113-462: Marek Halter (born 27 January 1936) is a Polish-born French writer, artist, and human rights activist , best for his historical novels , which have been translated into many languages. He also directed a film, The Righteous , released in 1994. Halter is Jewish, and was born in Warsaw , Poland on 27 January 1936. His father, Salomon, was a descendant of a long line of Jewish printers, his mother, Perl,
226-418: A sex workers' rights collective, or a man fighting for sexual and reproductive rights . Like other human rights defenders , women human rights defenders can be the target of attacks as they demand the realization of human rights. They face attacks such as discrimination, assault, threats, and violence within their communities. Women human rights defenders face additional obstacles based on who they are and
339-683: A socialist , Arafat was a founding member of the Fatah political party, which he led from 1959 until 2004. Arafat was born to Palestinian parents in Cairo , Egypt, where he spent most of his youth. He studied at the University of King Fuad I . While a student, he embraced Arab nationalist and anti-Zionist ideas. Opposed to the 1948 creation of the State of Israel , he fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood during
452-737: A two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . In 1994, he returned to Palestine, settling in Gaza City and promoting self-governance for the Palestinian territories . He engaged in a series of negotiations with the Israeli government to end the conflict between it and the PLO. These included the Madrid Conference of 1991 , the 1993 Oslo Accords and the 2000 Camp David Summit . The success of
565-462: A Phalangist stronghold where they massacred 684 people and wounded many more. The Tel al-Zaatar camp fell to the Christians after a six-month siege in which thousands of Palestinians, mostly civilians, were killed. Arafat and Abu Jihad blamed themselves for not successfully organizing a rescue effort. PLO cross-border raids against Israel grew during the late 1970s. One of the most severe—known as
678-629: A bargaining chip. Israel assumed that the Jordanian Army would ignore the invasion, but the latter fought alongside the Palestinians , opening heavy fire that inflicted losses upon the Israeli forces. This engagement marked the first known deployment of suicide bombers by Palestinian forces. The Israelis were repelled at the end of a day's battle, having destroyed most of the Karameh camp and taken around 141 PLO prisoners. Both sides declared victory. On
791-504: A border with Israel—which had recently seceded from its union with Egypt . Fatah had approximately three hundred members by this time, but none were fighters. In Syria, he managed to recruit members by offering them higher incomes to enable his armed attacks against Israel. Fatah's manpower was incremented further after Arafat decided to offer new recruits much higher salaries than members of the Palestine Liberation Army (PLA),
904-544: A broad range of other terms instead of human rights defenders, even when their activity falls clearly within the scope outlined by the UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders. Use of the HRD identity could benefit human rights activists by legitimising their work and facilitating access to protective measures. Use of the HRD identity can also be counterproductive by directing attention to particular individuals rather than focusing on
1017-401: A clean and healthy environment , when the exercise of those rights is being threatened whether or not they self-identify as human rights defenders. Many environmental defenders engage in their activities through sheer necessity." The use of the term Environmental defender (or Environmental human rights defender) by human rights organizations, the media, and academia is recent and associated with
1130-518: A coma and died. While the cause of Arafat's death has remained the subject of speculation, investigations by Russian and French teams determined no foul play was involved. Arafat remains a controversial figure. Palestinians generally view him as a martyr who symbolized the national aspirations of his people, while many Israelis regarded him as a terrorist. Palestinian rivals, including Islamists and several PLO radicals , frequently denounced him as corrupt or too submissive in his concessions to
1243-734: A conference in Prague , he donned a solid white keffiyeh –different from the fishnet-patterned one he adopted later in Kuwait , which was to become his emblem. In 1990, Arafat married Suha Tawil , a Palestinian Christian , when he was 61 and Suha, 27. Her mother introduced her to him in France, after which she worked as his secretary in Tunis. Prior to their marriage, Arafat adopted fifty Palestinian war orphans . During their marriage, Suha tried to leave Arafat on many occasions, but he forbade it. Suha said she regrets
