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100-555: Marie Charlotte Carmichael Stopes (15 October 1880 – 2 October 1958) was a British author, palaeobotanist and campaigner for eugenics and women's rights . She made significant contributions to plant paleontology and coal classification, and was the first female academic on the faculty of the University of Manchester . With her second husband, Humphrey Verdon Roe , Stopes founded the first birth control clinic in Britain. Stopes edited

200-475: A Birth Control Clinic, where working women are instructed in a method of contraception described by Professor McIlroy as 'The most harmful method of which I have had experience'. When we remember that millions are being spent by the Ministry of Health and by Local Authorities – on pure milk for necessitous expectant and nursing mothers, on Maternity Clinics to guard the health of mothers before and after childbirth, for

300-468: A clinic in Abertillery in 1925. The clinics continued to operate after Stopes' death, but by the early 1970s they were in financial difficulties and in 1975 they went into voluntary receivership . Marie Stopes International was established a year later as an international non-governmental organisation (NGO) working on sexual and reproductive health . The global partnership took over responsibility for

400-402: A declaration not to "impart any information or lend any assistance whatsoever to any person calculated to lead to the destruction in utero of the products of conception". When Stopes learned that one of Avro Manhattan 's friends had had an abortion, she accused him of murdering the unborn child. Her public actions were at odds with her private pronouncements. In a 1919 letter, she had outlined

500-402: A few students, or 'flirt'. During Stopes' time at Manchester, she studied coal and coal balls and researched the collection of Glossopteris (Permian seed ferns). This was an attempt to prove the theory of Eduard Suess concerning the existence of Gondwana or Pangaea . A chance meeting with Antarctic explorer Robert Falcon Scott during one of his fund-raising lectures in 1904 brought

600-546: A follow-up; the already written Wise Parenthood: a Book for Married People , a manual on birth control that was published later that year. Many readers wrote to Stopes for personal advice, which she energetically endeavoured to give. Wise Parenthood was aimed at married women, as Stopes believed birth control to be necessary for married couples to help protect mothers against the exhaustion of excessive childbearing. Although many considered Stopes' advocacy of birth control to be scandalous, Wise Parenthood printed ten editions and

700-462: A message addressed to the bishops which began: "My Lords, I speak to you in the name of God. You are his priests. I am his prophet. I speak to you of the mysteries of man and woman." In 1922, Stopes wrote A New Gospel to All Peoples . The bishops were not receptive; among the resolutions carried during the conference was one aimed against "the deliberate cultivation of sexual union" and another against "indecent literature, suggestive plays and films [and]

800-409: A method of abortion to an unidentified correspondent, and she "was even prepared in some cases to advocate abortion, or, as she preferred to put it, the evacuation of the uterus". In Wise Parenthood , she had promoted the "Gold Pin" or "Spring", which was a "method [that] could be described as an abortifacient". With significant post-war activity Palaeobotanist Paleobotany is important in

900-417: A mist of awful fears, Your mind in anguish gropes, Dry up your panic-stricken tears And fly to Marie Stopes. If you have missed life's shining goal And mixed with sex perverts and Dopes, For normal soap to cleanse your soul Apply to Marie Stopes. And if perhaps you fail all round And lie among your shattered hopes, Just raise your body from the ground, And crawl to Marie Stopes. Stopes

1000-467: A novel, Love's Creation (1928), under the semi-pseudonym "Marie Carmichael". Publicly, Stopes professed to oppose abortion; during her lifetime, her clinics did not offer that service. She single-mindedly pursued abortion providers and used the police and the courts to prosecute them. Stopes thought that the use of contraceptives was the preferred means by which families should voluntarily limit their number of offspring. Nurses at Stopes' clinic had to sign

1100-567: A particular state of preservation to be placed in organ-genera. In addition, a small subset of organ-genera, to be known as form-genera, were recognised based on the artificial taxa introduced by Brongniart mainly for foliage fossils. The concepts and regulations surrounding organ- and form-genera were modified within successive codes of nomenclature, reflecting a failure of the paleobotanical community to agree on how this aspect of plant taxonomic nomenclature should work (a history reviewed by Cleal and Thomas in 2020 ). The use of organ- and fossil-genera

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1200-401: A plant that has long since died. Such fossils may be prehistoric impressions that are many millions of years old, or bits of charcoal that are only a few hundred years old. Prehistoric plants are various groups of plants that lived before recorded history (before about 3500 BC ). Plant fossils can be preserved in a variety of ways, each of which can give different types of information about

