Maritime history is the study of human interaction with and activity at sea. It covers a broad thematic element of history that often uses a global approach, although national and regional histories remain predominant. As an academic subject, it often crosses the boundaries of standard disciplines , focusing on understanding humankind's various relationships to the oceans, seas , and major waterways of the globe. Nautical history records and interprets past events involving ships, shipping, navigation, and seafarers.
200-411: Maritime history is the broad overarching subject that includes fishing , whaling , international maritime law , naval history , the history of ships , ship design, shipbuilding , the history of navigation , the history of the various maritime-related sciences ( oceanography , cartography , hydrography , etc.), sea exploration, maritime economics and trade, shipping , yachting , seaside resorts ,
400-866: A clay sealing with a cord impression that might have come from rope spun from wool fibers. The animal bone assemblage at this site had a large percentage of domesticated sheep/goat, with changes in the assemblage suggesting that the production of secondary products (such as wool and milk) became more important toward the late Ubaid and the Uruk period. The spindle whorls from Kosak Shamali, and also those from Telul eth-Thalathat II (northern Iraq), gradually decreased in weight, which could indicate that more and more finer-quality or softer fibers were spun. At Tell Surezha (Iraqi Kurdistan), evidence from animal bones also suggests that wool production may have been important. Stamp seals had been in use in Upper Mesopotamia since
600-548: A wetland environment . As a result of changes in sea-level, the shoreline of the Persian Gulf during the Ubaid was different from that of today. At the beginning of the Ubaid, around 6500 BC, the shoreline at Kuwait may have run slightly further south. During the subsequent 2.5 millennia, the shoreline moved further northward, up to the ancient city of Ur around 4000 BC. Date palms were present in southern Mesopotamia since at least
800-444: A broad overview, see the four-volume encyclopedia edited by John B. Hattendorf , Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History (Oxford, 2007). It contains over 900 articles by 400 scholars and runs 2900 pages. Other major reference resources are Spencer Tucker, ed., Naval Warfare: An International Encyclopedia (3 vol. ABC-CLIO, 2002) with 1500 articles in 1231, pages, and I. C. B. Dear and Peter Kemp, eds., Oxford Companion to Ships and
1000-423: A council of one's peers, were no longer sufficient for the needs of the local community. Ubaid culture originated in the south, but still has clear connections to earlier cultures in the region of middle Iraq. The appearance of the Ubaid folk has sometimes been linked to the so-called Sumerian problem, related to the origins of Sumerian civilisation . Whatever the ethnic origins of this group, this culture saw for
1200-442: A distinctive fine quality buff or greenish colored pottery decorated with geometric designs in brown or black paint. Tools such as sickles were often made of hard fired clay in the south, while in the north stone and sometimes metal were used. Villages thus contained specialised craftspeople, potters, weavers and metalworkers, although the bulk of the population were agricultural labourers, farmers and seasonal pastoralists. During
1400-420: A domestic activity to a more specialized activity carried out by dedicated craftspeople . This may have been associated with the introduction of Canaanean blade technology, which became common in the 4th millennium BC and may itself have been linked to increased mass-production and intensification of agricultural strategies. Evidence for metallurgy comes from several sites in Upper Mesopotamia, all dating to
1600-501: A drifter to steam power. In 1877, he built the first screw propelled steam trawler in the world. Steam trawlers were introduced at Grimsby and Hull in the 1880s. In 1890 it was estimated that there were 20,000 men on the North Sea. The steam drifter was not used in the herring fishery until 1897. The last sailing fishing trawler was built in 1925 in Grimsby. Trawler designs adapted as
1800-509: A focus on the minutiae of the vessel. However, revisionist scholars are creating new turns in the study of maritime history. This includes a post-1980s turn towards the study of human users of ships (which involves sociology, cultural geography, gender studies and narrative studies); and post-2000 turn towards seeing sea travel as part of the wider history of transport and mobilities. This move is sometimes associated with Marcus Rediker and Black Atlantic studies, but most recently has emerged from
2000-551: A growing trade in lucrative commodities—a key development in the rise of today's modern world capitalist economy. European colonies in India were set up by several European nations beginning at the beginning of the 16th century. Rivalry between reigning European powers saw the entry of the Dutch, British and French among others. In the 15th century, before the European Age of Discovery began,
2200-481: A high degree of cultural continuity is evident throughout the Ubaid and Uruk periods, and it seems that there is some agreement that "the relation between three categories, linguistic, racial and ethnic, is exceedingly complex in Mesopotamia and still far from being sufficiently investigated". Scarce DNA analysis of human skeletal material from various archaeological sites in Upper Mesopotamia (none of which dated to
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#17328946847322400-410: A magnetic compass and a rudimentary instrument known as a kamal , used for celestial navigation and for measuring the altitudes and latitudes of the stars . When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across oceans rather than skirt along the coast. According to the political scientist John M. Hobson, the origins of the caravel ship, used for long-distance travel by
2600-525: A major source of food. The British dogger was a very early type of sailing trawler from the 17th century, but the modern fishing trawler was developed in the 19th century, at the English fishing port of Brixham . By the early 19th century, the fishers at Brixham needed to expand their fishing area further than ever before due to the ongoing depletion of stocks that was occurring in the overfished waters of South Devon . The Brixham trawler that evolved there
2800-757: A member. Visby dominated trade in the Baltic before the Hanseatic league, and with its monopolistic ideology, suppressed the Gotlandic free-trade competition.) By the late 16th century, the League imploded and could no longer deal with its own internal struggles, the social and political changes that accompanied the Reformation , the rise of Dutch and English merchants, and the incursion of the Ottoman Turks upon its trade routes and upon
3000-642: A precursor of the beveled rim bowl from the Uruk period. As with many other aspects of Ubaid material culture, it is possible to distinguish different geographical traditions in the production of the coba bowl during the Ubaid period. Flint was widely available in Mesopotamia and could be sourced from outcrops in the Zagros and the Jebel Sinjar , from limestone and river terraces in northern Mesopotamia and from alluvial deposits in southern Mesopotamia. Different qualities of flint were used, depending on what kind of tool
3200-657: A recession. Another factor was the centuries long conflict between the Iberians and the Muslims to the south. The eastern trade routes were controlled by the Ottoman Empire after the Turks took control of Constantinople in 1453, and they barred Europeans from those trade routes. The ability to outflank the Muslim states of North Africa was seen as crucial to their survival. At the same time,
3400-496: A recreational fishing boat, so long as a fisher periodically climbs aboard with the intent to catch a fish. Fish are caught for recreational purposes from boats which range from dugout canoes , float tubes , kayaks , rafts , stand up paddleboards, pontoon boats and small dinghies to runabouts , cabin cruisers and cruising yachts to large, hi-tech and luxurious big game rigs. Larger boats, purpose-built with recreational fishing in mind, usually have large, open cockpits at
3600-533: A result of downward social mobility . Morton Fried and Elman Service have hypothesised that Ubaid culture saw the rise of an elite class of hereditary chieftains , perhaps heads of kin groups linked in some way to the administration of the temple shrines and their granaries, responsible for mediating intra-group conflict and maintaining social order. It would seem that various collective methods, perhaps instances of what Thorkild Jacobsen called primitive democracy , in which disputes were previously resolved through
3800-426: A result of imported goods, this was known as the "age of commerce". The mariner's astrolabe was the chief tool of Celestial navigation in early modern maritime history. This scaled down version of the instrument used by astronomers served as a navigational aid to measure latitude at sea, and was employed by Portuguese sailors no later than 1481. The precise date of the discovery of the magnetic needle compass
4000-524: A sea voyage had to have been made to reach Greater Australia ( Sahul ) c. 50,000 or more years ago. Functional maritime technology was required to progress between the many islands of Wallacea before making this crossing. We do not know what seafaring predated the milestone of the first settling of Australia. One of the oldest known boats to be found is the Pesse canoe , and carbon dating has estimated its construction from 8040 to 7510 BCE. The Pesse canoe
4200-526: A series of voyages that sought a sea passage to India in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in spices. Before 1500 European economies were largely self-sufficient, only supplemented by minor trade with Asia and Africa. Within the next century, however, European and Asian economies were slowly becoming integrated through the rise of new global trade routes; and the early thrust of European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to
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#17328946847324400-411: A site as, for example, purely Ubaid or purely Halaf. In northern Mesopotamia, Ubaid characteristics only start to appear in Ubaid 2-3, i.e. toward the end of the sixth millennium BC, so that the entire Ubaid period would be much shorter. For Syria , a range of 5300-4300 BC has been suggested. However, some scholars have argued that the interaction between the originally southern Mesopotamian Ubaid and
4600-451: A slender body, long, reptilian head with incised eyes and mouth and a threedimensional small nose. This particular rendering of the face may be a representation of a mask or possibly headshaping . The hands are placed before the stomach, sometimes with incised fingers. They are thought to be naked. Paint is sometimes used to indicate hair or other details. The majority of these figures is female, but male and sexless figurines exist as well. In