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#17330848664911356-585: A freedom fighter's rifle in another. Do not let the green branch fall from my hand. He wore a holster throughout his speech, although it did not contain a gun. His speech increased international sympathy for the Palestinian cause. Following recognition, Arafat established relationships with a variety of world leaders, including Saddam Hussein and Idi Amin . Arafat was Amin's best man at his wedding in Uganda in 1975. Although hesitant at first to take sides in
1469-791: A loss of influence in Lebanon and switched sides. He sent his army, along with the Syrian-backed Palestinian factions of as-Sa'iqa and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command (PFLP-GC) led by Ahmad Jibril to fight alongside right-wing Christian forces against the PLO and the LNM. The primary components of the Christian front were the Phalangists loyal to Bachir Gemayel and
1582-705: A major raid against the Jordanian administered West Bank town of as-Samu , in response to a Fatah-implemented roadside bomb attack which had killed three members of the Israeli security forces near the southern Green Line border. In the resulting skirmish, scores of Jordanian security forces were killed and 125 homes razed. This raid was one of several factors that led to the 1967 Six-Day War . The Six-Day war began when Israel launched air strikes against Egypt's air force on 5 June 1967. The war ended in an Arab defeat and Israel's occupation of several Arab territories, including
1695-804: A meeting between the President of Iraq and the Emir of Kuwait in order to resolve their disputes. Also in 1974, the PLO was declared the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" and admitted to full membership of the Arab League at the Rabat Summit . Arafat became the first representative of a non-governmental organization to address a plenary session of the UN General Assembly . In his United Nations address, Arafat condemned Zionism, but said: Today I have come bearing an olive branch in one hand and
1808-460: A military confrontation with opposition forces, Hussein dismissed several of his anti-PLO cabinet officials, including some of his own family members, and invited Arafat to become Deputy Prime Minister of Jordan . Arafat refused, citing his belief in the need for a Palestinian state with Palestinian leadership. Despite Hussein's intervention, militant actions in Jordan continued. On 15 September 1970,
1921-708: A mine in the Negev, killing two children. However, plans for the two operations were prepared in 1967, one year before the bus attack. The size of the Israeli forces entering Karameh made the Jordanians assume that Israel was also planning to occupy the eastern bank of the Jordan River, including the Balqa Governorate , to create a situation similar to the Golan Heights , which Israel had captured just 10 months prior, to be used
2034-599: A national hero who dared to confront Israel. With mass applause from the Arab world , financial donations increased significantly, and Fatah's weaponry and equipment improved. The group's numbers swelled as many young Arabs, including thousands of non-Palestinians, joined the ranks of Fatah. When the Palestinian National Council (PNC) convened in Cairo on 3 February 1969, Yahya Hammuda stepped down from his chairmanship of
2147-647: A poet. Their first language was Yiddish . During World War II , two Polish Roman Catholics helped his family escape from the Warsaw Ghetto . He and his parents fled to the Soviet Union spending the remainder of the war in Ukraine and Uzbekistan, where he learned to speak the Uzbek language . In 1945, as a member of Uzbekistan's "Young Pioneers", Marek was selected to go to Moscow to present flowers to Joseph Stalin . In 1946
2260-571: A significant role in arranging the first official meetings between the two groups. He held several meetings with Yasser Arafat . Halter organised campaigns in Paris for Soviet dissidents such as Andrei Sakharov in 1978, and Natan Sharansky , and travelled to Afghanistan to protest the Soviet invasion of the country . Halter co-founded the Jewish Culture Festival in Paris. In 1991 Halter founded
2373-636: A tactical level, the battle went in Israel's favor and the destruction of the Karameh camp was achieved. However, the relatively high casualties were a considerable surprise for the Israel Defense Forces and was stunning to the Israelis. Although the Palestinians were not victorious on their own, King Hussein let the Palestinians take credit. Some have alleged that Arafat himself was on the battlefield, but