1300-855: A possibility of proving Suess's theory. Stopes's passion to prove Suess's theory led her to discuss the possibility of joining Scott's next expedition to Antarctica. She did not join the expedition, but Scott promised to bring back samples of fossils to provide evidence for the theory. Scott died during the 1912 Terra Nova Expedition , but fossils of plants from the Queen Maud Mountains found near Scott's and his companions' bodies provided this evidence. Her study of Carboniferous coal balls with Francis Oliver during her time at University College London proved pivotal, and coupled with Dawkins' and Weiss' influence at Victoria University of Manchester , helped spark Stopes' intrigue in this area of research, aided, in part, by her close proximity to coal seams in

1400-512: A previous endeavour from the year before would come to bear fruit. During her Brora research, Stopes had been in correspondence with several high-profile geologists of the time, including John Wesley Judd and Albert Charles Seward , and these two men helped Stopes secure her first major grant, which she had applied for in 1906. The purpose of this £85 grant was to allow her to conduct her research into Mesozoic coal balls in Japan, and on 19 May 1907, it

1500-661: A revival of Our Ostriches in 1930, Stopes produced two other plays for the London stage, "Don't Tell Timothy", a musical farce produced in 1925–26, and "Buckie's Bears", a children's Christmas pageant, allegedly dictated by her son, Henry Roe-Stopes, produced annually between 1931 and 1936. In collaboration with Joji Sakurai, Stopes produced a translation of three Japanese plays Plays of Old Japan: The Nō in 1913. Stopes published several volumes of poetry, including Man and Other Poems (1913), Love Songs for Young Lovers (1939), Oriri (1940), and Joy and Verity (1952). She also published

1600-978: A rivalry between Stopes and Haire erupted in The Lancet . Haire brought up the gold-pin episode, even though Stopes' clinic had never used it. The issue of the gold pin device resurfaced in the Stopes-Sutherland libel case a few years later. In 1925, the Mothers' Clinic moved to Central London, where it remains as of 2015. Stopes gradually built up a small network of clinics across Britain, working to fund them. She opened clinics in Leeds in April 1934; Aberdeen in October 1934; Belfast in October 1936; Cardiff in October 1937; and Swansea in January 1943. She also helped Beatrice Green establish

1700-602: A role in plant conservation. Kew is governed by a board of trustees which comprises a chairman and eleven members. Ten members and the chairman are appointed by the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs . His Majesty the King appoints his own trustee on the recommendation of the Secretary of State. As of 2024 the Board members are: More than 470 scientists work for

1800-439: A series of palaeobotanical papers that placed her among the leading half-dozen British palaeobotanists of her time". Stopes made major contributions to knowledge of the earliest angiosperms, the formation of coal balls and the nature of coal macerals . The classification scheme and terminology she devised for coal are still being used. Stopes also wrote a popular book on palaeobotany, "Ancient Plants" (1910; Blackie, London), in what

1900-516: A wealth of fossils containing arborescent lycopods up to 30 m tall, abundant seed plants , such as conifers and seed ferns , and countless smaller, herbaceous plants . Angiosperms ( flowering plants ) evolved during the Mesozoic , and flowering plant pollen and leaves first appeared during the Early Cretaceous , approximately 130 million years ago. A plant fossil is any preserved part of

2000-454: A whole. primarily for the use of phytoliths in relative dating and in paleoethnobotany . The study and discipline of paleobotany was seen as far back as the 19th century. Known as the “Father of Paleobotany”, French botanist Adolphe-Theodore Brongniart was a sufficient figure in this emergence of Paleobotany, known for his work on the relationship between the living and extinct plant life. This work not only progressed paleobotany but also

2100-426: A writ for libel against him. The court case began on 21 February 1923; it was acrimonious. Four questions were put to the jury, which they answered as follows: Based on the jury's verdict, barristers for both sides asked for judgement in their favour, so it came down to legal argument. Sutherland's barrister successfully argued that as soon as the jury decided that the statements were true in substance and in fact, that

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2200-591: Is a nomenclatural listing of all published taxonomic plant names including new species, new combinations and new names at rank of botanical family down to infraspecific. It provides data for other related projects including Tropicos and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility ( GBIF ). Information and key to flowering plants of the Neotropics (tropical South and Central America). The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP)

2300-549: Is a register of accepted scientific names and synonyms of 200 selected seed plant families. WCSP is widely used, and most authoritative web resources on plants use it as their basis. The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP) includes all known vascular plant species ( flowering plants , conifers , ferns , clubmosses , and firmosses ). It is derived from the WCSP and the IPNI and therefore only includes names found in those databases. It

