148-659: The Marine Reserves Act is an Act of Parliament in New Zealand . In 2000 the Department of Conservation started a review of the Act resulting in a draft Marine Reserves Bill that was introduced into Parliament in June 2002. New Zealand New Zealand is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean . It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island ( Te Ika-a-Māui ) and
296-557: A minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured. The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition. Cabinet , formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions. Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore collectively responsible for
444-468: A protectionist and highly regulated economy to a liberalised free-trade economy. Unemployment peaked just above 10% in 1991 and 1992, following the 1987 share market crash , but eventually fell to 3.7% in 2007 (ranking third from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations). However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major effect on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters,
592-506: A 2016 study found that these tariffs had no impact on employment and wages in the US tire industry. In 2018, EU Trade Commissioner Cecilia Malmström stated that the US was "playing a dangerous game" in applying tariffs on steel and aluminum imports from most countries and stated that she saw the Trump administration's decision to do so as both "pure protectionist" and "illegal". The tariffs imposed by
740-577: A copy was sent to King William IV who had already acknowledged the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and who recognised the declaration in a letter from Lord Glenelg . Aotearoa (pronounced [aɔˈtɛaɾɔa] in Māori and / ˌ aʊ t ɛəˈr oʊ . ə / in English; often translated as 'land of the long white cloud') is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had
888-412: A free market, where there is no such total loss. Economist Stephen P. Magee claims the benefits of free trade outweigh the losses by as much as 100 to 1. Protectionism has been accused of being one of the major causes of war. Proponents of this theory point to the constant warfare in the 17th and 18th centuries among European countries whose governments were predominantly mercantilist and protectionist,
1036-500: A high level of innovation . Poverty in New Zealand is characterised by growing income inequality; wealth in New Zealand is highly concentrated , with the top 1% of the population owning 16% of the country's wealth, and the richest 5% owning 38%, leaving a stark contrast where half the population, including state beneficiaries and pensioners, receive less than $ 24,000. Moreover, child poverty in New Zealand has been identified by
1184-455: A limited set of circumstances and that trade policy will rarely be the best response to the problems [of globalization]". According to economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke, there is a consensus in the economics literature that protectionist policies in the interwar period "hurt the world economy overall, although there is a debate about whether the effect was large or small." Economic historian Paul Bairoch argued that economic protection
1332-551: A name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans; Aotearoa originally referred to just the North Island . Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui ( ' the fish of Māui ' ) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu ( ' the waters of greenstone ' ) or Te Waka o Aoraki ( ' the canoe of Aoraki ' ) for the South Island . Early European maps labelled
1480-766: A party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat. Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties , National and Labour . More parties have been represented in Parliament since the introduction of MMP. New Zealand's judiciary , headed by the chief justice , includes the Supreme Court , Court of Appeal , the High Court , and subordinate courts. Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence . This theoretically allows
1628-497: A shared Trans-Tasman identity between the two countries stemming from centuries of British colonisation. Nationally, legislative authority is vested in an elected, unicameral Parliament , while executive political power is exercised by the Government , led by the prime minister , currently Christopher Luxon . Charles III is the country's king and is represented by the governor-general , Cindy Kiro . In addition, New Zealand
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#17330862111591776-486: A similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period, overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007. In 2015, renewable energy generated 40.1% of New Zealand's gross energy supply. The majority of the country's electricity supply is generated from hydroelectric power , with major schemes on the Waikato , Waitaki and Clutha / Mata-Au rivers, as well as at Manapouri . Geothermal power
1924-578: A temporary waiver to enable more widespread production of the vaccines, since suppressing the virus as quickly as possible benefits the entire world. The waivers would be in addition to the existing, but cumbersome, flexibilities in TRIPS allowing countries to impose compulsory licenses. Over 100 developing nations supported the waiver but it was blocked by the G7 members. This blocking was condemned by 400 organizations including Doctors Without Borders and 115 members of
2072-614: A trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand. High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community and other compounding factors, such as
2220-484: A yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours. The general snow season is early June until early October, though cold snaps can occur outside this season. Snowfall
2368-588: Is Wellington , and its most populous city is Auckland . The islands of New Zealand were the last large habitable land to be settled by humans. Between about 1280 and 1350, Polynesians began to settle in the islands and subsequently developed a distinctive Māori culture . In 1642, the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight and record New Zealand. In 1769 the British explorer Captain James Cook became
2516-609: Is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy , although its constitution is not codified . Charles III is the King of New Zealand and thus the head of state . The king is represented by the governor-general , whom he appoints on the advice of the prime minister . The governor-general can exercise the Crown 's prerogative powers , such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers , ambassadors, and other key public officials, and in rare situations,
2664-430: Is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth. However, protectionism can be used to raise government revenue and enable access to intellectual property, including essential medicines. Protectionism is frequently criticized by economists as harming
2812-484: Is a consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers have a significantly positive effect on economic growth . Some scholars, such as Douglas Irwin , have implicated protectionism as the cause of some economic crises, most notably the Great Depression . On the contrary, Paul Krugman , winner of
2960-704: Is a member of the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and participates in the Five Power Defence Arrangements . Today, New Zealand enjoys particularly close relations with the United States and is one of its major non-NATO allies , as well as with Australia , with a " Trans-Tasman " identity between citizens of