4800-538: A tangle – this was called a 'tangle' in Britain, and a 'backlash' in the US. This problem spurred the invention of the regulator to evenly spool the line out and prevent tangling. The American, Charles F. Orvis, designed and distributed a novel reel and fly design in 1874, described by reel historian Jim Brown as the "benchmark of American reel design," and the first fully modern fly reel. Albert Illingworth, 1st Baron Illingworth
5000-504: A textiles magnate, patented the modern form of fixed-spool spinning reel in 1905. When casting Illingworth's reel design, the line was drawn off the leading edge of the spool but was restrained and rewound by a line pickup, a device which orbits around the stationary spool. Because the line did not have to pull against a rotating spool, much lighter lures could be cast than with conventional reels. The development of inexpensive fiberglass rods, synthetic fly lines, and monofilament leaders in
5200-624: A wider audience. Historians from many lands have published monographs, popular and scholarly articles, and collections of archival resources. A leading journal is International Journal of Maritime History , a fully refereed scholarly journal published twice a year by the International Maritime Economic History Association. Based in Canada with an international editorial board, it explores the maritime dimensions of economic, social, cultural, and environmental history. For
5400-446: A worldwide catch of well over a million tonnes in 1999, with herring and sardines together providing a catch of over 22 million metric tons in 1999. Many other species as well are fished in smaller numbers. Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture , while other methods may fall under mariculture . It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into
5600-411: Is a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia . The name derives from Tell al-'Ubaid where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid period material was conducted initially in 1919 by Henry Hall , Leonard Woolley in 1922-1923, and later by Pinhas Delougaz in 1937. In South Mesopotamia the period is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under
5800-461: Is a boat or ship used to catch fish in the sea, or on a lake or river. Many different kinds of vessels are used in commercial , artisanal , and recreational fishing . According to the FAO , in 2004 there were four million commercial fishing vessels. About 1.3 million of these are decked vessels with enclosed areas. Nearly all of these decked vessels are mechanised, and 40,000 of them are over 100 tons. At
6000-589: Is an ancient practice that dates back to at least the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man , a 40,000-year-old modern human from eastern Asia, has shown that he regularly consumed freshwater fish. Archaeology features such as shell middens , discarded fish bones, and cave paintings show that seafood was important for survival and consumed in significant quantities. Fishing in Africa
6200-570: Is believed to have evolved from (or at least been influenced by) the longship, and was in wide use by the 12th century. It too used the clinker method of construction. The caravel was a ship invented in Islamic Iberia and used in the Mediterranean from the 13th century. Unlike the longship and cog , it used a carvel method of construction. It could be either square rigged ( Caravela Redonda ) or lateen rigged ( Caravela Latina ). The carrack
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6400-460: Is complex and not yet fully understood, including how and when exactly the Ubaid started to appear in northern Mesopotamia. To resolve these issues, modern scholarship tends to focus more on regional trajectories of change where different cultural elements from the Halaf, Samarra, or Ubaid - pottery, architecture, and so forth - could co-exist. This makes it increasingly hard to define an occupation phase at
6600-479: Is defined by the FAO as including recreational , subsistence and commercial fishing , and the harvesting, processing , and marketing sectors. The commercial activity is aimed at the delivery of fish and other seafood products for human consumption or use as raw material in other industrial processes. In 2022 24% of fishers and fish farmers and 62% of workers in post-harvest sector were women. There are three principal industry sectors: Commercial fishing
6800-550: Is evident very early on in human history. Neanderthals were fishing by about 200,000 BC. People could have developed basketry for fish traps, using spinning and early forms of knitting to make fishing nets able to catch more fish. During this period, most people lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle and were, of necessity, constantly on the move. However, where there are early examples of permanent settlements (though not necessarily permanently occupied) such as those at Lepenski Vir , they are almost always associated with fishing as
7000-407: Is extremely rare. The "Burnt Village" at Tell Sabi Abyad could be suggestive of destruction during war but it could also have been due to other causes, such as wildfire or accident. Ritual burning is also possible since the bodies inside were already dead by the time they were burned. A mass grave at Tepe Gawra contained 24 bodies apparently buried without any funeral rituals, possibly indicating it
7200-584: Is fishing from boats to catch large open-water species such as swordfish , tuna , sharks , and marlin . Sportfishing (sometimes game fishing) is recreational fishing where the primary reward is the challenge of finding and catching the fish rather than the culinary or financial value of the fish's flesh. Fish sought after include tarpon , sailfish , mackerel , grouper and many others. The fishing industry includes any industry or activity concerned with taking, culturing, processing, preserving, storing, transporting, marketing or selling fish or fish products. It
7400-657: Is known as the Columbian Exchange period. The first conquests were made by the Spanish, who quickly conquered most of South and Central America and large parts of North America. The Portuguese took Brazil. The British, French and Dutch conquered islands in the Caribbean Sea , many of which had already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease. Early European colonies in North America included Spanish Florida ,
7600-424: Is not normally applied to harvesting fish raised in controlled cultivations ( fish farming ). Nor is it normally applied to hunting aquatic mammals , where terms like whaling and sealing are used instead. Fishing has been an important part of human culture since hunter-gatherer times. It is one of the few food production activities that has persisted from prehistory into the modern age , surviving both
7800-512: Is the capture of fish for commercial purposes. Those who practice it must often pursue fish far from the land under adverse conditions. Commercial fishermen harvest a wide range of aquatic species, from tuna , cod and salmon to shrimp , krill , lobster , clams , squid and crab , in various fisheries for these species. Commercial fishing methods have become very efficient using large nets and sea-going processing factories. Individual fishing quotas and international treaties seek to control
8000-447: Is the oldest physical object that can date the use of watercraft, but the oldest depiction of a watercraft is from Norway. The rock art at Valle, Norway depicts a carving of a more than 4 meter long boat and it is dated to be 10,000 to 11,000 years old. Throughout history sailing has been instrumental in the development of civilization, affording humanity greater mobility than travel over land, whether for trade, transport or warfare, and
8200-536: Is the period in which international trade and naval warfare were both dominated by sailing ships . The age of sail mostly coincided with the Age of Discovery , from the 15th to the 18th century. After the 17th century, English naval maps stopped using the term of British Sea for the English Channel . From 15th to the 18th centuries, the period saw square rigged sailing ships carry European settlers to many parts of
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8400-428: Is unclear. There is some evidence for emerging wool production in the fifth millennium BC, i.e. late Ubaid. Some of the earliest evidence comes in the form of an animal figurine from Iran dated to c. 5000 BC with incised decorations that might possibly represent wool. At Kosak Shamali , an Ubaid site in northern Syria, indirect evidence for wool production has been found in the form of spindle whorls , clay scrapers, and
8600-553: Is undetermined, but the earliest attestation of the device for navigation was in the Dream Pool Essays by Shen Kuo (1088). Kuo was also the first to document the concept of true north to discern a compass' magnetic declination from the physical North Magnetic Pole . The earliest iterations of the compass consisted of a floating, magnetized lodestone needle that spun around in a water-filled bowl until it reached alignment with Earth's magnetic poles. Chinese sailors were using
8800-636: The Adal and Ajuran empires began to flourish in Somalia who continued the seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires. The rise of the 19th century Gobroon dynasty in particular saw a rebirth in Somali maritime enterprise. During this period, the Somali agricultural output to Arabian markets was so great that the coast of Somalia came to be known as the Grain Coast of Yemen and Oman . The Age of Discovery
9000-506: The Balkans , Anatolia , and Cyprus , where they were refined into obsidian blades. However, the nature of the seafaring technologies involved have not been preserved. Austronesians started a dispersal from Taiwan across Maritime Southeast Asia around 3000 BCE. This started to spread into the islands of the Pacific c. 1300 BCE , steadily advanced across the Pacific and culminated with
9200-548: The Dutch navy. In 1639, during the Dutch struggle for independence from Spain , Tromp defeated a large Spanish fleet bound for Flanders at the Battle of the Downs , marking the end of Spanish naval power. In a preliminary battle, the action of 18 September 1639 , Tromp was the first fleet commander known to deliberately use line of battle tactics. His flagship in this period was Aemilia . In
9400-622: The Dutch East India Company and the Hudson's Bay Company . In the exploration of Africa , there was a proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory. By the 15th century, Europeans explored the African coast in search of a water route to India. These expeditions were mostly conducted by the Portuguese , who had been given papal authority to exploit all non- Christian lands of
9600-777: The Eastern Han dynasty since the second century AD. They purportedly reached massive sizes by the Yuan dynasty in the 14th century, and by the Ming dynasty , they were used by Zheng He to send expeditions to the Indian Ocean . Water was the cheapest and usually the only way to transport goods in bulk over long distances. In addition, it was the safest way to transport commodities. The long trade routes created popular trading ports called Entrepôts . There were three popular Entrepôts in Southeast Asia:
9800-567: The Eastern Hemisphere . The Europeans set up coastal colonies to purchase or abduct slaves for the Atlantic slave trade , but the interior of the continent remained unexplored until the 19th century. This was a cumulative period that resulted in European colonial rule in Africa and altered the future of the African continent. Imperialism in Asia traces its roots back to the late 15th century with