2400-500: Is an Early Devonian sinter ( hot spring ) deposit composed primarily of silica . It is exceptional due to its preservation of several different clades of plants, from mosses and lycophytes to more unusual, problematic forms. Many fossil animals, including arthropods and arachnids , are also found in the Rhynie chert, and it offers a unique window into the history of early terrestrial life. Plant-derived macrofossils become abundant in

2500-645: Is home to the internationally important Millennium Seed Bank , whose scientists work with partner organisations in more than 95 countries. Kew, jointly with the Forestry Commission , founded Bedgebury National Pinetum in Kent in 1923, specialising in growing conifers . In 1994, the Castle Howard Arboretum Trust, which runs the Yorkshire Arboretum , was formed as a partnership between Kew and

2600-408: Is normally lost during fossilization. Plant remains can be preserved in a variety of ways, each revealing different features of the original parent plant. Because of this, paleobotanists usually assign different taxonomic names to different parts of the plant in different modes of preservation. For instance, in the subarborescent Palaeozoic sphenophytes , an impression of a leaf might be assigned to

2700-505: Is the science and study of ancient palynomorphs: particles sized between 5 and 500 micrometers. This would be an inclusion of pollen and spores and any other micro-organic matter. Paleopalynology is simply paleobotany on a much smaller scale, the two in close association with each other. Similar to paleobotany, we can tell a great deal of information about the environment and biome at the time these particles existed prehistorically. These particles also help geologists identify and date

2800-430: Is the study of all once-living organisms and the interactions held in the environments they once existed in, before becoming extinct . Paleoecology is a similar study to that of paleontology , but paleoecology uses more methodology from the biological sciences and geological sciences rather than from an anthropological standpoint as paleontologists do. Paleopalynology , more commonly known as palynology ,

2900-599: Is the taxonomic database for Plants of the World Online. Since WCSP includes only selected families, WCVP will seek to complete the process. A checklist of 40,292 species, including nine non-plant taxa (e.g. nostoc , forkweed , brown algae ), compiled from multiple pre-existing datasets. Kew also cooperated with the Missouri Botanical Garden and other international bodies in The Plant List (TPL). Unlike

3000-469: Is what sparked her interest in paleobotany, building a platform to begin her career. Oliver was on the verge of debatably one of the greatest finds in paleobotany when he took Stopes on as a research assistant. Initially, it was thought that most of the fossil plants found in Carboniferous Coal Measures were ferns , Stopes was tasked to find the specimens that showed better connection with

3100-658: The Index Kewensis , a project which began in the 19th century to provide an "Index to the Names and Authorities of all known flowering plants and their countries". The Harvard University Herbaria and the Australian National Herbarium co-operate with Kew in the IPNI database, which was launched in its present form in 1999 to produce an authoritative source of information on botanical nomenclature including publication details of seed plants, ferns and lycophytes . It

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3200-747: The British Association for the Advancement of Science , where they had met. At an early age, she was exposed to science and was taken to meetings where she met the famous scholars of the day. At first, she was home-schooled, but from 1892 to 1894 she attended St George's School for Girls in Edinburgh. Stopes was later sent to the North London Collegiate School , where she was a close friend of Olga Fröbe-Kapteyn . Stopes primarily focused on her science career in her 20s and 30s. Stopes attended

3300-472: The Castle Howard Estate. In 2019, the organisation had 2,316,699 public visitors at Kew, and 312,813 at Wakehurst. Its 326-acre (132 ha) site at Kew has 40 historically important buildings; it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003. The collections at Kew and Wakehurst include over 27,000 taxa of living plants, 8.3 million plant and fungal herbarium specimens, and over 40,000 species in

3400-630: The Cretaceous angiosperm floras, which she wrote about in her 1909 article "Plant containing nodules from Japan" for the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society , London. She also published her Japanese experiences as a diary, called "Journal from Japan: a daily record of life as seen by a scientist", in 1910. In 1910, the Geological Survey of Canada commissioned Stopes to determine

3500-516: The Mississippian , conifers by the Pennsylvanian . Some plants of prehistory are the same ones around today and are thus living fossils , such as Ginkgo biloba and Sciadopitys verticillata . Other plants have changed radically, or became extinct. Examples of prehistoric plants are: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew is a non-departmental public body in

3600-621: The Poetry Society , Muriel Spark , had an altercation with Stopes; according to Mark Bostridge, Spark "found herself lamenting that Stopes's mother had not been better informed on [birth control]". Stopes wrote poems, plays, and novels; during the First World War she wrote increasingly didactic plays. Her first major success was Our Ostriches , a play that dealt with society's approach to working class women being forced to produce babies throughout their lives. The play ran for three months at