3108-598: Is also a significant generator of electricity, with several large stations located across the Taupō Volcanic Zone in the North Island. The four main companies in the generation and retail market are Contact Energy , Genesis Energy , Mercury Energy and Meridian Energy . State-owned Transpower operates the high-voltage transmission grids in the North and South Islands, as well as the Inter-Island HVDC link connecting
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#17330862111593256-576: Is also a significant source of revenue. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , UKUSA , Five Eyes , OECD , ASEAN Plus Six , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Pacific Community and the Pacific Islands Forum . It enjoys particularly close relations with the United States and is one of its major non-NATO allies ; the United Kingdom; Samoa , Fiji , and Tonga ; and with Australia , with
3404-564: Is classified as a non-self-governing territory , but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll ). The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica , where it operates the Scott Base research facility. New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and
3552-869: Is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country. New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals , fungi and plants . Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species. The flora and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand's fragmentation off from Gondwana, however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal. About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic , covering 1,944 species across 65 genera . The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species,
3700-459: Is equivalent to 15% of the population of New Zealand. New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries, and enjoys strong diplomatic relations with Samoa , Fiji , and Tonga , and among smaller nations. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries, and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment. The increase of this since the 1960s led to
3848-440: Is heavily dependent on international trade, particularly in agricultural products. Exports account for 24% of its output, making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns . Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%). New Zealand's main trading partners, as at June 2018 , are China ( NZ$ 27.8b), Australia ($ 26.2b),
3996-494: Is made up of two main islands and more than 700 smaller islands . The two main islands (the North Island , or Te Ika-a-Māui , and the South Island , or Te Waipounamu ) are separated by Cook Strait , 22 kilometres (14 mi) wide at its narrowest point. Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island (across the Foveaux Strait ), Chatham Island , Great Barrier Island (in
4144-502: Is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers, with recent broadening of culture arising from increased immigration to the country . The official languages are English, Māori , and New Zealand Sign Language , with the local dialect of English being dominant. A developed country , it was the first to introduce a minimum wage , and the first to give women the right to vote . It ranks very highly in international measures of quality of life , human rights , and it has one of
4292-426: Is not causation... there is no reason for necessarily thinking that import protection was a good policy just because the economic outcome was good: the outcome could have been driven by factors completely unrelated to the tariff, or perhaps could have been even better in the absence of protection." Irwin furthermore writes that "few observers have argued outright that the high tariffs caused such growth." One study by
4440-436: Is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand and 40% of these are endemic. The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps , or by southern beech in cooler climates. The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock . Before
4588-555: Is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes. The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent territory ); the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing states in free association with New Zealand); and the Ross Dependency , which is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica . The first European visitor to New Zealand, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman , named
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4736-765: Is the exception and protectionism the rule". According to economic historians Douglas Irwin and Kevin O'Rourke, "shocks that emanate from brief financial crises tend to be transitory and have a little long-run effect on trade policy, whereas those that play out over longer periods (the early 1890s, early 1930s) may give rise to protectionism that is difficult to reverse. Regional wars also produce transitory shocks that have little impact on long-run trade policy, while global wars give rise to extensive government trade restrictions that can be difficult to reverse." One study shows that sudden shifts in comparative advantage for specific countries have led some countries to become protectionist: "The shift in comparative advantage associated with
4884-425: Is the most distorted exchange rate policy any great nation has ever followed". He notes that an undervalued renminbi is tantamount to imposing high tariffs or providing export subsidies. A cheaper currency improves employment and competitiveness because it makes imports more expensive while making domestic products more attractive. He expects Chinese surpluses to destroy 1.4 million American jobs by 2011. There
5032-509: Is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management ", while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents, and other local matters. Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils. The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially
5180-629: The 1973 oil and 1979 energy crises, led to a severe economic depression . Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank . In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three-year period. Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia ), rapidly transforming New Zealand from
5328-827: The ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia. In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Second Boer War , the Korean War , the Malayan Emergency , the Gulf War , and the Afghanistan War . It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus , Somalia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Sinai , Angola , Cambodia ,
5476-534: The American Revolution , which came about ostensibly due to British tariffs and taxes. According to a slogan of Frédéric Bastiat (1801–1850), "When goods cannot cross borders, armies will." On the other hand, archaeologist Lawrence H. Keeley argues in his book War Before Civilization that disputes between trading partners escalate to war more frequently than disputes between nations that don't trade much with each other. The Opium Wars were fought between
5624-622: The Doha Declaration , was issued in November 2001, which indicated that TRIPS should not prevent states from dealing with public health crises and allowed for compulsory licenses . After Doha, PhRMA , the United States and to a lesser extent other developed nations began working to minimize the effect of the declaration. In 2020, conflicts re-emerged over patents, copyrights and trade secrets related to COVID-19 vaccines , diagnostics and treatments. South Africa and India proposed that WTO grant