10000-540: The First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652–1653 Tromp commanded the Dutch fleet in the battles of Dungeness , Portland , the Gabbard and Scheveningen . In the last of these, he was killed by a sharpshooter in the rigging of William Penn 's ship. His acting flag captain, Egbert Bartholomeusz Kortenaer , on Brederode kept up fleet morale by not lowering Tromp's standard, pretending Tromp was still alive. Cornelis Tromp
10200-610: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the total world capture fisheries production in 2000 was 86 million tons (FAO 2002). The top producing countries were, in order, the People's Republic of China (excluding Hong Kong and Taiwan), Peru, Japan, the United States, Chile, Indonesia, Russia, India, Thailand, Norway, and Iceland. Those countries accounted for more than half of
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#173289468473210400-522: The Kunlun people"). It may also have been the "kolandiaphonta" known by the Greeks. It has 4–7 masts and is able to sail against the wind due to the usage of tanja sails . These ships reached as far as Madagascar by ca. 50–500 AD and Ghana in the eighth century AD. Northern European Vikings also developed oceangoing vessels and depended heavily upon them for travel and population movements prior to 1000 AD, with
10600-657: The Malaka in southwestern Malaya, Hoi An in Vietnam, and Ayuthaya in Thailand . These super centers for trade were ethnically diverse, because ports served as a midpoint of voyages and trade rather than a destination. The Entrepôts helped link the coastal cities to the "hempispheric trade nexus". The increase in sea trade initiated a cultural exchange among traders. From 1400 to 1600 the Chinese population doubled from 75 million to 150 million as
10800-529: The Neolithic Revolution and successive Industrial Revolutions . In addition to fishing for food , people commonly fish as a recreational pastime . Fishing tournaments are held, and caught fish are sometimes kept long-term as preserved or living trophies . When bioblitzes occur, fish are typically caught, identified, and then released . According to the United Nations FAO statistics,
11000-743: The Shahrizor Plain and the Hamrin area further south were stronger than those with the north. Mesopotamia does not have local, high-resolution climate proxy records such as the Soreq Cave . This makes it difficult to reconstuct the region's past climate. Even so, it is known that the environment during the sixth and fifth millennium BC was not the same as today. A more temperate climate settled in around 10,000 BC. Marshy and riverine areas transformed into floodplains and finally river banks with trees. The area south of Baghdad may have been inhabitable by humans in
11200-830: The Tigris . In general, copper objects seem to be very rare, and gold has not been found at Ubaid sites either. The Ubaid period provides the first evidence for boating in the ancient Near East. Ceramic boat models have been recovered from numerous sites across Mesopotamia, from Zeidan and Tell Mashnaqa in modern-day northern Syria to Eridu and 'Oueili in the south and Abada in the Hamrin. These models date from Ubaid 1-4 but become more common from Ubaid 3 onwards. The models indicate that different boat types may have been in use, including reed boats , and boats with masts. It has been noted that no evidence for boats has been recovered from Halaf sites in northern Mesopotamia, and that Ubaid 3, from which more boat models have been recovered, coincides with
11400-633: The alluvium . In the south it has a very long duration between about 5500 and 3800 BC when it is replaced by the Uruk period . In Northern Mesopotamia the period runs only between about 5300 and 4300 BC. It is preceded by the Halaf period and the Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period and succeeded by the Late Chalcolithic period . The excavators of Eridu and Tell al-'Ubaid found Ubaid pottery for
11600-504: The carrack and then the caravel were developed by the Portuguese , European thoughts returned to the fabled East. These explorations have a number of causes. Monetarists believe the main reason the Age of Exploration began was because of a severe shortage of bullion in Europe. The European economy was dependent on gold and silver currency, but low domestic supplies had plunged much of Europe into
11800-456: The haberdashers store. After the Great Fire of London in 1666, artisans moved to Redditch which became a centre of production of fishing-related products from the 1730s. Onesimus Ustonson established his shop in 1761, and his establishment remained a market leader for the next century. He received a royal warrant from three successive monarchs starting with King George IV . He also invented
12000-565: The multiplying winch . The commercialization of the industry came at a time of expanded interest in fishing as a recreational hobby for members of the aristocracy . The impact of the Industrial Revolution was first felt in the manufacture of fly lines. Instead of anglers twisting their lines – a laborious and time-consuming process – the new textile spinning machines allowed for a variety of tapered lines to be easily manufactured and marketed. British fly fishing continued to develop in
12200-583: The naval forces of the Holy League which was pitted against the Ottoman Empire. Juan, by dint of leadership ability and charisma, was able to unite this disparate coalition and inflict a historic defeat upon the Ottomans and their corsair allies in the Battle of Lepanto . His role in the battle is commemorated in the poem " Lepanto " by G. K. Chesterton . Maarten Tromp was an officer and later admiral in
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#173289468473212400-489: The stern , designed for convenient fishing. Traditional fishing is any kind of small scale, commercial or subsistence fishing practices using traditional techniques such as rod and tackle , arrows and harpoons , throw nets and drag nets, etc. Recreational and sport fishing refer to fishing primarily for pleasure or competition. Recreational fishing has conventions, rules, licensing restrictions and laws that limit how fish may be caught; typically, these prohibit
12600-536: The "Sumerian problem" or "Sumerian question". The starting point of this debate was that the oldest cuneiform tablets were written in Sumerian, and that earlier pictographical tablets from the Late Uruk and Jemdet Nasr periods (3200-3000 BC) were likely written in the same language. Based on this evidence, Henri Frankfort proposed in the 1930s that the people who wrote and presumably spoke Sumerian, originally came from
12800-401: The "wet" compass to determine the southern cardinal direction no later than 1117. The first use of a magnetized needle for seafaring navigation in Europe was written of by Alexander Neckham , circa 1190 AD. Around 1300 AD, the pivot-needle dry-box compass was invented in Europe; it pointed north, similar to the modern-day mariner's compass. In Europe the device also included a compass-card, which
13000-462: The 13th century, and Ancona and Ragusa allied to resist Venetian power. Following the 14th century, while Pisa declined to the point of losing its autonomy, Venice and Genoa continued to dominate navigation, followed by Ragusa and Ancona, which experienced their golden age in the 15th century. In the 16th century, with Ancona's loss of autonomy, only the republics of Venice, Genoa, and Ragusa remained, which still experienced great moments of splendor until
13200-482: The 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in what is modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices , for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory . Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat , barley , horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants. In the early modern period, successor states of
13400-612: The 19th century, generally refers to four Italian cities, whose coats of arms have been shown since 1947 on the flags of the Italian Navy and the Italian Merchant Navy: Amalfi , Genoa , Pisa , and Venice . In addition to the four best known cities, Ancona , Gaeta , Noli , and, in Dalmatia , Ragusa , are also considered maritime republics; in certain historical periods, they had no secondary importance compared to some of
13600-413: The 19th century, with the emergence of fly fishing clubs, along with the appearance of several books on the subject of fly tying and fly fishing techniques. By the mid to late 19th century, expanding leisure opportunities for the middle and lower classes began to have an effect on fly fishing, which steadily grew in mass appeal. The expansion of the railway network in Britain allowed the less affluent for
13800-424: The 7th millennium BC. By the time of the Ubaid period, a wide range of motifs had developed, including geometric patterns and depictions of animals and occasional humans. The Ubaid period saw the first depictions of ibex-headed and bird-headed humans. The majority of Ubaid figurines represented various animals, including sheep, cattle and dogs. Human figurines were already present in previous periods. Those from
14000-479: The 9th and 10th centuries, this phenomenon began with Amalfi and Gaeta, which soon reached their heyday. Meanwhile, Venice began its gradual ascent, while the other cities were still experiencing the long gestation that would lead them to their autonomy and to follow up on their seafaring vocation. After the 11th century, Amalfi and Gaeta declined rapidly, while Genoa and Venice became the most powerful republics. Pisa followed and experienced its most flourishing period in
14200-544: The Americas were partially funded by Italian investors, but whereas the Spanish state maintained a tight rein on trade with its colonies (by law, the colonies could only trade with one designated port in the mother country, and treasure was brought back in special convoys ), the English, French and Dutch granted what were effectively trade monopolies to joint-stock companies such as the British East India Company ,
14400-455: The Americas, as there are accounts of European transatlantic contact prior to 1492. Nevertheless, Columbus's voyage came at a critical time of growing national imperialism and economic competition between developing nation states seeking wealth from the establishment of trade routes and colonies . Therefore, the period before 1492 is known as Pre-Columbian . John Cabot was a Genoese navigator and explorer commonly credited as one of
14600-606: The Baltic area remained insignificant before the growth of the Hanseatic League. German cities achieved domination of trade in the Baltic with striking speed over the next century, and Lübeck became a central node in all the seaborne trade that linked the areas around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. The 15th century saw the climax of Lübeck's hegemony. ( Visby , one of the midwives of the Hanseatic league in 1358, declined to become
14800-719: The British settlements in Virginia and New England , French settlements in Quebec and Louisiana , and Dutch settlements in New Netherlands . Denmark-Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland from the 18th until the 20th century, and also colonised a few of the Virgin Islands. From its very outset, Western colonialism was operated as a joint public-private venture. Columbus' voyages to