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#17330848664912486-458: A very broad definition of human rights defenders to include anyone who promotes or defends human rights. This broad definition presents both challenges and benefits to stakeholders and donors seeking to support HRD protection programs, as more precise definitions exclude some categories of HRDs, but such broad definition also leaves much room for interpretation and can make it difficult to establish HRD status for some at-risk individuals. In 2004,
2599-480: A way that makes it easier to apply them to human rights defenders. The rights protected under the Declaration include, among others, the right to develop and discuss new human rights ideas and to advocate their acceptance; the right to criticise government bodies and agencies and to make proposals to improve their functioning; the right to provide legal assistance or other advice and assistance in defence of human rights;
2712-771: A year after his eviction from Beirut, this time establishing himself in the northern Lebanese city of Tripoli . This time Arafat was expelled by a fellow Palestinian working under Hafez al-Assad . Arafat did not return to Lebanon after his second expulsion, though many Fatah fighters did. Arafat and Fatah's center for operations was based in Tunis, the capital of Tunisia , until 1993. In 1985 Arafat narrowly survived an Israeli assassination attempt when Israeli Air Force F-15s bombed his Tunis headquarters as part of Operation Wooden Leg , leaving 73 people dead; Arafat had gone out jogging that morning. The following year Arafat had his operational headquarters in Baghdad for some time. During
2825-544: Is a newly developed tool using electronic networks and satellite imagery and tracking. Examples include tactical mapping, crisis mapping and geo-mapping. Tactical mapping has been primarily used in tracking human rights abuses by providing visualization of the tracking and implementation monitoring. In 2017, Human rights lawyer Emil Kurbedinov, a Crimean Tatar, won the 2017 Award for Frontline Human Rights Defenders at Risk. Kurbedinov has been an avid defender of civil society militants, mistreated Crimean Tatars, and members of
2938-543: Is a person who, individually or with others, acts to promote or protect human rights . They can be journalists, environmentalists , whistleblowers , trade unionists , lawyers, teachers, housing campaigners, participants in direct action , or just individuals acting alone. They can defend rights as part of their jobs or in a voluntary capacity. As a result of their activities, human rights defenders (HRDs) are often subjected to reprisals including smears, surveillance, harassment, false charges, arbitrary detention, restrictions on
3051-415: Is also a word that was used in early Islamic times to refer to "conquest." Fatah dedicated itself to the liberation of Palestine by an armed struggle carried out by Palestinians themselves. This differed from other Palestinian political and guerrilla organizations, most of which firmly believed in a united Arab response. Arafat's organization never embraced the ideologies of the major Arab governments of
3164-723: Is generally defined as an uprising or revolt. The first stage of the Intifada began following an incident at the Erez checkpoint where four Palestinian residents of the Jabalya refugee camp were killed in a traffic accident involving an Israeli driver. Rumors spread that the deaths were a deliberate act of revenge for an Israeli shopper who was stabbed to death by a Palestinian in Gaza four days earlier. Mass rioting broke out, and within weeks, partly upon consistent requests by Abu Jihad, Arafat attempted to direct
3277-443: Is not legally binding, but it articulates rights established by existing human rights treaties and applies them to human rights defenders in order to legitimise their work and extend protection of HRDs. Under the Declaration, a human rights defender is anyone who works to promote or protect human rights: whether professionally or non-professionally; alone or as part of group or institution. The Declaration articulates existing rights in
3390-483: The 1948 Arab–Israeli War . Following the defeat of Arab forces, Arafat returned to Cairo and served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students from 1952 to 1956. In the latter part of the 1950s, Arafat co-founded Fatah, a paramilitary organization which sought Israel's replacement with a Palestinian state. Fatah operated within several Arab countries, from where it launched attacks on Israeli targets. In