5772-723: The European Parliament . In June 2022, after extensive involvement of the European Union , the WTO instead adopted a watered-down agreement that focuses only on vaccine patents, excludes high-income countries and China, and contains few provisions that are not covered by existing flexibilities. Proponents of protectionism argue that tariffs raise government revenue via customs . Developing countries , including least developed countries (LDCs), often do not collect income taxes because personal incomes are often too low to tax and they lack
5920-615: The European Union ($ 22.9b), the United States ($ 17.6b), and Japan ($ 8.4b). On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement , the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country. In July 2023, New Zealand and the European Union entered into the EU–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement , which eliminated tariffs on several goods traded between
6068-692: The Gondwanan supercontinent. About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault . Elsewhere, the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trough east of
Marine Reserves Act 1971 - Misplaced Pages Continue
6216-547: The Great Depression . The depression led to the election of the first Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy. New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War, and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work. A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of
6364-614: The Hauraki Gulf ), D'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds ) and Waiheke Island (about 22 km (14 mi) from central Auckland). New Zealand is long and narrow—over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi) —with about 15,000 km (9,300 mi) of coastline and a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi). Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline,
6512-515: The Iran–Iraq border, Bougainville , East Timor , and the Solomon Islands . New Zealand has an advanced market economy , ranked 13th in the 2021 Human Development Index , and fourth in the 2022 Index of Economic Freedom . It is a high-income economy with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of US$ 36,254. The currency is the New Zealand dollar , informally known as
6660-566: The Legislative Council , until this was abolished in 1950. The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand. The House of Representatives is democratically elected, and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed,
6808-519: The South Island ( Te Waipounamu )—and over 700 smaller islands . It is the sixth-largest island country by area and lies east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and south of the islands of New Caledonia , Fiji , and Tonga . The country's varied topography and sharp mountain peaks, including the Southern Alps , owe much to tectonic uplift and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city
6956-666: The Statute of Westminster , confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for the country without its consent. The British government's residual legislative powers were later removed by the Constitution Act 1986 , and final rights of appeal to British courts were abolished in 2003. Early in the 20th century , New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through
7104-764: The Trump administration during the China–United States trade war led to a reduction in the United States trade deficit with China. Defunct Great Britain , and England in particular, became one of the most prosperous economic regions in the world between the late 1600s and early 1800s as a result of being the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-eighteenth century. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to
7252-511: The UK and China over the right of British merchants to engage in the free trade of opium . For many opium users, what started as recreation soon became a punishing addiction: many people who stopped ingesting opium suffered chills, nausea, and cramps, and sometimes died from withdrawal. Once addicted, people would often do almost anything to continue to get access to the drug. Barbara Tuchman says both European intellectuals and leaders overestimated
7400-650: The United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori. The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840. In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington , Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign. With
7548-426: The United Kingdom between 1815 and 1846, and enhanced the profits and political power associated with land ownership . The laws raised food prices and the costs of living for the British public, and hampered the growth of other British economic sectors, such as manufacturing, by reducing the disposable income of the British public. The Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel , a Conservative , achieved repeal in 1846 with
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#17330862111597696-600: The United States Department of State noted that the New Zealand government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population. In terms of structural discrimination , the New Zealand Human Rights Commission has asserted that there is strong, consistent evidence that it is a real and ongoing socioeconomic issue. One example of structural inequality in New Zealand can be seen in
7844-500: The WTO benefited US consumers, as the price of Chinese goods were substantially reduced. Harvard economist Dani Rodrik argues that while globalization and free trade does contribute to social problems, "a serious retreat into protectionism would hurt the many groups that benefit from trade and would result in the same kind of social conflicts that globalization itself generates. We have to recognize that erecting trade barriers will help in only
7992-616: The West Coast of the South Island to semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland . Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 618 millimetres (24.3 in) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount. Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive
8140-413: The alienation and confiscation of large amounts of Māori land. New Zealand became a dominion in 1907; it gained full statutory independence in 1947, retaining the monarch as head of state . Today, the majority of New Zealand's population of 5.25 million is of European descent ; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pasifika . Reflecting this, New Zealand's culture
8288-424: The caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes . New Zealand is prone to earthquakes . The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates . New Zealand is part of Zealandia , a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from
8436-430: The reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law). The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints, and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers. The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the king and the House of Representatives . It also included an upper house,
8584-444: The seven-continent model. New Zealand's climate is predominantly temperate maritime ( Köppen : Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) in the north. Historical maxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.32 °F) in Rangiora , Canterbury and −25.6 °C (−14.08 °F) in Ranfurly , Otago . Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on