15000-605: The Chinese Ming dynasty carried out a maritime operation that, like the European's late expeditions, was primarily carried out to expand power, increase trade, and in some instances forcibly subdue local populations. In 1405 Zheng He, a Muslim eunuch, was ordered by the Ming dynasty to lead a fleet of over 27,000 sailors and anywhere between 62 and 300 ships, beginning a period of expedition which would last 33 years. During his seven voyages, Zheng He visited over 30 countries spread out across
15200-493: The English Nation (1598–1600). Although Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of area, it has a very long coastline, and has arguably been influenced more by its maritime history than any other continent. Europe is uniquely situated between several navigable seas and intersected by navigable rivers running into them in a way which greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce. When
15400-509: The Eridu and Hajji Muhammed styles were not distinct at all. Instead, they were part of the greater Ubaid phenomenon. She proposed a chronological framework that divides the Ubaid period in 4 phases. Other scholars later proposed phases 0 and 5. Scholars in the 1930s only knew a few Ubaid sites. These included the type site of Tell al-'Ubaid itself, Ur , and Tepe Gawra in the north. Since then, archaeologists found Ubaid material culture all over
15600-637: The German fishing fleet. The earliest steam-powered fishing boats first appeared in the 1870s and used the trawl system of fishing as well as lines and drift nets. These were large boats, usually 80–90 feet (24–27 m) in length with a beam of around 20 feet (6 m). They weighed 40–50 tons and travelled at 9–11 knots (17–20 km/h; 10–13 mph). David Allen designed and made the earliest purpose-built fishing vessels in Leith , Scotland in March 1875, when he converted
15800-636: The Gulf coast, notably the sites in Kuwait. Conversely, there is also evidence for Arabian Neolithic material in southern Mesopotamia. It has been noted that certain types of flint arrowheads found at Ur show clear resemblance with the Arabian Bifacial Tradition. Arabian Coarse Ware has been found at the sites of 'Oueili and Eridu. As at the sites in Kuwait, it may have been possible that Arabian Neolithic groups lived in southern Mesopotamia. The Ubaid period
16000-560: The Holy Roman Empire itself. Only nine members attended the last formal meeting in 1669 and only three (Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen) remained as members until its final demise in 1862. The maritime republics , also called merchant republics, were Italian thalassocratic port cities which, starting from the Middle Ages , enjoyed political autonomy and economic prosperity brought about by their maritime activities. The term, coined during
16200-545: The Horn was believed to be the southernmost point of Tierra del Fuego; the unpredictable violence of weather and sea conditions in the Drake Passage made exploration difficult, and it was only in 1624 that the Horn was discovered to be an island. It is an interesting testament to the difficulty of conditions there that Antarctica, only 650 kilometres (400 mi) away across the Drake Passage, was discovered as recently as 1820, despite
16400-879: The Huron-Iroquois word “kanata”, meaning “village” or “settlement”. Juan Fernández was a Spanish explorer and navigator. Probably between 1563 and 1574 he discovered the Juan Fernández Islands west of Valparaíso , Chile . He also discovered the Pacific islands of San Félix and San Ambrosio (1574). Among the other famous explorers of the period were Vasco da Gama , Pedro Álvares Cabral , Yermak , Juan Ponce de León , Francisco Coronado , Juan Sebastián Elcano , Bartolomeu Dias , Ferdinand Magellan , Willem Barentsz , Abel Tasman , Jean Alfonse , Samuel de Champlain , Willem Jansz , Captain James Cook , Henry Hudson , and Giovanni da Verrazzano . Peter Martyr d'Anghiera
16600-572: The Iberians learnt much from their Arab neighbours. The carrack and caravel both incorporated the Mediterranean lateen sail that made ships far more manoeuvrable. It was also through the Arabs that Ancient Greek geography was rediscovered, for the first time giving European sailors some idea of the shape of Africa and Asia. In 1492, Christopher Columbus reached the Americas , after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanded. The post-1492 era
16800-441: The Indian Ocean. Long-distance trade allowed the movement of "armies, craftsmen, scholars, and pilgrims". Sea trade was an important factor not just for the coastal ports and cities like Istanbul , but also for Baghdad and Iraq , which are further inland. Sea trade enabled the distribution of food and supplies to feed entire populations in the middle east. Long distance sea trade imported raw materials for building, luxury goods for
17000-480: The Indian Ocean. Under Emperor Yongle, this naval undertaking served primarily as a deliverer of letters demanding tribute and allegiance to the middle kingdom; gifts were the first approach to gaining a country's favor, but if circumstances required it Zheng He's fleet would resort to violence. The result was a successful connection to 48 new tribute states and an influx of over 180 new trade goods; many were gifts. These expeditions expanded China's diplomatic supremacy of
17200-517: The International Association for the History of Transport, Traffic and Mobilities (T2M) Watercraft such as rafts and boats have been used far into pre-historic times and possibly even by Homo erectus more than a million years ago crossing straits between landmasses. Little evidence remains that would pinpoint when the first seafarer made their journey. We know, for instance, that
17400-584: The Iranian highlands and settled Mesopotamia at the start of the Ubaid period. Speiser , on the other hand, thought that the Sumerians entered Mesopotamia during the Uruk period and interpreted the regional styles that existed before that time, i.e. Ubaid, Hassuna, Halaf, as evidence of distinct ethnic groups . More recent discussion has taken a more careful approach, taking pains not to equate pots with people or language with ethnicity. Archaeologists have stressed that
17600-521: The Mediterranean, giving them an essential role in reestablishing contacts between Europe , Asia , and Africa , which had been interrupted during the early Middle Ages. They also had an essential role in the Crusades and produced renowned explorers and navigators such as Marco Polo and Christopher Columbus . Over the centuries, the maritime republics—both the best known and the lesser known but not always less important—experienced fluctuating fortunes. In
17800-553: The Middle Ages placed east at the top of the maps, in part due to Genesis, "the Lord God planted a garden toward the east in Eden". This led to maps containing the image of Jesus Christ, and the garden of Eden at the top of maps. The latitude and longitude coordinate tables were made with the sole purpose of praying towards Mecca . The next progression of maps came with the portolan chart . This
18000-572: The Middle East, introducing sailing technologies to these regions. They also facilitated an exchange of cultivated crop plants, introducing Pacific coconuts, bananas, and sugarcane to the Indian subcontinent , some of which eventually reached Europe via overland Persian and Arab traders. A Chinese record in 200 AD describes one of the Austronesian ships, called kunlun bo or k'unlun po (崑崙舶, lit. "ship of
18200-632: The New World") describes the first contacts of Europeans and Native Americans and contains, for example, the first European reference to India rubber . Richard Hakluyt was an English writer, and is principally remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of North America by the English through his works, notably Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America (1582) and The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of
18400-616: The Northern German town of Lübeck , established in 1158/1159 after the capture of the area from the Count of Schauenburg and Holstein by Henry the Lion , the Duke of Saxony . Exploratory trading adventures, raids and piracy had occurred earlier throughout the Baltic (see Vikings )—the sailors of Gotland sailed up rivers as far away as Novgorod , for example—but the scale of international economy in
18600-544: The Persian Gulf for high-value goods. Pictorial representation of sails are also known from Ancient Egypt , dated to circa 3100 BCE. The earliest seaborne trading route, however, is known from the 7th millennium BCE in the Aegean Sea . It involved the seaborne movement of obsidian by an unknown Neolithic Europe seafaring people. The obsidian was mined from the volcanic island of Milos and then transported to various parts of
18800-515: The Sea (2nd ed. 2005) with 2600 articles in 688 pages. Typically, studies of merchant shipping and of defensive navies are seen as separate fields. Inland waterways are included within 'maritime history,' especially inland seas such as the Great Lakes of North America , and major navigable rivers and canals worldwide. One approach to maritime history writing has been nicknamed 'rivet counting' because of
19000-522: The Spanish and Portuguese since the 15th century, date back to the qarib used by Andalusian explorers by the 13th century. Control of sea routes dictated the political and military power of the Islamic nation. The Islamic border spread from Spain to China. Maritime trade was used to link the vast territories that spanned the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean. The Arabs were among the first to sail
19200-514: The Ubaid Period (5000–4000 BC), the movement towards urbanization began. "Agriculture and animal husbandry [domestication] were widely practiced in sedentary communities". There were also tribes that practiced domesticating animals as far north as Turkey, and as far south as the Zagros Mountains . The Ubaid period in the south was associated with intensive irrigated hydraulic agriculture , and
19400-443: The Ubaid period) provides some evidence for genetic links with other regions, but also provides evidence for continuity in Mesopotamia itself. Most importantly, the dating of genetic influxes that have been detected, has not been refined up to the point that it can be assigned to the Ubaid period - or any other period earlier than the one from which the skeletal material came. In other words, this genetic influx could have happened during
19600-606: The Ubaid period. It has been interpreted as a marker for socio-cultural group affiliation during the Ubaid. Labrets and/or ear-spools were likewise recovered from many archaeological Ubaid sites across Mesopotamia and its border regions. In at least one case from southwestern Iran, a labret was found in situ in a burial, located at the mandible of the buried individual and with associated tooth wear indicating that it had been worn. Labrets were absent from Halaf sites in northern Mesopotamia, again indicating that they may have been important markers of socio-cultural identity during