3700-624: The United Kingdom sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs . An internationally important botanical research and education institution, it employs 1,100 staff. Its board of trustees is chaired by Dame Amelia Fawcett . The organisation manages botanic gardens at Kew in Richmond upon Thames in south-west London, and at Wakehurst , a National Trust property in Sussex which

3800-428: The cervical cap —which was the most popular— coitus interruptus , and spermicides based on soap and oil. Stopes rediscovered the use of olive oil -soaked sponges as an alternative birth control. Olive oil's use as a spermicide dates to Greek and Roman times. Her recipe proved very effective. She tested many of her contraceptives on patients at her clinics. Stopes became enthusiastic about a contraceptive device called

3900-400: The rock strata of sedimentary rocks . It is also used to find natural oils and gas within these rock layers for extraction . Besides uncovering documentation of our past environmental conditions, palynology can also tell us about animal diets, historical standings of human allergies , and reveal evidence in crime cases. Macroscopic remains of true vascular plants are first found in

4000-580: The "gold pin", which was reportedly successful in America. A few months later, she asked Norman Haire , an Australian doctor, whether he would be interested in running a clinical trial of the device, as she had two correspondents who wanted to use it. Haire had already investigated the device and found it to be dangerous. Haire became involved in another birth control clinic that opened in Walworth in November 1921; later

4100-751: The Fern Ledges in earnest in February 1911, she did geological field work and researched at geological collections in museums, and shipped specimens to England for further investigation. The couple married in March and returned to England on 1 April that year. Stopes continued her research. In mid-1912 she delivered her results, finding for the Pennsylvanian period of the Carboniferous . The Government of Canada published her results in 1914. Later that year, her marriage to Gates

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4200-409: The First World War, sought to harness anti-German sentiment. Stopes's work had been associated with Charles Bradlaugh , who had been convicted of obscenity 45 years earlier when he had republished an American Malthusian text in Britain, which "advocated and gave explicit information about contraceptive methods". Stopes challenged Sutherland to a public debate. When Sutherland did not respond, she brought

4300-530: The High Court trial) have been shown to have been fabricated, and McIlroy's treatment of Stopes has been shown to have been consistent with her testimony in the High Court. When Stopes had sufficiently recovered, she returned to work in 1920; she engaged in public speaking and responding to letters seeking advice on marriage, sex and birth control. She sent Mrs. E. B. Mayne to disseminate the Letter to Working Mothers to

4400-400: The IPNI, it provides information on which names are currently accepted. The Plant List is an Internet encyclopedia project which was launched in 2010 to compile a comprehensive list of botanical nomenclature . The Plant List has 1,064,035 scientific plant names of species rank of which 350,699 are accepted species names. In addition, the list has 642 plant families and 17,020 plant genera. It

4500-525: The Late Devonian including tree trunks, fronds , and roots . The earliest tree was once thought to be Archaeopteris , which bears simple, fern -like leaves spirally arranged on branches atop a conifer -like trunk , although it is now known to be the recently discovered Wattieza . Widespread coal swamp deposits across North America and Europe during the Carboniferous Period contain

4600-471: The Lord Chancellor to overturn it "so that legal subtleties based on misapprehension may not rob me of my victory". The cost for Stopes was vast; costs were partially compensated by publicity and book sales. Stopes was even remembered in a playground rhyme: Jeanie, Jeanie, full of hopes, Read a book by Marie Stopes, But, to judge from her condition, She must have read the wrong edition. If through

4700-604: The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. The Director of Science is Alexandre Antonelli . The Deputy Directors are Elizabeth Gardner, Paul Kersey and Monique Simmonds . Kew Science staff include those of the Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre . The scientific staff at Kew maintain a variety of plant and fungal data and digital resources, including: Plants of the World Online is an online database launched in March 2017 as one of nine strategic outputs with

4800-485: The Royal Court Theatre. It was hurriedly produced in place of Vectia , another of Stopes' plays. Vectia is an autobiographical attempt to analyse the failure of Stopes' first marriage. Because of its themes of sex and impotence, it was denied a licence to be performed, despite Stopes's frequent efforts. In 1926, Stopes had Vectia printed under the title A Banned Play and a Preface on Censorship . In addition to

4900-527: The University of London in 1900, at University College London as a scholarship student, where she studied botany and geology; she graduated with a first class B.Sc. in 1902 after only two years by attending both day and night schools at Birkbeck, University of London . Stopes' father died in 1902 leaving her family in financial ruin. Her paleobotany professor, Francis Oliver , took her under his wing and hired her as his research assistant in early 1903. This