8732-446: The "Kiwi dollar"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar ), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands . Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focusing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax , gold, kauri gum , and native timber. The first shipment of refrigerated meat on the Dunedin in 1882 led to the establishment of meat and dairy exports to Britain,
8880-413: The "reciprocity period", the average tariff declined substantially until it leveled off at 5 percent. Economist Paul Bairoch documented that the United States imposed among the highest rates in the world from around the founding of the country until the World War II period, describing the United States as "the mother country and bastion of modern protectionism" since the end of the 18th century and until
9028-408: The 1846 Corn Laws debate, arguing that it destroyed what had been "some of the finest manufacturers of the world" in 1812. The countries of Western Europe began to steadily liberalize their economies after World War II and the protectionism of the interwar period, but John Tsang , then Hong Kong 's Secretary for Commerce, Industry and Technology and chair of the Sixth Ministerial Conference of
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#17330862111599176-543: The 18th century, Adam Smith famously warned against the "interested sophistry" of industry, seeking to gain an advantage at the cost of the consumers. Friedrich List saw Adam Smith's views on free trade as disingenuous, believing that Smith advocated for free trade so that British industry could lock out underdeveloped foreign competition. Some have argued that no major country has ever successfully industrialized without some form of economic protection. Economic historian Paul Bairoch wrote that "historically, free trade
9324-430: The 1950s, steel in the 1960s, automobiles in the 1970s, and electronics in the 1980s. In each case, the rapid expansion in Japan's exports created difficulties for its trading partners and the use of protectionism as a shock absorber." According to economic historian Douglas Irwin, a common myth about US trade policy is that low tariffs harmed American manufacturers in the early 19th century and then that high tariffs made
9472-425: The 19th century, such as the Russian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire which remained highly protectionist. The Ottoman Empire also became increasingly protectionist. In the Ottoman Empire's case, however, it previously had liberal free trade policies during the 18th to early 19th centuries, which British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli cited as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in
9620-629: The 2024 Global Peace Index , New Zealand is the 4th most peaceful country in the world. New Zealand's military services—the New Zealand Defence Force —comprise the New Zealand Army , the Royal New Zealand Air Force , and the Royal New Zealand Navy . New Zealand's national defence needs are modest since a direct attack is unlikely. However, its military has had a global presence . The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli , Crete , El Alamein , and Cassino . The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's national identity and strengthened
9768-597: The Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council. The Realm of New Zealand, one of 15 Commonwealth realms , is the entire area over which the king or queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau , the Ross Dependency , the Cook Islands , and Niue . The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand. The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau
9916-433: The Cobden Chevalier treaty and three decades after British Repeal, Germany "had virtually become a free trade country" (Bairoch, 41). Average duties on manufactured products had declined to 9–12% on the Continent, a far cry from the 50% British tariffs, and numerous prohibitions elsewhere, of the immediate post-Waterloo era (Bairoch, table 3, p. 6, and table 5, p. 42)." Some European powers did not liberalize during
10064-412: The Depression, Britain passed the Import Duties Act of 1932 , which imposed a general tariff of 10% on most imports and created the Import Duties Advisory Committee (IDAC), which could recommend even higher duties. Britain's protectionism in the early 1930s was shown by Lloyd and Solomou to have been productivity-enhancing. The possessions of the East India Company in India, known as British India ,
10212-443: The First World War on motorcars; clocks and watches; musical instruments; and cinematographic film were retained. Under commodities that were early to receive protection included matches, chemicals, scientific equipment, silk, rayon, embroidery, lace, cutlery, gloves, incandescent mantles, paper, pottery, enamelled holloware, and buttons. The duties on motorcars and rayon have been determined to have expanded output considerably. Amid
10360-424: The Government as a major societal issue; the country has 12.0% of children living in low-income households that had less than 50% of the median equivalised disposable household income as of June 2022 . Poverty has a disproportionately high effect in ethnic-minority households, with a quarter (23.3%) of Māori children and almost a third (28.6%) of Pacific Islander children living in poverty as of 2020 . New Zealand
10508-410: The MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate , and the other is for a party. Based on the 2018 census data, there are 72 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote), and the remaining 48 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in Parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that
10656-599: The Māori of later years. In a hostile 1642 encounter between Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri and Dutch explorer Abel Tasman 's crew, four of Tasman's crew members were killed, and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot . Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769, when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline. Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling , sealing , and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons, and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts, and water. The introduction of
10804-576: The Māori population. The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor. The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832. His duties, given to him by Governor Bourke in Sydney, were to protect settlers and traders "of good standing", prevent "outrages" against Māori, and apprehend escaped convicts. In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry ,
10952-689: The Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Switzerland, and arguably Sweden and Belgium, had fully moved towards free trade prior to 1860. Economic historians see the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 as the decisive shift toward free trade in Britain. A 1990 study by the Harvard economic historian Jeffrey Williamson showed that the Corn Laws (which imposed restrictions and tariffs on imported grain ) substantially increased