19800-411: The Ubaid than during the preceding Halaf period and the subsequent Uruk period. Obsidian could be transported over hundreds of kilometers. For example, obsidian tools found along the Gulf coast at sites such as Dosariyah ( Saudi Arabia ) and Wadi Debayan ( Qatar ) came from sources in southeastern Turkey. The Ubaid may have witnessed a shift in the production of flint tools from being carried out as
20000-465: The Ubaid. Their use seems to have declined again during the Uruk period. The modern excavations at Tell Zeidan have revealed a wealth of information on the subsistence economy of a large northern Mesopotamian Ubaid settlement. Cultivated species included barley , wheat , lentil , ervil , and flax . There is some evidence that the inhabitants of Zeidan practiced a form of floodwater irrigation on agricultural lands. The excavators have suggested that
20200-600: The ancient Near East. There are now Ubaid sites in the Amuq Valley in the northwest all the way to the Persian Gulf coast in the southeast. Important research includes the many excavations in the Hamrin area in the 1970s. There, archaeologists found a complete Ubaid settlement at Tell Abada , and a really well-preserved house at Tell Madhur . The excavation at Tell el-'Oueili in the 1980s revealed occupation layers that were older than those from Eridu . This discovery pushed back
20400-536: The animal bone assemblage from Zeidan changed considerably from the Halaf to the Ubaid period. During the Halaf, some 50% of the animal bones came from wild species (indicative of hunting), whereas during the Ubaid over 90% represented domesticated species (indicative of herding and keeping animals). Common animals were sheep, goat, cattle, and pigs. A comparison with other Ubaid sites in northern Mesopotamia showed that, in general, pastoralism became more important and reliance on wild fauna decreased somewhat, but this pattern
20600-595: The assistance of a drone . Why a fish bites a baited hook or lure involves several factors related to the sensory physiology, behaviour, feeding ecology, and biology of the fish as well as the environment and characteristics of the bait/hook/lure. There is an intricate link between various fishing techniques and knowledge about the fish and their behaviour including migration , foraging and habitat . The effective use of fishing techniques often depends on this additional knowledge. Some fishers follow fishing folklores which claim that fish feeding patterns are influenced by
20800-478: The better known cities. Uniformly scattered across the Italian peninsula, the maritime republics were important not only for the history of navigation and commerce: in addition to precious goods otherwise unobtainable in Europe, new artistic ideas and news concerning distant countries also spread. From the 10th century, they built fleets of ships both for their own protection and to support extensive trade networks across
21000-458: The book was added by Walton's friend Charles Cotton . Charles Kirby designed an improved fishing hook in 1655 that remains relatively unchanged to this day. He went on to invent the Kirby bend, a distinctive hook with an offset point, still commonly used today. The 18th century was mainly an era of consolidation of the techniques developed in the previous century. Running rings began to appear along
21200-471: The capacity for fishing. The earliest depiction of a maritime sailing vessel is from the Ubaid period of Mesopotamia in the Persian Gulf , from around 3500 to 3000 BCE. These vessels were depicted in clay models and painted disks. They were made from bundled reeds encased in a lattice of ropes. Remains of barnacle -encrusted bituminous amalgams have also been recovered, which are interpreted to have been part of
21400-546: The central Gulf coast at sites like Ain Qannas , suggesting that the pottery may have been traded and valued in and of itself, rather than just being a container for some other commodity. This suggestion is reinforced by locally-produced pottery imiting Ubaid wares found at Dosariyah. It is unclear which products were exchanged for the pottery. Suggestions include foodstuffs (dates), semi-precious materials, jewellery (made from pearl and shell ), animal products, and livestock. Notably,
21600-494: The complete body. During Ubaid 4, some 80% (adults) and 94% (infants) of the burials consisted of primary inhumations. The dead were often accompanied by personal adornments such as beads, necklaces, and headdresses. Pots (presumably) containing foodstuffs were also common. Pieces of red ochre have also been recovered from graves. Burials have been excavated at many Ubaid sites, with exceptionally large numbers coming from Tell Abada (127 infant burials) and Eridu (193 burials). By
21800-544: The country. Modern reel design had begun in England during the latter part of the 18th century, and the predominant model in use was known as the ' Nottingham reel'. The reel was a wide drum that spooled out freely and was ideal for allowing the bait to drift a long way out with the current. Geared multiplying reels never successfully caught on in Britain, but had more success in the United States, where George Snyder of Kentucky modified similar models into his bait-casting reel,
22000-462: The course of his circumnavigation of the world, discovered Cape Horn. This discovery went unused for some time, as ships continued to use the known passage through the Strait of Magellan. By the early 17th century, the Dutch merchant Jacob le Maire , together with navigator Willem Schouten , set off to investigate Drake's suggestion of a route to the south of Tierra del Fuego. At the time it was discovered,
22200-569: The date for the earliest human occupation of southern Mesopotamia. Excavations along southcoast of the Persian Gulf provided a lot of evidence for contacts with Mesopotamia. The site of H3 in Kuwait , for example, provided the earliest evidence in the world for seafaring. The explosion of archaeological research in Iraqi Kurdistan since the 2010s also led to a lot of new data on the Ubaid. For example, this research showed that cultural links between
22400-455: The degree of cultural interaction between the Ubaid and local Neolithic communities is much stronger in the area of Kuwait than further south, up to the point that it has been suggested that Mesopotamians may have actually lived (part of the year) at sites like H3 and Bahra 1. Small objects such as labrets, tokens, clay nails and small tools that may have had cosmetic use, and that are known from southern Mesopotamian sites also occur on sites along
22600-427: The earlier Ubaid, ophidian figures were only used in domestic contexts, whereas in Ubaid 3-4, they appear in graves as well, indicating a shift in how these figures were used. The rarity of ophidian figures as grave gifts may indicate differential treatment of the dead, possibly based on age, kinship or social standing. The most common burial practice during the Ubaid seems to have been primary inhumation; i.e. burial of
22800-519: The earliest evidence for actual boats in Western Asia , and the earliest evidence for seagoing vessels in the world. Evidence for the production of wool is ambiguous and mostly indirect. Wool-bearing sheep have been clearly attested in Uruk-period sites, and the domestication of sheep and goat started in the ninth millennium BC, but exactly when wool-production emerged between those two fixed points
23000-478: The early 1950s revived the popularity of fly fishing. There are many fishing techniques and tactics for catching fish. The term can also be applied to methods for catching other aquatic animals such as molluscs ( shellfish , squid , octopus) and edible marine invertebrates . Fishing techniques include hand gathering , spearfishing , netting , angling , bowfishing and trapping , as well as less common techniques such as gaffing , snagging , clubbing and
23200-498: The early Ubaid reflect a continuation of earlier traditions. A single, painted figurine from the Ubaid 0 levels at Tell el-'Oueili has been interpreted as an early representation of the so-called "ophidian figurines", which became common in the later Ubaid. Both seating and standing figurines were made, with paint being used to detail body parts, clothing, or body modifications . "Ophidian figures" have been exclusively found at various southern Mesopotamian sites. They are characterised by
23400-400: The eleventh millennium BC, predating the earliest evidence for domesticated dates from Eridu by several millennia. Date palms require a perennial water source, again indicating that this period may have been wetter than today. Similarly, oak was present from the eighth millennium, but disappeared at around the same time that Ubaid material culture spread outward from southern Mesopotamia during
23600-441: The eleventh millennium BC. Humans could have lived south of Uruk as early as the eighth millennium BC. This is much earlier than the oldest evidence of human occupation in this area. The oldest known site in southern Mesopotamia (Tell el-'Oueili) dates to the Ubaid 0 period. Archaeobotanical research in the Ubaid 0 levels at 'Oueili (6500-6000 BC) has indicated the presence of Euphrates poplar and sea clubrush , both indicative of
23800-1215: The escape of the larger part of the fleet. In 1676 he became Admiral-General of the Danish navy and Knight in the Order of the Elephant . He defeated the Swedish navy in the Battle of Öland , his only victory as a fleet commander. Fishing Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish . Fish are often caught as wildlife from the natural environment ( fresh water or marine ), but may also be caught from stocked bodies of water such as ponds , canals , park wetlands and reservoirs . Fishing techniques include trawling , longlining , jigging , hand-gathering , spearing , netting , angling , shooting and trapping , as well as more destructive and often illegal techniques such as electrocution , blasting and poisoning . The term fishing broadly includes catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as crustaceans ( shrimp / lobsters / crabs ), shellfish , cephalopods ( octopus / squid ) and echinoderms ( starfish / sea urchins ). The term
24000-418: The expansion of the Ubaid towards the north and into the Persian Gulf. At the site of H3 in modern-day Kuwait, a ceramic boat model and a ceramic disc with an image of a two-masted boat were recovered. The latter is the oldest evidence for the use of masts and sails. At the same site, pieces of bitumen with barnacles attached to one side and reed-impressions on the other sides were recovered. These pieces are
24200-462: The fifth millennium BC, children and adults were given differential treatment in death. The available evidence indicates that infants were primarily buried inside the settlement, often near larger, presumably more important dwellings, and often in pots. The association of children's burials with larger buildings is well-illustrated at the sites of Tell Abada and Tepe Gawra. It has been suggested that this pattern of children's burials near larger dwellings
24400-401: The final stages of the Ubaid period. At Mersin , Level XVI (5000-4900 BC), unalloyed copper pins and chisels were found. At southeastern Anatolian sites like Değirmentepe and Norşuntepe , metallurgical production was practiced during the Ubaid 3, as evidenced by furnaces, and related finds. At late fifth millennium Tell Nader , northern Iraq, kilns were excavated that may have been used for