3503-618: The Ben Gurion International Airport in Israel. The PFLP and the Japanese Red Army carried out a shooting rampage at the same airport , killing twenty-four civilians. Israel later claimed that the assassination of PFLP spokesman Ghassan Kanafani was a response to the PFLP's involvement in masterminding the latter attack. Two days later, various PLO factions retaliated by bombing a bus station, killing eleven civilians. At
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3616-529: The Coastal Road massacre —occurred on 11 March 1978. A force of nearly a dozen Fatah fighters landed their boats near a major coastal road connecting the city of Haifa with Tel Aviv-Yafo . There they hijacked a bus and sprayed gunfire inside and at passing vehicles, killing thirty-seven civilians. In response, the IDF launched Operation Litani three days later, with the goal of taking control of Southern Lebanon up to
3729-622: The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood . Arafat had met Abu Iyad while attending Cairo University and Abu Jihad in Gaza. Both would later become Arafat's top aides. Abu Iyad traveled with Arafat to Kuwait in late 1960; Abu Jihad, also working as a teacher, had already been living there since 1959. After settling in Kuwait, Abu Iyad helped Arafat obtain a temporary job as a schoolteacher. As Arafat began to develop friendships with Palestinian refugees (some of whom he knew from his Cairo days), he and
3842-588: The General Union of Palestinian Students (GUPS) from 1952 to 1956. During his first year as president of the union, the university was renamed Cairo University after a coup was carried out by the Free Officers Movement overthrowing King Farouk I . By that time, Arafat had graduated with a bachelor's degree in civil engineering and was called to duty to fight with Egyptian forces during the Suez Crisis ; however, he never actually fought. Later that year, at
3955-516: The Khazars , a nomadic kingdom of Turkic people in the Caucasus who converted to Judaism ; Sarah (2004), a bestseller which was adapted into a TV series; Zipporah (2005); Lilah (2006); and Mary of Nazareth (2008). His historical novels have been translated into English, Polish, Hebrew , and many other languages. Many of his books focus on the theme of memory, including that of his own family,
4068-514: The Lebanese Civil War and continued its attacks on Israel, resulting in the organization becoming a major target of Israeli invasions during the 1978 South Lebanon conflict and 1982 Lebanon War . From 1983 to 1993, Arafat based himself in Tunisia, and began to shift his approach from open conflict with the Israelis to negotiation. In 1988, he acknowledged Israel's right to exist and sought
4181-481: The Litani River . The IDF achieved this goal, and Arafat withdrew PLO forces north into Beirut. After Israel withdrew from Lebanon, cross-border hostilities between PLO forces and Israel continued, though from August 1981 to May 1982, the PLO adopted an official policy of refraining from responding to provocations. On 6 June 1982, Israel launched an invasion of Lebanon to expel the PLO from southern Lebanon. Beirut
4294-586: The Mughrabi Quarter of the Old City . They lived there with their uncle Salim Abul Saud for four years. In 1937, their father recalled them to be taken care of by their older sister, Inam. Arafat had a deteriorating relationship with his father; when he died in 1952, Arafat did not attend the funeral, nor did he visit his father's grave upon his return to Gaza. Arafat's sister Inam stated in an interview with Arafat's biographer, British historian Alan Hart, that Arafat
4407-528: The Munich Olympic Games , Black September kidnapped and killed eleven Israeli athletes. A number of sources, including Mohammed Oudeh ( Abu Daoud ), one of the masterminds of the Munich massacre , and Benny Morris , a prominent Israeli historian, have stated that Black September was an armed branch of Fatah used for paramilitary operations. According to Abu Daoud's 1999 book, "Arafat was briefed on plans for
4520-562: The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights issued Fact Sheet 29 to further define and support human rights defenders. This document states that, "no 'qualification' is required to be a human rights defender," but that the minimum standards for HRDs are acceptance of the universality of human rights and non-violent action. Some researchers have attempted to demarcate categories of human rights defenders for
4633-644: The PFLP (part of the PLO) hijacked four planes and landed three of them at Dawson's Field , located 30 miles (48 km) east of Amman . After the foreign national hostages were taken off the planes and moved away from them, three of the planes were blown up in front of international press, which took photos of the explosion. This tarnished Arafat's image in many western nations, including the United States, who held him responsible for controlling Palestinian factions that belonged to