11100-614: The Nobel Prize for Economics, argues that tariffs had no negative impact during the Great Depression. Although trade liberalization can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in the short run , cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors, free trade often lowers the costs of goods and services for both producers and consumers. A variety of policies have been used to achieve protectionist goals. These include: In
11248-584: The North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches further north. New Zealand, together with Australia, is part of a wider region known as Australasia . It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia . Oceania is a wider region encompassing the Australian continent , New Zealand, and various island countries in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in
11396-600: The North Island, saw thousands of imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars . Following these armed conflicts, large areas of Māori land were confiscated by the government to meet settler demands. The colony gained a representative government in 1852 , and the first Parliament met in 1854. In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters (except native policy, which
11544-623: The Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens. During the period of the New Zealand colony, Britain was responsible for external trade and foreign relations. The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties , and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939, New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand". In 1951,
11692-466: The Treaty of Waitangi. In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985. The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed proved controversial in the 2000s. New Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and
11840-508: The United Kingdom as "a decisive shift toward European free trade." This treaty was followed by numerous free trade agreements: "France and Belgium signed a treaty in 1861; a Franco-Prussian treaty was signed in 1862; Italy entered the "network of Cobden-Chevalier treaties" in 1863 (Bairoch 1989, 40); Switzerland in 1864; Sweden, Norway, Spain, the Netherlands, and the Hanseatic towns in 1865; and Austria in 1866. By 1877, less than two decades after
11988-642: The United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests, while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty. The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War , the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior , disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues, and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy . Despite
12136-492: The United Kingdom. Europe became increasingly protectionist during the eighteenth century. Economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke write that in "the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, European trade policies were almost universally protectionist", with the exceptions being smaller countries such as the Netherlands and Denmark. Europe increasingly liberalized its trade during the 19th century. Countries such as
12284-425: The United States into a great industrial power in the late 19th century. A review by The Economist of Irwin's 2017 book Clashing over Commerce: A History of US Trade Policy states: Political dynamics would lead people to see a link between tariffs and the economic cycle that was not there. A boom would generate enough revenue for tariffs to fall, and when the bust came pressure would build to raise them again. By
12432-481: The United States occurred under protectionist policies 1816–1848 and under moderate protectionism 1846–1861, and continued under strict protectionist policies 1861–1945. In the late 19th century, higher tariffs were introduced on the grounds that they were needed to protect American wages and to protect American farmers. Between 1824 and the 1940s, the U.S. imposed much higher average tariff rates on manufactured products than did Britain or any other European country, with
12580-519: The United States's suspension of ANZUS obligations, the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend. Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions. In 2013 there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which
12728-557: The United States. In 2010, Paul Krugman write that China pursues a mercantilist and predatory policy, i.e., it keeps its currency undervalued to accumulate trade surpluses by using capital flow controls. The Chinese government sells renminbi and buys foreign currency to keep the renminbi low, giving the Chinese manufacturing sector a cost advantage over its competitors. China's surpluses drain US demand and slow economic recovery in other countries with which China trades. Krugman writes: "This
12876-480: The World Bank indicate that TRIPS has not led to a demonstrable acceleration of investment to low-income countries, though it may have done so for middle-income countries. Critics argue that TRIPS limits the ability of governments to introduce competition for generic producers. The TRIPS agreement allows the grant of compulsory licenses at a nation's discretion. TRIPS-plus conditions in the United States' FTAs with Australia, Jordan, Singapore and Vietnam have restricted
13024-590: The World Trade Organization , MC6, commented in 2005 that the EU spent around €70 billion per year on "trade-distorting support". Since 1971 Canada has protected producers of eggs, milk, cheese, chicken, and turkey with a system of supply management . Though prices for these foods in Canada exceed global prices, the farmers and processors have had the security of a stable market to finance their operations. Doubts about
13172-571: The achievement of their independence, most of the Latin American countries adopted protectionism. They both feared that any foreign competition would stomp out their newly created state and believed that lack of outside resources would drive domestic production. The protectionist behavior continued up until and during the World Wars. During World War 2, Latin America had, on average, the highest tariffs in
13320-472: The admittedly high tariffs of the time came with a cost, estimated at around 0.5% of GDP in the mid-1870s. In some industries, they might have sped up development by a few years. But American growth during its protectionist period was more to do with its abundant resources and openness to people and ideas. According to Irwin, tariffs have served three primary purposes in the United States: "to raise revenue for
13468-461: The application of compulsory licenses to emergency situations, antitrust remedies, and cases of public non-commercial use. One of the most visible conflicts over TRIPS has been AIDS drugs in Africa . Despite the role that patents have played in maintaining higher drug costs for public health programs across Africa, this controversy has not led to a revision of TRIPS. Instead, an interpretive statement,
13616-438: The arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine , wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees. Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement. Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of
13764-464: The capability to collect such taxes from individuals. Tariffs were the greatest source of United States federal revenue (up to 95% at times) until the federal income tax began after 1913. For well over a century the federal government was largely financed by tariffs averaging about 20% on foreign imports. At the end of the American Civil War in 1865 about 63% of Federal income was generated by