24600-723: The first early modern Europeans to land on the North American mainland aboard the Matthew in 1497. Sebastian Cabot was an Italian explorer and may have sailed with his father John Cabot in May 1497. John Cabot and perhaps Sebastian, sailing from Bristol , took their small fleet along the coasts of a "New Found Land" . There is much controversy over where exactly Cabot landed, but two likely locations that are often suggested are Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Cabot and his crew (including perhaps Sebastian) mistook this place for China, without finding
24800-480: The first American-made design in 1810. The material used for the rod itself changed from the heavy woods native to England to lighter and more elastic varieties imported from abroad, especially from South America and the West Indies . Bamboo rods became the generally favoured option from the mid-19th century, and several strips of the material were cut from the cane, milled into shape, and then glued together to form
25000-457: The first modern fishing port. The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets everywhere. By the end of the 19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishers around Europe, including from the Netherlands and Scandinavia . Twelve trawlers went on to form the nucleus of
25200-511: The first time a clear tripartite social division between intensive subsistence peasant farmers, with crops and animals coming from the north, tent-dwelling nomadic pastoralists dependent upon their herds, and hunter-fisher folk of the Arabian littoral, living in reed huts. Stein and Özbal describe the Near East oecumene that resulted from Ubaid expansion, contrasting it to the colonial expansionism of
25400-454: The first time in the 1910-20s. In 1930, the attendees at a conference in Baghdad defined the concept of an "Ubaid pottery style". This characteristic pottery of this style was a black-on-buff painted ware. This conference also defined the Eridu and Hajji Muhammed styles. Scholars at this conference thought that these pottery styles were so different that "[...] they could not have developed out of
25600-415: The first time to take weekend trips to the seaside or rivers for fishing. Richer hobbyists ventured further abroad. The large rivers of Norway replete with large stocks of salmon began to attract fishers from England in large numbers in the middle of the century – Jones's guide to Norway, and salmon-fisher's pocket companion , published in 1848, was written by Frederic Tolfrey and was a popular guide to
25800-416: The fishing rods, which gave anglers greater control over the cast line. The rods themselves were also becoming increasingly sophisticated and specialised for different roles. Jointed rods became common from the middle of the century and bamboo came to be used for the top section of the rod, giving it much greater strength and flexibility. The industry also became commercialised – rods and tackle were sold at
26000-407: The history of lighthouses and aids to navigation, maritime themes in literature, maritime themes in art, the social history of sailors and passengers and sea-related communities. There are a number of approaches to the field, sometimes divided into two broad categories: Traditionalists, who seek to engage a small audience of other academics, and Utilitarians, who seek to influence policy makers and
26200-511: The inhospitable coast of today's Iran then split around Hadhramaut into two streams north into the Gulf of Aden and thence into the Levant , or south into Alexandria via Red Sea ports such as Axum . Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravans, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentiates. Southern coastal route past the rough country in
26400-422: The later Uruk period . "A contextual analysis comparing different regions shows that the Ubaid expansion took place largely through the peaceful spread of an ideology, leading to the formation of numerous new indigenous identities that appropriated and transformed superficial elements of Ubaid material culture into locally distinct expressions." There is some evidence of warfare during the Ubaid period although it
26600-408: The light, strong, hexagonal rods with a solid core that were superior to anything that preceded them. George Cotton and his predecessors fished their flies with long rods, and light lines allowing the wind to do most of the work of getting the fly to the fish. Tackle design began to improve in the 1880s. The introduction of new woods to the manufacture of fly rods made it possible to cast flies into
26800-508: The main players in commerce in the South China Sea, Chinese merchants and ships were critical to the Spanish trade in Manila. Not only did Chinese merchants supply the goods the Spanish bought with their American silver, but Chinese shipbuilders built the famous galleons that carried those goods and that silver back and forth across the Pacific twice a year. During this time, the clipper route
27000-521: The mid-17th century, followed by over a century of slow decline that ended with the Napoleonic invasion. During the Age of the Ajuran , the Somali sultanates and republics of Merca , Mogadishu , Barawa , Hobyo and their respective ports flourished. They had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India, Venetia , Persia , Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China. In
27200-403: The most common patterns. The slow potter's wheel became in use during Ubaid 3-4, which may have played a role in the decrease in decoration. The coarse, plant-tempered coba bowl , found at many Late and Post-Ubaid sites in northern Mesopotamia from, has been interpreted as some kind of vessel for handing out rations or as evidence of more specialized production, and as such may have been
27400-449: The most widespread ethnolinguistic group, spanning half the planet from Easter Island in the eastern Pacific Ocean to Madagascar in the western Indian Ocean . The Ancient Egyptians had knowledge of sail construction. The Greek historian Herodotus states that Necho II sent out an expedition of Phoenicians , which in two and a half years sailed from the Red Sea around Africa to
27600-566: The mouth of the Nile . As they sailed south and then west, they observed that the mid-day sun was to the north. Their contemporaries did not believe them, but modern historians take this as evidence that they were south of the equator as crossing the equator changes the angle of the sun resulting in the change of season. By 1000 BCE, Austronesians in Island Southeast Asia were already engaging in regular maritime trade with China, South Asia , and
27800-559: The north started already during Ubaid 1-2. Ubaid pottery started to appear along the Persian Gulf coast toward the end of the sixth millennium BC, reaching a peak around 5300 BC and continuing into the fifth millennium. Coastal sites where Ubaid pottery has been found include Bahra 1 and H3 in Kuwait, Dosariyah in Saudi Arabia, and Dalma Island in the United Arab Emirates . Ubaid pottery has also been found further inland along
28000-489: The ocean possible for the first time, resulting in a massive migration of fishers from the ports in the south of England, to villages further north, such as Scarborough , Hull , Grimsby , Harwich and Yarmouth , that were points of access to the large fishing grounds in the Atlantic Ocean . The small village of Grimsby grew to become the largest fishing port in the world by the mid 19th century. An Act of Parliament
28200-430: The old, as is the case with the Uruk ware after the al-'Ubaid ware [...]". For many attendants of the conference, "this sequence based largely on pottery represented a series of different 'ethnic elements' in the occupation of southern Mesopotamia." These ideas about the nature of the Ubaid phenomenon did not last. The term Ubaid itself is still used, but its meaning has changed over time. Joan Oates showed in 1960 that
28400-570: The oldest known examples being longships dated to around 190 AD from the Nydam Boat site. In early modern India and Arabia the lateen -sail ship known as the dhow was used on the waters of the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Persian Gulf. China started building sea-going ships in the 10th century during the Song dynasty . Chinese seagoing ship is based on Austronesian ship designs which have been trading with
28600-550: The other extreme, two-thirds (1.8 million) of the undecked boats are traditional craft of various types, powered only by sail and oars. These boats are used by artisan fishers . It is difficult to estimate how many recreational fishing boats there are, although the number is high. The term is fluid since some recreational boats may also be used for fishing from time to time. Unlike most commercial fishing vessels, recreational fishing boats are often not dedicated just to fishing. Just about anything that will stay afloat can be called
28800-464: The passage having been used as a major shipping route for 200 years. The clipper route fell into commercial disuse with the introduction of steam ships , and the opening of the Suez and Panama Canals . The Age of Exploration is generally said to have ended in the early 17th century. By this time European vessels were well enough built and their navigators competent enough to travel to virtually anywhere on
29000-543: The passage to the east they were looking for. Some scholars maintain that the name America comes from Richard Amerik , a Bristol merchant and customs officer, who is claimed on very slender evidence to have helped finance the Cabot voyages. Jacques Cartier was a French navigator who first explored and described the Gulf of St-Lawrence and the shores of the Saint Lawrence River , which he named Canada, likely comes from
29200-589: The planet. Exploration, of course, continued. The Arctic and Antarctic seas were not explored until the 19th century. The Age of Sail originates from ancient seafaring exploration, during the rise of ancient civilizations. Including Mesopotamia , the Far East and the Cradle of Civilization , the Arabian Sea has been an important marine trade route since the era of the coastal sailing vessels from possibly as early as
29400-444: The position of the sun and the moon. Fishing tackles are the equipment used by fishers when fishing. Almost any equipment or gear used for fishing can be called a fishing tackle, although the term is most commonly associated with gear used in angling . Some examples are hooks , lines , sinkers , floats , rods , reels , baits , lures , spears , nets , gaffs , traps , waders , and tackle boxes. Fishing techniques refer to
29600-461: The production of both pottery and metal. Copper objects are also known from the Ubaid levels at Tepe Gawra (XVII-XII) and Tell Arpachiyah . Copper objects were absent in the Ubaid levels at Eridu and 'Oueili, possibly indicating that copper use spread southwards from the north. However, copper may have been traded, as it was present in elite burials of the Susa I (terminal Ubaid) necropolis at Susa east of
29800-539: The region and strengthened their economic ties in the area. When these expeditions ended, China's maritime strength diminished and lacked a powerful navy for centuries after. The end of the imperially-sponsored voyages, however, in no way meant that Ming people no longer put to sea. Merchants, pirates, fishermen, and others depended on boats and ships for their livelihood, and immigration to Southeast Asia, both permanent and temporary, continued throughout Ming times. Because Chinese and Chinese immigrants to Southeast Asia were