5000-795: The age of the Fern Ledges , a geological structure at Saint John, New Brunswick . It is part of the Early Pennsylvanian epoch Lancaster Formation . Canadian scholars were divided between dating it to the Devonian period or to the Pennsylvanian. Stopes arrived in North America before Christmas to start her research. On 29 December, she met the Canadian researcher Reginald Ruggles Gates in St. Louis, Missouri; they became engaged two days later. Starting her work on

5100-439: The coal balls native to the area were formed when marine water permeated carboniferous peat mires . They proved that the coal balls had formed in situ, and the nodules had not been transported, which was being claimed at the time. With the coal balls being closely associated with overlying marine bands, Stopes and Watson came to the conclusion that the carbonate in the coal balls washed into the coal swamps from adjacent seas. This

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5200-400: The coal on site. During this period of her research, Stopes first worked with James Lomax , a manufacturer of petrographic thin sections . She and Lomax did not get along; as a result, she decided to work with David Meredith-Seares Watson , one of her undergraduate students. Together, they investigated the coal-bearing strata of northern England. Their findings led them to hypothesize that

5300-539: The end of 1920 to concentrate on the clinic; she founded the Society for Constructive Birth Control and Racial Progress , a support organisation for the clinic. Stopes explained that the object of the Society was: "...to counteract the steady evil which has been growing for a good many years of the reduction of the birth rate just on the part of the thrifty, wise, well-contented, and the generally sound members of our community, and

5400-595: The field, she received leads for areas of potential study in India and Japan, the latter of which would become important later on. The most promising region at that time proved to be much closer to home, and on 22 March 1907, during the middle of a massive heat wave, Stopes and Watson departed for the Jurassic coast of northeast Scotland, to the coal-mining town of Brora , on the Moray Firth . Stopes theorized that Brora would harbor

5500-434: The first female academic of that university. It was during this period that she met William Boyd-Dawkins and Frederick Ernst Weiss . Dawkins was a friend of her father and a board member at the university and advocated for her teaching position when members of the senate opposed the concept of having a woman teach young men. Stopes was known around the campus as a partier: she would socialize freely with staff, colleagues, and

5600-560: The first women to be elected a fellow of the Linnean Society of London , and was appointed a demonstrator in order to teach students. She was also a fellow and occasional lecturer in paleobotany at University College, London until 1920. At age 23, Stopes secured her first job in the world of academia, holding the post of lecturer in paleobotany at the Victoria University of Manchester from 1904 to 1910; in this capacity she became

5700-755: The fossil record during the Silurian Period of the Paleozoic era. Some dispersed, fragmentary fossils of disputed affinity, primarily spores and cuticles , have been found in rocks from the Ordovician Period in Oman , and are thought to derive from liverwort - or moss -grade fossil plants. An important early land plant fossil locality is the Rhynie chert , found outside the village of Rhynie in Scotland . The Rhynie chert

5800-473: The genus Annularia , a compression of a cone assigned to Palaeostachya , and the stem assigned to either Calamites or Arthroxylon depending on whether it is preserved as a cast or a petrifaction. All of these fossils may have originated from the same parent plant but they are each given their own taxonomic name. This approach to naming plant fossils originated with the work of Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart . For many years this approach to naming plant fossils

5900-521: The help of Oliver and her geology professor, Edmund Garwood who provided incredible references. Following this, Stopes earned a D.Sc. degree from University College London, becoming the youngest person in Britain to have done so. In 1903 she published a study of the botany of the recently dried-up Ebbsfleet River . After carrying out research on Carboniferous plants at the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew, and at University College, London, she put

6000-417: The intensity of their relationship was reflected in a letter he wrote immediately prior to her second marriage to Humphrey Roe: "My dearest Una [Maude's pet name for Stopes], I have been bothering you with letters recently… Still I cannot let the eve of your third marriage pass without sending you my most cordial good wishes and fondest greetings." Maude's biography, " The Authorized Life of Marie C Stopes ",

6100-559: The main clinic, and in 1978 it began its work overseas in New Delhi , India. Since then the organisation has grown steadily; today it works in 37 countries (2019), has 452 clinics and has offices in London, Brussels , Melbourne and in the US. In 1922, Halliday Sutherland wrote a book called Birth Control: A Statement of Christian Doctrine Against the Neo Malthusians . In the inter-war years,

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6200-524: The money she received from the Gilchrist Scholarship towards a year's worth of funding her study on the reproduction of living cycads at the University of Munich . There, she worked with Karl Goebel , who was a leading paleobotanist on cycads. Stopes used this study as her doctoral dissertation , she presented her dissertation in German and received a PhD in botany in 1904. She was, in 1904, one of