13912-474: The consequences of these decisions. The 42nd and current prime minister, since 27 November 2023, is Christopher Luxon . A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election. Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first-past-the-post voting system. Since the 1996 election , a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used. Under
14060-443: The cost of living for British workers, and hampered the British manufacturing sector by reducing the disposable incomes that British workers could have spent on manufactured goods. The shift towards liberalization in Britain occurred in part due to "the influence of economists like David Ricardo", but also due to "the growing power of urban interests". Findlay and O'Rourke characterize 1860 Cobden Chevalier treaty between France and
14208-582: The country from foreign competitors and raise government revenue . Opponents argue that protectionist policies reduce trade , and adversely affect consumers in general (by raising the cost of imported goods) as well as the producers and workers in export sectors, both in the country implementing protectionist policies and in the countries against which the protections are implemented. Protectionism has been advocated mainly by parties that hold economic nationalist positions, while economically liberal political parties generally support free trade . There
14356-461: The country has extensive marine resources. Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area. The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand. It is divided along its length by the Southern Alps . There are 18 peaks over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3,724 metres (12,218 ft). Fiordland 's steep mountains and deep fiords record
14504-497: The criminal justice system. According to the Ministry of Justice , Māori are overrepresented, comprising 45% of New Zealanders convicted of crimes and 53% of those imprisoned, while only being 16.5% of the population. The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces , which had a degree of autonomy. Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales, and other policies, government
14652-503: The exception for a period of time of Spain and Russia. Up until the end of World War II, the United States had the most protectionist economy on Earth. The Bush administration implemented tariffs on Chinese steel in 2002 ; according to a 2005 review of existing research on the tariff, all studies found that the tariffs caused more harm than gains to the US economy and employment. The Obama administration implemented tariffs on Chinese tires between 2009 and 2012 as an anti-dumping measure ;
14800-429: The excise taxes, which exceeded the 25.4% generated by tariffs. In 1915 during World War I tariffs generated only 30.1% of revenues. Since 1935 tariff income has continued to be a declining percentage of Federal tax income. A 2016 study found that "trade typically favors the poor", as they spend a greater share of their earnings on goods, as free trade reduces the costs of goods. Other research found that China's entry to
14948-405: The extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island. The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism . The highly active Taupō Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau , punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (2,797 metres (9,177 ft)). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupō , nestled in
15096-503: The first European to set foot on and map New Zealand. In 1840, representatives of the United Kingdom and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi which paved the way for Britain's declaration of sovereignty later that year and the establishment of the Crown Colony of New Zealand in 1841. Subsequently, a series of conflicts between the colonial government and Māori tribes resulted in
15244-481: The formation of the Pasifika New Zealander pan-ethnic group, the fourth-largest ethnic grouping in the country. Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration
15392-486: The government, to restrict imports and protect domestic producers from foreign competition, and to reach reciprocity agreements that reduce trade barriers." From 1790 to 1860, average tariffs increased from 20 percent to 60 percent before declining again to 20 percent. From 1861 to 1933, which Irwin characterizes as the "restriction period", the average tariffs increased to 50 percent and remained at that level for several decades. From 1934 onwards, which Irwin characterizes as
15540-593: The islands Staten Land , believing they were part of the Staten Landt that Jacob Le Maire had sighted off the southern end of South America. Hendrik Brouwer proved that the South American land was a small island in 1643, and Dutch cartographers subsequently renamed Tasman's discovery Nova Zeelandia from Latin , after the Dutch province of Zeeland . This name was later anglicised to New Zealand . This
15688-447: The islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island), and South ( Stewart Island / Rakiura ). In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands, and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set
15836-573: The islands are uninhabited except for about six people at Raoul Island station. These islands put the northern border of New Zealand at 29 degrees South latitude. After the 1982 UNCLOS , the islands contributed significantly to New Zealand's exclusive economic zone . In 1891, the Liberal Party came to power as the first organised political party. The Liberal Government , led by Richard Seddon for most of its period in office, passed many important social and economic measures. In 1893, New Zealand
15984-436: The judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions. New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states. As of 2017, the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions, and first in government transparency and lack of corruption . LGBT rights in the nation are also recognised as among
16132-511: The land in 1997. The forests were dominated by birds , and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi , kākāpō , weka and takahē evolving flightlessness . The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats , ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle . Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles ( tuatara , skinks and geckos ), frogs , such as
16280-521: The late 1940s, it stifled agricultural production, exports and business sentiment, in general. Despite these shortcomings, protectionism and government credits did allow an exponential growth of the internal market: radio sales increased 600% and fridge sales grew 218%, among others. During this period Argentina's economy continued to grow, on average, but more slowly than the world as a whole or than its neighbors, Brazil and Chile. By 1950, Argentina's GDP per capita accounted fell to less than half of that of
16428-614: The latter being common. New Zealand is a member of the Five Eyes intelligence sharing agreement, known formally as the UKUSA Agreement . The five members of this agreement compromise the core Anglosphere : Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Since 2012, New Zealand has had a partnership arrangement with NATO under the Partnership Interoperability Initiative. According to
16576-403: The liberal era of low tariffs and free trade. One study found that tariffs imposed on manufactured goods increase economic growth in developing countries, and this growth impact remains even after the tariffs are repealed. According to Dartmouth economist Douglas Irwin , "that there is a correlation between high tariffs and growth in the late nineteenth century cannot be denied. But correlation