30000-512: The same phenomenon. Some of these styles, such as Hajji Muhammed (previously thought to be Ubaid 2) are now known to occur in Ubaid 3 contexts as well, thereby limiting their value as chronological markers. The relative chronology is based on the long stratigraphic sequences of sites such as Ur, Eridu and Tepe Gawra. The absolute chronology is harder to establish, mainly due to a lack of abundant radiocarbon dates coming from southern Mesopotamia. (after Pournelle 2003 / after Harris 2021) In
30200-414: The same techniques. Recreational fishers fish for pleasure, sport, or to provide food for themselves, while commercial fishers fish for profit. Artisanal fishers use traditional, low-tech methods, for survival in third-world countries, and as a cultural heritage in other countries. Usually, recreational fishers use angling methods and commercial fishers use netting methods. A modern development is to fish with
30400-450: The settlement of Hawaii c. 1250 CE , and New Zealand c. 1300 CE . Distinctive maritime technology was used for this, including the lashed-lug boatbuilding technique, the catamaran , and the crab claw sail , together with extensive navigation techniques. This allowed them to colonize a large part of the Indo-Pacific region during the Austronesian expansion . Prior to the 16th century Colonial Era , Austronesians were
30600-418: The side, rather than over the stern . The first purpose-built stern trawler was Fairtry built in 1953 at Aberdeen , Scotland. The ship was much larger than any other trawlers then in operation and inaugurated the era of the 'super trawler'. As the ship pulled its nets over the stern, it could lift out a much greater haul of up to 60 tons. The ship served as a basis for the expansion of 'super trawlers' around
30800-570: The sixth millennium BC. It has been suggested that acquisition of high-quality wood may have played a role in this expansion. The available evidence in northern Mesopotamia points to a cooler and drier climate during the Hassuna and Halaf periods. During the Halaf-Ubaid Transitional (HUT), Ubaid and early Uruk periods, this developed into a climate characterised by stronger seasonal variation , heavy torrential rains and dry summers. Ubaid and Ubaid-like material culture has been found over an immense area. Ubaid ceramics have shown up from Mersin in
31000-434: The south, corresponding to the area that would later be known as Sumer , the entire Ubaid spans an immense period from ca. 6500 to 3800 BC. It is here that the oldest known Ubaid site - Tell el-'Oueili - was found. In southern Iraq , no archaeological site has yet yielded remains older than Ubaid, However, this might be more a result of the fact that such ancient settlements are now buried deep under alluvial sediments. This
31200-405: The southern Arabian peninsula ( Yemen and Oman today) was significant, and the Egyptian Pharaohs built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today's Suez canal , and another from the Red Sea to the Nile River , both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge sand storms in antiquity. In the modern western countries, the European "Age of Sail"
31400-483: The species and quantities caught. A commercial fishing enterprise may vary from one person with a small boat with hand-casting nets or a few pot traps, to a huge fleet of trawlers processing tons of fish every day. Commercial fishing gear includes weights, nets (e.g. purse seine ), seine nets (e.g. beach seine), trawls (e.g. bottom trawl ), dredges, hooks and line (e.g. long line and handline ), lift nets, gillnets , entangling nets and traps . According to
31600-429: The third millennium BC, certainly the late second millennium BC up to and including the later days of Age of Sail . By the time of Julius Caesar , several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the Sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north. These routes usually began in the Far East with transshipment via historic Bharuch (Bharakuccha), traversed past
31800-448: The time. Leonard Mascall in 1589 wrote A booke of Fishing with Hooke and Line along with many others he produced in his life on game and wildlife in England at the time. The Compleat Angler was written by Izaak Walton in 1653 (although Walton continued to add to it for a quarter of a century) and described the fishing in the Derbyshire Wye . It was a celebration of the art and spirit of fishing in prose and verse. A second part to
32000-434: The total number of commercial fishers and fish farmers is estimated to be 39.0 million. Fishing industries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries . In 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms (32 lb), with an additional 7.4 kilograms (16 lb) harvested from fish farms . Fishing
32200-408: The trade of gold, silver and spices . In the process, Europeans encountered peoples and mapped lands previously unknown to them. The Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India changed Europe's view of the world. Christopher Columbus was a navigator and maritime explorer who is one of several historical figures credited as the discoverer of the Americas . It is generally believed that he
32400-439: The unpredictability of this type of irrigation may have been a factor in increasing social complexity. The relative absence of animal dung , and the common presence of charred wood remains, suggests that wood was used as fuel. At Surezha, dung was commonly used for fuel, and there is some evidence that cattle were used as traction animals for plowing fields. Tell Zeidan again provides a wealth of information. The composition of
32600-410: The use of nets and the catching of fish with hooks not in the mouth. The most common form of recreational fishing is done with a rod , reel , line , hooks and any one of a wide range of baits or lures such as artificial flies . The practice of catching or attempting to catch fish with a hook is generally known as angling . In angling, it is sometimes expected or required that fish be returned to
32800-552: The use of specially trained animals such as cormorants and otters . There are also destructive fishing techniques (such as electrocution , blasting and poisoning ) that can do irreversible damage to the local ecosystems by killing/ sterilizing entire fish stocks , habitat destruction and/or upsetting the equilibrium of interspecific competitions , and such practices are often deemed illegal and liable to criminal punishments . Recreational , commercial and artisanal fishers use different techniques, and also, sometimes,
33000-412: The use of the plough, both introduced from the north, possibly through the earlier Choga Mami , Hadji Muhammed and Samarra cultures . The Ubaid period as a whole, based upon the analysis of grave goods , was one of increasingly polarized social stratification and decreasing egalitarianism . Bogucki describes this as a phase of "Trans-egalitarian" competitive households, in which some fall behind as
33200-516: The water ( catch and release ). Recreational or sport fishermen may log their catches or participate in fishing competitions. The estimated global number of recreational fishers varies from 220 million to a maximum number of 700 million fishers globally, which is thought to be double the number of individuals working as commercial fishers. In the United States alone it was estimated that 50.1 million people engaged in fishing activities in both saltwater and freshwater environments. Big-game fishing
33400-401: The water-proof coating applied on these vessels. The depictions lack details, but an image of a vessel on a shard of pottery shows evidence of what could be bipod masts and a sail, which would make it the earliest known evidence of the use of such technology. The location of the sites indicate that the Ubaid culture was engaging in maritime trade with Neolithic Arabian cultures along the coasts of
33600-420: The way they were powered changed from sail to coal-fired steam by World War I to diesel and turbines by the end of World War II . In 1931, the first powered drum was created by Laurie Jarelainen. The drum was a circular device that was set to the side of the boat and would draw in the nets. Since World War II , radio navigation aids and fish finders have been widely used. The first trawlers fished over
33800-430: The ways the tackles are used when fishing. Tackles that are attached to the end of a fishing line are collectively called terminal tackles . These include hooks, sinkers, floats, leader lines, swivels , split rings, and any wires, snaps, beads, spoons, blades, spinners and clevises used to attach spinner blades to fishing lures. People also tend to use dead or live bait fish as another form of bait . A fishing vessel
34000-399: The wealthy, and new inventions. The Hanseatic League was an alliance of trading guilds that established and maintained a trade monopoly over the Baltic Sea, to a certain extent the North Sea, and most of Northern Europe for a time in the Late Middle Ages and the early modern period, between the 13th and 17th centuries. Historians generally trace the origins of the League to the foundation of
34200-559: The west to Tepe Ghabristan in the east, and from Norşuntepe and Arslantepe in the north to Dosariyah in the south along the Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia . In this area, researchers have discerned considerable regional variation, indicating that the Ubaid was not a monolithic culture through time and space. The Ubaid period is most commonly divided in 6 phases, called Ubaid 0-5. Some of these phases equate with pottery styles that were, in earlier publications, considered to be distinct from Ubaid, but that are now considered to be part of
34400-486: The wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural population is generally referred to as a fish hatchery . Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon , carp , tilapia , catfish , white seabass and trout . Increased demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing has caused widespread overfishing . Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish. Ubaid period The Ubaid period (c. 5500–3700 BC)
34600-424: The wind on silk lines, instead of horse hair . These lines allowed for a much greater casting distance. However, these early fly lines proved troublesome as they had to be coated with various dressings to make them float and needed to be taken off the reel and dried every four hours or so to prevent them from becoming waterlogged. Another negative consequence was that it became easy for the much longer line to get into
34800-441: The world in one of the most important human migrations in recorded history. This period was marked by extensive exploration and colonization efforts on the part of European kingdoms. The sextant , developed in the 18th century, made more accurate charting of nautical position possible. Juan of Austria was a military leader whose most famous victory was in the naval Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Philip had appointed Juan to command
35000-418: The world in the following decades. The early evolution of fishing as recreation is not clear. For example, there is anecdotal evidence for fly fishing in Japan. However, fly fishing was likely to have been a means of survival, rather than recreation. The earliest English essay on recreational fishing was published in 1496, by Dame Juliana Berners , the prioress of the Benedictine Sopwell Nunnery . The essay
