern borders of the empire and were ruled by the Greek Phanariotes . The title "Voyvoda" turned into another position at

13456-523: Was the basic form of organizing local public life, while other types of local government units were to be defined by law. Also, the establishment of new bodies - financial supervision in the form of the Regional Chamber of Accounts and the Adjudication Committee and Boards of Appeals changed the scope of competences of voivodes. Within the scope of his competence and competence, the voivode as

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