16724-574: The longest recession in over thirty years, and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009. The lowest unemployment rate recorded using the current methodology was in December 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic , at 3.2%. Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends but are consistently higher among youth. During the September 2021 quarter, the general unemployment rate was around 3.2%, while
16872-456: The lowest levels of perceived corruption in the world. It retains visible levels of inequality , having structural disparities between its Māori and European populations. New Zealand underwent major economic changes during the 1980s, which transformed it from a protectionist to a liberalised free-trade economy. The service sector dominates the national economy , followed by the industrial sector, and agriculture ; international tourism
17020-600: The member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It establishes minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of different forms of intellectual property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations. TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) between 1989 and 1990 and is administered by the WTO. Statements by
17168-733: The modern trade arena, many other initiatives besides tariffs have been called protectionist. For example, some commentators, such as Jagdish Bhagwati , see developed countries' efforts in imposing their own labor or environmental standards as protectionism. Also, the imposition of restrictive certification procedures on imports is seen in this light. Further, others point out that free trade agreements often have protectionist provisions such as intellectual property, copyright , and patent restrictions that benefit large corporations. These provisions restrict trade in music, movies, pharmaceuticals, software, and other manufactured items to high-cost producers with quotas from low-cost producers set to zero. In
17316-480: The most tolerant in Oceania . New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 82% voter turnout during recent general elections, compared to an OECD average of 69%. However, this is untrue for local council elections; a historically low 36% of eligible New Zealanders voted in the 2022 local elections , compared with an already low 42% turnout in 2019 . A 2017 human rights report by
17464-583: The names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui , and South Island or Te Waipounamu . For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together. Similarly the Māori and English names for the whole country are sometimes used together ( Aotearoa New Zealand ); however, this has no official recognition. The first people to reach New Zealand were Polynesians in ocean going waka (canoes). Their arrival likely occurred in several waves, approximately between 1280 and 1350 CE. Those Polynesian settlers, isolated in New Zealand, became
17612-690: The nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection. Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for
17760-475: The number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007, to become New Zealand's largest export earner. In the year to June 2018, dairy products accounted for 17.7% ($ 14.1 billion) of total exports, and the country's largest company, Fonterra , controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade. Other exports in 2017–18 were meat (8.8%), wood and wood products (6.2%), fruit (3.6%), machinery (2.2%) and wine (2.1%). New Zealand's wine industry has followed
17908-478: The opening up of New World frontiers, and the subsequent "grain invasion" of Europe, led to higher agricultural tariffs from the late 1870s onwards, which as we have seen reversed the move toward freer trade that had characterized mid-nineteenth-century Europe. In the decades after World War II, Japan's rapid rise led to trade friction with other countries. Japan's recovery was accompanied by a sharp increase in its exports of certain product categories: cotton textiles in
18056-471: The people it is intended to help. Mainstream economists instead support free trade. The principle of comparative advantage shows that the gains from free trade outweigh any losses as free trade creates more jobs than it destroys because it allows countries to specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. Protectionism results in deadweight loss ; this loss to overall welfare gives no-one any benefit, unlike in
18204-470: The post-World War II period. Alexander Hamilton , the first United States Secretary of the Treasury , was of the view, as articulated most famously in his " Report on Manufactures ", that developing an industrialized economy was impossible without protectionism because import duties are necessary to shelter domestic " infant industries " until they could achieve economies of scale . The industrial takeoff of
18352-411: The potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns. The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori. From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of
18500-477: The power of free trade on the eve of World War I . They believed that the interconnectedness of European nations through trade would stop a continent-wide war from breaking out, as the economic consequences would be too great. However, the assumption proved incorrect. For example, Tuchman noted that Helmuth von Moltke the Younger , when warned of such consequences, refused to even consider them in his plans, arguing he
18648-442: The protected endangered Hamilton's Frog , spiders , insects ( wētā ), and snails. Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils . Three species of bats ( one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old. Marine mammals, however, are abundant, with almost half
18796-591: The realm. The Navigation Acts of the late 17th century required all trade to be carried in English ships, manned by English crews (this later encompassed all Britons after the Acts of Union 1707 united Scotland with England). Colonists were required to send their produce and raw materials first of all to Britain, where the surplus was then sold-on by British merchants to other colonies in the British empire or bullion-earning external markets. The colonies were forbidden to trade directly with other nations or rival empires. The goal
18944-504: The safety of bovine growth hormone , sometimes used to boost dairy production, led to hearings before the Senate of Canada , resulting in a ban in Canada. Thus, supply management of milk products is consumer protection of Canadians. Most Latin American countries gained independence in the early 19th century, with notable exceptions including Spanish Cuba and Spanish Puerto Rico . Following
19092-583: The signing of the treaty and declaration of sovereignty, the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase. New Zealand was administered as a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales until becoming a separate Crown colony , the Colony of New Zealand , on 3 May 1841. Armed conflict began between the colonial government and Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty. These conflicts, mainly in
19240-554: The so-called late-Victorian climacteric in the British economy: a decline in the growth rate, i.e. a deceleration. During the interwar era, Britain abandoned free trade. There was a limited erosion of free trade during the 1920s under a patchwork of legislation including the Safeguarding of Industries Act of 1921 , the Safeguarding of Industries Act of 1925 , and the Finance Act of 1925 . The McKenna Duties , which were imposed during