6300-555: The newsletter Birth Control News , which gave explicit practical advice. Her sex manual Married Love (1918) was controversial and influential, and brought the subject of birth control into wide public discourse. Stopes publicly opposed abortion, arguing that the prevention of conception was all that was needed, though her actions in private were at odds with her public pronouncements. In reaction to her controversial beliefs, Marie Stopes International in 2020 changed its name to "MSI Reproductive Choices" with no other changes. Stopes

6400-495: The north of England. These seams held calcareous nodules that preserved the anatomical structure of the permineralized peat that formed the coal balls. Her motive behind this research was driven, in part, by the importance of coal to the British Empire as its main source of fuel. The mines for these coal balls were close to Manchester, and Stopes became distinct from other paleobotanists by directly going to these mines and observing

6500-468: The open or secret sale of contraceptives". The Catholic Church's reaction was more strident, marking the start of a conflict that lasted the rest of Stopes's life. In 1917, before meeting Marie Stopes, Humphrey Roe offered to endow a birth control clinic attached to St Mary's Hospital in Manchester. He proposed all patients would be married and that no abortions would be done, but his offer was declined. This

6600-413: The original parent plant. These modes of preservation may be summarised in a paleobotanical context as follows. Plant fossils almost always represent disarticulated parts of plants; even small herbaceous plants are rarely preserved whole. The few examples of plant fossils that appear to be the remains of whole plants are in fact incomplete as the internal cellular tissue and fine micromorphological detail

6700-547: The pair set their sights on the coastline, and despite finding some fossil specimens of interest, were unable to locate any coal balls. Despite this setback, the flora fossils they did recover were the first Middle Jurassic period specimens to be uncovered in that region, and demonstrated a biostratigraphic link between the Scottish and north east English coasts. After returning home to Manchester in April 1907, Stopes set about processing her Brora discoveries for publication. However,

6800-542: The printed notepaper is a list of prominent supporters which include the militant suffragette Lady Constance Lytton, feminist novelist Vera Brittain , Emily Pethick-Lawrence (former Treasurer of the Women's Social and Political Union), Rev Maude Royden (Women's Suffrage Societies). Later supporters included eminent economist John Maynard Keynes . Three months later she and Roe opened the Mothers' Clinic at 61 Marlborough Road, Holloway , North London , on 17 March 1921. The clinic

6900-401: The provision of skilled midwives, and on Infant Welfare Centres – it is truly amazing that this monstrous campaign of birth control should be tolerated by the home secretary. Charles Bradlaugh was condemned to jail for a less serious crime. Stopes was incensed. The reference to "doctor of German philosophy" sought to undermine Stopes because she was not a medical doctor and, being so soon after

7000-457: The reckless breeding from the C.3 end, and the semi-feebleminded, the careless, who are proportionately increasing in our community because of the slowing of the birth rate at the other end of the social scale. Statistics show that every year the birth rate from the worst end of our community is increasing in proportion to the birth rate at the better end, and it was in order to try to right that grave social danger that I embarked upon this work." On

7100-404: The reconstruction of ancient ecological systems and climate , known as paleoecology and paleoclimatology respectively. It is fundamental to the study of green plant development and evolution . Paleobotany is a historical science much like its adjacent, paleontology. Because of the understanding that paleobotany gives to archeologists, it has become important to the field of archaeology as

7200-418: The same species. It appeared that morphotaxa offered no real advantage to paleobotanists over normal fossil-taxa and the concept was abandoned with the 2011 botanical congress and the 2012 International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants . Some plants have remained almost unchanged throughout earth's geological time scale. Horsetails had evolved by the Late Devonian, early ferns had evolved by

7300-485: The seed bank. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew states that its mission is to apply scientific discovery and research to fully develop the information about and potential uses of plants and fungi. A conference held in 1976 by the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew was important as it established a co-ordinating body in order to determine which threatened plants are in cultivation and where they are located which played

7400-466: The seeds of fern fronds . It was discovered that some of the "ferns" bore seeds. "Seed ferns" became known and recognized as the missing link between ferns and conifers . They later became known as the pteridosperm . She was provided the opportunity to work with the world's leading experts in paleobotany at the time. Within the same year she won the Gilchrist scholarship from University College London, with

7500-475: The slums of East London. Mayne approached twenty families a day, but after several months she concluded the working class was mistrustful of well-intentioned meddlers. This lack of success made Stopes contemplate a different approach to taking her message to the poor. A conference of Anglican bishops was due to be held in June; not long before the conference, Stopes had a vision. She called in her secretary and dictated