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4746-474: The PLA . As the conflict raged , other Arab governments attempted to negotiate a peaceful resolution. As part of this effort, Gamal Abdel Nasser led the first emergency Arab League summit in Cairo on 21 September. Arafat's speech drew sympathy from attending Arab leaders. Other heads of state took sides against Hussein, among them Muammar Gaddafi , who mocked him and his schizophrenic father King Talal . A ceasefire
4859-636: The Talmudic tradition that each generation must produce 36 'righteous' for the world to continue". The film took a year to film and another year to edit, and was selected for screening at the Berlin Film Festival in February 1995. He also directed an episode of the TV series La case du siècle in 2012. In 1967, Halter founded a committee for a negotiated peace agreement between Palestinians and Israelis, playing
4972-639: The Tigers Militia led by Dany Chamoun , a son of former President Camille Chamoun . In February 1975, a pro-Palestinian Lebanese MP, Maarouf Saad , was shot and killed, reportedly by the Lebanese Army . His death from his wounds, the following month, and the massacre in April of 27 Palestinians and Lebanese travelling on a bus from Sabra and Shatila to the Tel al-Zaatar refugee camp by Phalangist forces precipitated
5085-574: The UN General Assembly issued the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognised Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (A/RES/53/144, 1998), commonly known as the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders . Prior to this Declaration, activist , worker , or monitor were more common terms for people working to defend human rights. The Declaration on Human Rights Defenders created
5198-588: The United Nations Emergency Force to establish itself in the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip , precipitating the expulsion of all guerrilla or " fedayeen " forces there—including Arafat. Arafat originally attempted to obtain a visa to Canada and later Saudi Arabia , but was unsuccessful in both attempts. In 1957, he applied for a visa to Kuwait (at the time a British protectorate) and was approved, based on his work in civil engineering. There he encountered two Palestinian friends: Salah Khalaf ("Abu Iyad") and Khalil al-Wazir ("Abu Jihad"), both official members of
5311-509: The 1948 Arab–Israeli War (present-day West Bank, East Jerusalem and Gaza Strip). This caused discontent among several of the PLO factions; the PFLP, DFLP and other parties formed a breakaway organization, the Rejectionist Front . Israel and the US have alleged also that Arafat was involved in the 1973 Khartoum diplomatic assassinations , in which five diplomats and five others were killed. A 1973 United States Department of State document, declassified in 2006, concluded "The Khartoum operation
5424-399: The 1980s, Arafat received financial assistance from Libya, Iraq and Saudi Arabia, which allowed him to reconstruct the badly damaged PLO. This was particularly useful during the First Intifada in December 1987, which began as an uprising of Palestinians against the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The word Intifada in Arabic is literally translated as "tremor"; however, it
5537-407: The 1998 UN Declaration, the term environmental defenders is increasingly used by global organizations and media to refer to this convergence of goals and analysis. Following the adoption of the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders in 1998, a number of initiatives were taken, both at the international and regional level, to increase the protection of defenders and contribute to the implementation of
5650-419: The Battle of Karameh, Fatah and other Palestinian militias began taking control of civil life in Jordan. They set up roadblocks, publicly humiliated Jordanian police forces, molested women and levied illegal taxes—all of which Arafat either condoned or ignored. King Hussein considered this a growing threat to his kingdom's sovereignty and security, and attempted to disarm the militias. However, in order to avoid
5763-401: The Declaration. In this context, the following mechanisms and guidelines were established: In 2008, the Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders, a joint programme of the International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) and the World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT), took the initiative to gather all the human rights defenders' institutional mandate-holders (created within