35200-466: The world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 8th–13th centuries according to the political scientist John M. Hobson . The Belitung is the oldest discovered Arabic ship to reach the Asian sea, dating back over 1000 years. Apart from the Nile , Tigris and Euphrates , navigable rivers in the Islamic regions were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. Islamic geography and navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of
35400-433: The world's production; China alone accounted for a third of the world's production. Of that production, over 90% was marine and less than 10% was inland. A small number of species support the majority of the world's fisheries. Some of these species are herring , cod , sardine , anchovy , tuna , flounder , mullet , squid , shrimp , salmon , crab, lobster , oyster and scallops . All except these last four provided
35600-464: Was a Commander in Chief of the Dutch and Danish navy. In 1656 he participated in the relief of Gdańsk ( Danzig ). In 1658 it was discovered he had used his ships to trade in luxury goods; as a result he was fined and not allowed to have an active command until 1662. Just before the Second Anglo-Dutch War he was promoted to vice-admiral on 29 January 1665; at the Battle of Lowestoft he prevented total catastrophe by taking over fleet command to allow
35800-421: Was a mass grave from violence. Copper weapons were also present in the form of arrow heads and sling bullets, although these could have been used for other purpose; two clay pots recovered from the era have decorations showing arrows used for the purpose of hunting. A copper axe head was made in the late Ubaid period, which could have been a tool or a weapon. During the late Ubaid period around 4500–4000 BC, there
36000-404: Was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes after the Fall of Constantinople . Historians often refer to the 'Age of Discovery' as the pioneer Portuguese and later Spanish long-distance maritime travels in search of alternative trade routes to " the East Indies ", moved by
36200-412: Was a type of ship developed over a period of centuries and perfected by its most famous users, the Vikings , around the 9th century. The ships were clinker-built , using overlapping wooden strakes. The knaar , a relative of the longship, was a type of cargo vessel. It differed from the longship in that it was larger and relied solely on its square rigged sail for propulsion. The cog was a design which
36400-545: Was also found at the site. Fish may have been a local commodity that was traded for the Mesopotamian pottery that has been found at sites along the Persian Gulf. Ubaid culture is characterized by large unwalled village settlements, multi-roomed rectangular mud-brick houses and the appearance of the first temples of public architecture in Mesopotamia, with a growth of a two tier settlement hierarchy of centralized large sites of more than 10 hectares surrounded by smaller village sites of less than 1 hectare. Domestic equipment included
36600-442: Was also in use during the Ubaid, although the percentage of obsidian tools that was found at archaeological sites fluctuates widely across Mesopotamia. At sites along the middle Euphrates, only few pieces were usually found, and the number of obsidian artefacts was also limited in southern Mesopotamian sites. At sites along the Khabur and the upper Tigris , obsidian was more common. Also, obsidian seems to have been less common during
36800-452: Was an Italian-born historian of Spain and of the discoveries of her representatives during the Age of Exploration . He wrote the first accounts of explorations in Central and South America in a series of letters and reports, grouped in the original Latin publications of 1511–1530 into sets of ten chapters called "decades." His Decades are thus of great value in the history of geography and discovery. His De Orbe Novo (published 1530; "On
37000-410: Was another type of ship invented in the Mediterranean in the 15th century. It was a larger vessel than the caravel. Columbus's ship, the Santa María , was a famous example of a carrack. The Arab Empire maintained and expanded a wide trade network across parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. This helped establish the Arab Empire (including the Rashidun , Umayyad , Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates ) as
37200-405: Was born in Genoa , although other theories and possibilities exist. Columbus' voyages across the Atlantic Ocean began a European effort at exploration and colonization of the Western Hemisphere . While history places great significance on his first voyage of 1492, he did not actually reach the mainland until his third voyage in 1498. Likewise, he was not the earliest European explorer to reach
37400-412: Was detected, it was all of the same type, i.e. one- or two-band circumferential headshaping, which results in an elongated shape of the head. Different types of headshaping were practiced prior to and after the Ubaid period across the Near East, but it seems that the specific technique of circumferential headshaping may have originated in Iran, east of the area of Ubaid influence, and reached its peak during
37600-439: Was established by clipper ships between Europe and the Far East , Australia and New Zealand. The route ran from west to east through the Southern Ocean , in order to make use of the strong westerly winds of the Roaring Forties . Many ships and sailors were lost in the heavy conditions along the route, particularly at Cape Horn , which the clippers had to round on their return to Europe. In September 1578, Sir Francis Drake , in
37800-440: Was first distinguished on the basis of its painted pottery. Ceramics continue to be a main characteristic to determine the chronology and geographical distribution of the period. The paint varies from black to brown, purple and dark green and the pottery fabric itself usually has a buff to red/green brown color. Ubaid 1-2 pottery had dense, geometric and abstract decoration. Later pottery was less decorated, with bands and swags being
38000-427: Was first obtained in 1796, which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make it deeper. It was only in 1846, with the tremendous expansion in the fishing industry , that the Grimsby Dock Company was formed. The foundation stone for the Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849. The dock covered 25 acres (10 ha) and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as
38200-400: Was later adopted by the Chinese through contact with Japanese pirates in the 16th century. The oldest known map is dated back to 12,000 BC; it was discovered in a Spanish cave by Pilar Utrilla. The early maps were oriented with east at the top. This is believed to have begun in the Middle East . Religion played a role in the drawing of maps. Countries that were predominantly Christian during
38400-506: Was made from it. For example, blades were made from a higher quality flint than other tools, and they may have been produced off-site, indicating that not only raw materials but also finished products were transported over larger distances. Flint was used for a variety of tools, including arrowheads, sickle blades, hoes (which are sometimes considered a hallmark of the Ubaid) and a variety of tools for piercing and drilling. Flint assemblages display both regional and temporal variation. Obsidian
38600-526: Was not as evident at other sites as it was at Zeidan. There was no indication at Zeidan that there was spatial differentiation across the site in how animal products were consumed, suggesting that food stuffs weren't a means to express social differentiation. The Ubaid-related sites along the Persian Gulf coast provide evidence for fishing. The range of species recovered at H3, for example, indicates that fishing probably mainly took place in shallow coastal waters. Tuna, which cannot be caught in Kuwait Bay anymore,
38800-408: Was of a sleek build and had a tall gaff rig , which gave the vessel sufficient speed to make long-distance trips out to the fishing grounds in the ocean. They were also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water. The great trawling fleet that built up at Brixham earned the village the title of 'Mother of Deep-Sea Fisheries'. This revolutionary design made large-scale trawling in
39000-446: Was related to increasing social differentiation between kin groups . Adults, on the other hand, were buried at the edge of the settlement in communal burial grounds in pit burials or inside clay boxes. Such burial grounds have for example been excavated at Eridu. These burial practices represent a clear break from those of the preceding Late Neolithic period. During the Late Neolithic, burials were often secondary and burial treatment
39200-449: Was some increase in social polarization, with central houses in the settlements becoming bigger. But there were no real cities until the later Uruk period . The languages that were spoken during the Ubaid period cannot be determined. Despite the fact that the Ubaid period is prehistorical , it has featured prominently in discussions on the origin and presence of the Sumerian and Akkadian languages in Sumer . This debate has been called
39400-582: Was the case, for example, of the site of Hadji Muhammed , which was discovered only by accident. In central and northern Iraq, the Ubaid was preceded by the Hassuna and Samarra cultures. The Ubaid may have developed out of the latter. In northern Syria and southeastern Turkey, the Ubaid follows upon the Halaf period , and a relatively short Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period (HUT) dating to c. 5500-5200 BC has been proposed as well. HUT pottery assemblages displayed both typically Ubaid and Halaf characteristics. The relations between these periods - or cultures -
39600-541: Was the first type of map that labeled North at the top and was drawn proportionate to size. Landmarks were drawn in great detail. Various ships were in use during the Middle Ages . Jong , a type of large sailing ship from Nusantara , was built using wooden dowels without iron nails and multiple planks to endure heavy seas. The chuan (Chinese Junk ship) design was both innovative and adaptable. Junk vessels employed mat and batten style sails that could be raised and lowered in segments, as well varying angles. The longship
39800-400: Was titled Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle , and included detailed information on fishing waters, the construction of rods and lines, and the use of natural baits and artificial flies. Recreational fishing took a great leap forward after the English Civil War , where a newly found interest in the activity left its mark on the many books and treatises that were written on the subject at
40000-413: Was very diverse. The Ubaid witnessed a marked shift toward primary burial, less diverse burial customs, and less diversity in burial gifts. This shift has been interpreted as a reflection of changing perceptions of personhood . Evidence for cranial modification , i.e. deliberate headshaping, among both men and women, has come from many archaeological sites throughout wider Mesopotamia. Where headshaping
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