7600-435: The taxon) is defined by the taxonomist who uses the name. Such a change in circumscription could result in an expansion of the range of plant parts or preservation states that could be incorporated within the taxon. For instance, a fossil-genus originally based on compressions of ovules could be used to include the multi-ovulate cupules within which the ovules were originally borne. A complication can arise if, in this case, there

7700-489: The terms "birth control" and " eugenics " were closely related; according to Jane Carey they were "so intertwined as to be synonymous". Following attacks on "the essential fallacies of Malthusian teaching", Sutherland's book attacked Stopes. Under the headings "Specially Hurtful to the Poor" and "Exposing the Poor to Experiment", it read: In the midst of a London slum a woman, who is a doctor of German philosophy (Munich), has opened

7800-466: The type of Mesozoic coal balls she was in search of. This form of geological prediction, 'geoprophesy' as Stopes called it, is formally known as biostratigraphy , and was originally formulated by 17th century Danish scientist Nicholas Steno . Upon arriving in Brora, they discovered the town's coal mining operations were still in full operation, and as a result, were unable to gain access to the mines. Instead,

7900-474: The ultimate aim being "to enable users to access information on all the world's known seed-bearing plants by 2020". It links taxonomic data with images from the collection, to provide a single point of access with information on identification, distribution, traits, conservation, molecular phylogenies and uses. In addition it serves as a backbone for global resources such as World Flora Online . The International Plant Names Index (IPNI) includes information from

8000-414: The understanding of the earth and its longevity in actuality and the organic matter that existed over the earth’s timeline. Paleobotany also succeeded in the hands of German paleontologist Ernst Friedrich von Schlothiem , and Czech nobleman and scholar, Kaspar Maria von Sternberg . As paleobotany is the specification of fossilized plant life and the environment in which they thrived in, paleoecology

8100-576: The work. The book was an instant success, requiring five editions in the first year, and elevated Stopes to national prominence. Married Love was published on 26 March 1918; that day, Stopes was visiting Humphrey Roe, who had just returned with a broken ankle from service during the First World War after his aeroplane crashed. Less than two months later they were married and Stopes had her first opportunity to practise what she preached in her book. The success of Married Love encouraged Stopes to provide

8200-440: The working classes; the Letter was aimed at redressing her bias. On 16 July 1919, Stopes—pregnant and a month overdue—entered a nursing home. Stopes and the doctors clashed over the method of birth—she was not allowed to give birth on her knees. The child was stillborn ; the doctors suggested the incident was due to syphilis , but an examination excluded the possibility. Stopes was furious and said her baby had been murdered. She

8300-446: Was 38 years old. Aylmer Maude , acclaimed writer and Tolstoy expert, was brought into the home of Stopes and Gates in an effort to support their financial needs. While already having a troublesome marriage, Maude's interjection in the household only added more tension to the marriage as Stopes' flirtatious nature caused Gates more jealousy and frustration. Maude and Stopes remained friends long after her separation from Gates in 1914, and

8400-495: Was a serious issue for Roe; after their marriage, he and Stopes planned to open a clinic for poor mothers in London. Margaret Sanger , another birth-control pioneer, had opened a birth control clinic in New York but the police closed it. In 1920, Sanger proposed opening a clinic in London; this encouraged Stopes to act more constructively, but her plan never materialised. Stopes resigned her lectureship at University College London at

8500-426: Was a successful sequel to Married Love . The following year, Stopes published A Letter to Working Mothers on how to have healthy children and avoid weakening pregnancies , a condensed version of Wise Parenthood aimed at the poor. It was a 16-page pamphlet and was to be distributed free of charge. Stopes's intended audience had—until this work—been the middle classes. She had shown little interest in, or respect for,

8600-517: Was abandoned with the St Louis Code , and replaced by "morphotaxa". The situation in the Vienna Code of 2005 was that any plant taxon whose type is a fossil, except diatoms , can be described as a morphotaxon , a particular part of a plant preserved in a particular way. Although the name is always fixed to the type specimen, the circumscription (i.e. range of specimens that may be included within

8700-461: Was accepted by paleobotanists but not formalised within the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature . Eventually, Thomas (1935) and Jongmans, Halle & Gothan (1935) proposed a set of formal provisions, the essence of which was introduced into the 1952 International Code of Botanical Nomenclature . These early provisions allowed fossils representing particular parts of plants in

8800-507: Was acquainted with many literary figures of the day. She had long-standing correspondences with George Bernard Shaw and Aylmer Maude , and argued with H. G. Wells . Noël Coward wrote a poem about her, and she edited Lord Alfred Douglas ' letters. She unsuccessfully petitioned Neville Chamberlain to arrange for Douglas to receive a civil list pension; the petition was signed by Arthur Quiller-Couch , John Gielgud , Evelyn Waugh and Virginia Woolf , among others. The general secretary of