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#17330848664915876-834: The EHRDs reported killed between 2015 and 2019 were indigenous. Documentation of this violence is incomplete, and for every death there may be as many as a hundred cases of severe repression such as detainment, eviction, defamation, etc. Research conducted by the Business and Human Rights Resource Center documented a 34 percent increase worldwide in attacks against human rights activists in 2017. The figures included 120 suspected murders and hundreds of incidents that involved assault, bullying, and threats. There were 388 attacks in 2017 compared to only 290 in 2016. The same study identified human rights defenders connected to agribusiness , mining, and renewable energy sectors (EHRDs) as those in greatest danger. Lawyers and members of environmental groups were also at risk. The United Nations Declaration on
5989-518: The French College in Moscow ( Collèges Universitaires Français ), of which he is still president as of 2023. In 1954, he received the Deauville international prize, and was also awarded a prize at the Biennale d'Ancone. The Book of Abraham (1986) won the Prix Maison de la Presse and the Prix du Livre Inter . Le Fou et les Rois ( The Jester and the Kings ) was awarded the Prix Aujourd'hui in 1976. Halter married Clara Halter in 1968. His wife died in 2017. In 1990 he travelled to Poland for
6102-523: The HRDs killed globally were working on these issues. A report published by Front Line Defenders in 2020 found that at least 331 HRDs were murdered that year in 25 countries. Although indigenous people only account for about 6% of the global population, approximately 1/3 of these murdered HRDs were indigenous. In 2019, 304 HRDs were murdered in 31 countries. Global Witness reported that 1,922 EHRDs were killed in 52 countries between 2002 and 2019. 80% of these deaths were in Latin America. Approximately 1/3 of
6215-429: The Islamic Liberation Front and several Syrian-backed groups, virtually crumbled after their sponsor governments' defeat. Barely a week after the defeat, Arafat crossed the Jordan River in disguise and entered the West Bank, where he set up recruitment centers in Hebron , the Jerusalem area and Nablus , and began attracting both fighters and financiers for his cause. At the same time, Nasser contacted Arafat through
6328-465: The Israeli government. Arafat was born in Cairo , Egypt, on 4 or 24 August 1929. His father, Abdel Raouf al-Qudwa al-Husseini, was a Palestinian from Gaza City , whose mother, Yasser's paternal grandmother, was Egyptian . Arafat's father battled in the Egyptian courts for 25 years to claim family land in Egypt as part of his inheritance but was unsuccessful. He worked as a textile merchant in Cairo's religiously mixed Sakakini District . Arafat
6441-412: The Israeli-occupied West Bank. According to Said Aburish , the government of Jordan and a number of Fatah commandos informed Arafat that large-scale Israeli military preparations for an attack on the town were underway, prompting fedayeen groups, such as George Habash's newly formed Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and Nayef Hawatmeh 's breakaway organization the Democratic Front for
6554-411: The Jordanian Army agreed to back them if heavy fighting ensued. In response to persistent PLO raids against Israeli civilian targets, Israel attacked the town of Karameh , Jordan, the site of a major PLO camp. The goal of the invasion was to destroy Karameh camp and capture Yasser Arafat in reprisal for the attacks by the PLO against Israeli civilians, which culminated in an Israeli school bus hitting
6667-407: The Lebanese Civil War. Arafat was reluctant to respond with force, but many other Fatah and PLO members felt otherwise. For example, the DFLP carried out several attacks against the Lebanese Army . In 1976, an alliance of Christian militias with the backing of the Lebanese and Syrian armies besieged Tel al-Zaatar camp in east Beirut . The PLO and LNM retaliated by attacking the town of Damour ,
6780-409: The Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), to withdraw their forces from the town. Though advised by a sympathetic Jordanian Army divisional commander to withdraw his men and headquarters to the nearby hills, Arafat refused, stating, "We want to convince the world that there are those in the Arab world who will not withdraw or flee." Aburish writes that it was on Arafat's orders that Fatah remained, and that
6893-506: The Munich hostage-taking." The killings were internationally condemned. In 1973–74, Arafat closed Black September down, ordering the PLO to withdraw from acts of violence outside Israel, the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In 1974, the PNC approved the Ten Point Program (drawn up by Arafat and his advisers), and proposed a compromise with the Israelis. It called for a Palestinian national authority over every part of "liberated" Palestinian territory, which refers to areas captured by Arab forces in