19388-636: The support of the Whigs in Parliament, overcoming the opposition of most of his own party. While the United Kingdom espoused a policy of free trade in the late nineteenth century, it was hardly the case that Britain was unaffected by the tariffs imposed by its trade partners—tariffs that generally increased during the late nineteenth century. According to one study, Britain's exports in 1902 would have been 57% higher, if all of Britain's trade partners also embraced free trade. The decline in overseas demand for British exports, resulting from foreign tariffs, contributed to
19536-408: The time that happened, the economy would be recovering, giving the impression that tariff cuts caused the crash and the reverse generated the recovery. 'Mr. Irwin' also attempts to debunk the idea that protectionism made America a great industrial power, a notion believed by some to offer lessons for developing countries today. As its share of global manufacturing powered from 23% in 1870 to 36% in 1913,
19684-467: The total workforce in 2016. In 2017, international visitor arrivals were expected to increase at a rate of 5.4% annually up to 2022. Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century. Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues, but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities, and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers. In contrast, dairy farming increased, with
19832-486: The two regions. This free trade agreement expanded on the pre-existing free trade agreement and saw a reduction in tariffs on meat and dairy in response to feedback from the affected industries. The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction. Tourism plays a significant role in the economy, contributing $ 12.9 billion (or 5.6%) to New Zealand's total GDP and supporting 7.5% of
19980-421: The two together. Protectionism Protectionism , sometimes referred to as trade protectionism , is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas , and a variety of other government regulations. Proponents argue that protectionist policies shield the producers, businesses, and workers of the import-competing sector in
20128-481: The unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 24 was 9.2%. New Zealand has experienced a series of " brain drains " since the 1970s that still continue today. Nearly one-quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation. In recent decades, however, a " brain gain " has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries. Today New Zealand's economy benefits from
20276-414: The world", meaning that its finished goods were produced so efficiently and cheaply that they could often undersell comparable, locally manufactured goods in almost any other market. By the 1840s, the United Kingdom had adopted a free-trade policy, meaning open markets and no tariffs throughout the empire. The Corn Laws were tariffs and other trade restrictions on imported food and corn enforced in
20424-847: The world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises ) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters. Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country. More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country, with 13 of the world's 18 penguin species. Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced. However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other protected areas . New Zealand
20572-466: The world. Juan Perón erected a system of almost complete protectionism against imports, largely cutting off Argentina from the international market in the 1940s. Protectionism created a domestically oriented industry with high production costs, incapable of competing in international markets. At the same time, output of beef and grain, the country's main export goods, stagnated. The IAPI began shortchanging growers and, when world grain prices dropped in
20720-573: Was a "soldier," not an "economist." The ongoing Russo-Ukraine War began in the aftermath of the Revolution of Dignity and the signing of the European Union–Ukraine Association Agreement in 2014, which included a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area for Ukraine and the European Union (EU). The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international legal agreement between all
20868-569: Was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876. The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays and sporting rivalries. Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government. In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities . The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils. The regional councils' role
21016-472: Was granted in the mid-1860s). Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait . Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865. In 1886, New Zealand annexed the volcanic Kermadec Islands , about 1,000 km (620 mi) northeast of Auckland. Since 1937,
21164-595: Was introduced in 2007, and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it. New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum , the Pacific Community , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit ). New Zealand has been described as a middle power in the Asia-Pacific region, and an emerging power . The country
21312-467: Was positively correlated with economic and industrial growth during the 19th century. For example, GNP growth during Europe's "liberal period" in the middle of the century (where tariffs were at their lowest), averaged 1.7% per year, while industrial growth averaged 1.8% per year. However, during the protectionist era of the 1870s and 1890s, GNP growth averaged 2.6% per year, while industrial output grew at 3.8% per year, roughly twice as fast as it had during
21460-517: Was the centrepiece of the British Empire, and because of an efficient taxation system it paid its own administrative expenses as well as the cost of the large British Indian Army . In terms of trade, India turned only a small profit for British business. However, transfers to the British government was massive: in 1801 unrequited (unpaid, or paid from Indian-collected revenue) was about 30% of British domestic savings available for capital formation in
21608-567: Was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions in 1894. The Liberals also guaranteed a minimum wage in 1894, a world first. In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire , reflecting its self-governing status. In 1947, New Zealand adopted
21756-505: Was to maintain the North American and Caribbean colonies as dependent agricultural economies geared towards producing raw materials for export to Britain. The growth of native industry was discouraged, in order to keep the colonies dependent on the United Kingdom for their finished goods. From 1815 to 1870, the United Kingdom reaped the benefits of being the world's first modern, industrialised nation. It described itself as "the workshop of
21904-682: Was written as Nu Tireni in the Māori language (spelled Nu Tirani in Te Tiriti o Waitangi). In 1834 a document written in Māori and entitled " He Wakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tireni " was translated into English and became the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand . It was prepared by Te W(h)akaminenga o Nga Rangatiratanga o Nga Hapu o Nu Tireni , the United Tribes of New Zealand , and
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