8900-415: Was an already named fossil-genus for these cupules. If paleobotanists were confident that the type of the ovule fossil-genus and of the cupule fossil-genus could be included in the same genus, then the two names would compete as to being the correct one for the newly emended genus. In general, there would be competing priority whenever plant parts that had been given different names were discovered to belong to

9000-488: Was annulled. During the First World War , Stopes was engaged in studies of coal for the British government, which culminated in the writing of "Monograph on the constitution of coal" with R.V. Wheeler in 1918. The success of Stopes' work on marriage issues and birth control led her to reduce her scholarly work; her last scientific publications were in 1935. According to W. G. Chaloner (2005), "between 1903 and 1935 she published

9100-628: Was born in Edinburgh . Her father, Henry Stopes , was a brewer, engineer, architect and palaeontologist from Colchester . Her mother was Charlotte Carmichael Stopes , a Shakespearean scholar and women's rights campaigner from Edinburgh. At six weeks old, her parents took Stopes from Scotland; the family stayed briefly in Colchester then moved to London, where in 1880 her father bought 28 Cintra Park in Upper Norwood . Both of her parents were members of

9200-438: Was called a successful pioneering effort to introduce the subject to non-scientists. Around the start of her annulment proceedings in 1913, Stopes began to write a book about the way she thought marriage should work. In July 1913, she met Margaret Sanger , who had just given a talk on birth control at a Fabian Society meeting. Stopes showed Sanger her writings and sought her advice about a chapter on contraception. Stopes's book

9300-476: Was contested while showcasing at conferences, but eventually the evidence became sustainable enough that this finding became one of the greatest contributions to the field. Continuing in the vein of coal ball research, Stopes expanded her studies to include those from the Mesozoic era. This represented an exciting new area of study for her, as little evidence of anatomically preserved Mesozoic plants had been found at that time. Seeking advice from other academics in

9400-511: Was finished by the end of 1913. She offered it to Blackie and Son , who declined. Several publishers refused the book because they thought it too controversial. When Binnie Dunlop , secretary of the Malthusian League , introduced her to Humphrey Verdon Roe —Stopes's future second husband—in 1917, she received the boost that helped her publish her book. Roe was a philanthropist interested in birth control; he paid Fifield & Co. to publish

9500-532: Was granted by the Royal Society . In six weeks, Stopes concluded her Brora research, and made arrangements to depart for Japan on 3 July 1907. She spent eighteen months at the Imperial University, Tokyo and explored coal mines on Hokkaido for fossilized plants. As with the Brora study, Stopes failed to locate any Mesozoic coal balls in Japan either, but did manage to discover many important fossils, such as

9600-559: Was ordered to repay the one hundred pounds arising from the previous hearing, and to pay the defendant's costs in relation to the appeals to the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords. The trial had made birth control a public topic and the number of clients visiting the clinic doubled. The Law Lords found in Sutherland's favour (4–1) and, despite the fact that the decision was irrevocable, Stopes wrote to

9700-485: Was published in 1924. The book was not well received ( The Spectator described it as "a panegyric and not a biography") and it may even have been written by Stopes herself. When Stopes blamed Maude for the book's poor sales, he replied: "you so impressed on me the importance of getting the Life out quickly, and I evidently rushed it to the point of scamping it and failed to correct some of the errors in your rough draft." The book

9800-455: Was republished in 1933 as " Marie Stopes Her Work and Her Play ". While the later book included an account of the Stopes v Sutherland libel trial of 1923, questions have been raised about its credibility. For instance, significant aspects of the story of Stopes' visit to Professor McIlroy in disguise and being fitted with a cervical cap (the same device about which McIlroy had been so critical during

9900-424: Was run by midwives and supported by visiting doctors. It offered mothers birth control advice, taught them birth control methods and dispensed Stopes own "Pro-Race" (and "Racial") cervical caps. The free clinic was open to all married women for knowledge about reproductive health. Stopes tried to discover alternatives for families and increase knowledge about birth control and the reproductive system. Options included

10000-405: Was the end of the matter. It was a moral victory for Stopes as the press saw it, and she appealed. On 20 July, the Court of Appeal reversed the previous decision (2–1), awarding the £100 to Stopes. The Catholic community mobilised to support Sutherland, a Catholic, and Stopes publicly campaigned to raise £10,000. Sutherland made a final appeal to the House of Lords on 21 November 1924, and won; Stopes

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