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#17330848664917006-498: The PLO. Arafat was elected chairman on 4 February. He became Commander-in-Chief of the Palestinian Revolutionary Forces two years later, and in 1973, became the head of the PLO's political department. In the late 1960s, tensions between Palestinians and the Jordanian government increased greatly; heavily armed Palestinian elements had created a virtual "state within a state" in Jordan, eventually controlling several strategic positions in that country. After their proclaimed victory in
7119-407: The PLO. Arafat, bowing to pressure from Arab governments, publicly condemned the hijackings and suspended the PFLP from any guerrilla actions for a few weeks. He had taken the same action after the PFLP attacked Athens Airport . The Jordanian government moved to regain control over its territory, and the next day, King Hussein declared martial law . On the same day, Arafat became supreme commander of
7232-453: The PLO—guarded by a multinational force of eight hundred US Marines supported by the United States Navy —to exile in Tunis . During the war, Arafat took measures to protect the Lebanese Jewish community. He ordered the PLO fighters to guard the Maghen Abraham Synagogue of Beirut and deliver food to affected Jewish families. After Arafat left Lebanon, the synagogue's protection went in hands of Phalangists . Arafat returned to Lebanon
7345-429: The Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (A/RES/53/144) on December 9, 1998, commonly known as the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders, is the first UN instrument to legitimise and define human rights defenders, as well as the right and responsibility for everyone to protect human rights. The Declaration
7458-412: The UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders at the national level. It was developed in collaboration with hundreds of defenders and endorsed by leading human rights experts and jurists. Several countries have introduced national legislation or policies to protect human rights defenders including Colombia, Brazil, Mexico, and Guatemala; however, key challenges in implementation remain. Electronic mapping
7571-548: The UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders. However, the approach and role of environmental defenders is closely related to earlier concepts developed as early as the 1980s such as environmental justice and environmentalism of the poor . Although these different terms have different origins, they converge around the re-establishment of land-based cultures, re-making of place for marginalized people, and protection of land and livelihood from activities such as resource extraction, dumping of toxic waste, and land appropriation. Since
7684-434: The United Nations issued their Declaration on Human Rights Defenders to legitimise the work of human rights defenders and extend protection for human rights activity. Following this Declaration, increasing numbers of activists have adopted the HRD label; this is especially true for professional human rights workers. The term human rights defender (HRD) became commonly used within the international human rights community after
7797-408: The United Nations, the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Council of Europe, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the European Union) to find ways to enhance coordination and complementarities among themselves and with NGOs. In 2010, a single inter-mechanisms website was created, gathering all relevant public information on
7910-493: The West Bank and Gaza Strip . Although Nasser and his Arab allies had been defeated, Arafat and Fatah could claim a victory, in that the majority of Palestinians, who had up to that time tended to align and sympathize with individual Arab governments, now began to agree that a 'Palestinian' solution to their dilemma was indispensable. Many primarily Palestinian political parties, including George Habash 's Arab Nationalist Movement , Hajj Amin al-Husseini 's Arab Higher Committee ,
8023-532: The activities of the different human rights defenders' protection mandate-holders. It aims to increase the visibility of the documentation produced by the mechanisms (press releases, studies, reports, statements), as well as of their actions (country visits, institutional events, trials observed). In 2016, the International Service for Human Rights published the 'Model National Law on the Recognition and Protection of Human Rights Defenders'. [2] This document provides authoritative guidance to states on how to implement
8136-570: The border into Lebanon to join PLO forces in that country, where they set up their new headquarters. Because of Lebanon's weak central government, the PLO was able to operate virtually as an independent state. During this time in the 1970s, numerous leftist PLO groups took up arms against Israel, carrying out attacks against civilians as well as military targets within Israel and outside of it. Two major incidents occurred in 1972. The Fatah subgroup Black September Organization hijacked Sabena Flight 572 en route to Vienna and forced it to land at
8249-473: The ceasefire from both the PLO and the Jordanian Army, Arafat called for King Hussein to be toppled. Responding to the threat, in June 1971, Hussein ordered his forces to oust all remaining Palestinian fighters in northern Jordan, which they accomplished. Arafat and a number of his forces, including two high-ranking commanders, Abu Iyad and Abu Jihad , were forced into the northern corner of Jordan. They relocated near
8362-833: The collective nature of their work, which may also have the effect of further endangering these individuals. Human rights defenders (HRDs) face severe repression and retaliation from government and private actors including the police, military, local elites, private security forces, right-wing groups, and multi-national corporations. Abuses include threats, arbitrary arrest and detainment, harassment, defamation, dismissal from jobs, eviction, disappearance, and murder. HRDs who work on women's rights ( WHRDs ) or who challenge cultural gender norms run increased risks compared to other HRDs, as do less prominent workers in remote areas. Environmental human rights defenders (EHRDs) who work on environmental rights, land rights, and indigenous rights issues also face greater threats than other HRDs; in 2020 69% of
8475-571: The community, and sexist, misogynistic, homophobic , trans-phobic threats, smears and stigmatization, as well as exclusion from resources and power. In 2017, female activists who were killed because of their advocacies and activities in defending human rights were honored during the International Women Human Rights Defenders' Day. Those murdered criticized corruption and other forms of injustice, protect their lands from governments and multinational corporations, and upheld
8588-595: The conflict, Arafat and Fatah played an important role in the Lebanese Civil War . Succumbing to pressure from PLO sub-groups such as the PFLP, DFLP and the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF), Arafat aligned the PLO with the Communist and Nasserist Lebanese National Movement (LNM). The LNM was led by Kamal Jumblatt , who had a friendly relationship with Arafat and other PLO leaders. Although originally aligned with Fatah, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad feared
8701-503: The details of his involvement are unclear. However, his allies–as well as Israeli intelligence –confirm that he urged his men throughout the battle to hold their ground and continue fighting. The battle was covered in detail by Time , and Arafat's face appeared on the cover of the 13 December 1968 issue, bringing his image to the world for the first time. Amid the post-war environment, the profiles of Arafat and Fatah were raised by this important turning point, and he came to be regarded as
8814-479: The early 1950s, Arafat adopted the name Yasser, and in the early years of Arafat's guerrilla career, he assumed the nom de guerre of Abu Ammar. Both names are related to Ammar ibn Yasir , one of Muhammad 's early companions . Although he dropped most of his inherited names, he retained Arafat due to its significance in Islam . Following the Suez Crisis in 1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser agreed to allow
8927-765: The family returned to Poland, but, experiencing a great deal of antisemitism , they emigrated to France, taking up residence in Paris in 1950. Halter studied pantomime under Marcel Marceau . He was admitted to the École nationale des beaux-arts to study painting. Embarking upon a career in painting, his first international exhibition was in 1955 in Buenos Aires , and he remained in that city for two years, returning to France in 1957, where he engaged in political journalism and advocacy. He learnt Spanish while in Argentina. In 1968, he founded together with his wife, Clara Halter,
9040-619: The first time in 40 years. There, he met another man called Marek Halter, a Catholic engineer. This man reported that he had been punished each time the French Halter's anti-Soviet activism had been mentioned in the media, and only discovered the reason years later, when he read an article in an official newspaper about Marek Halter, "the Zionist enemy". In 2007, French magazines Le Point and Le Nouvel Observateur accused Halter of lying about several parts of his life. In February 2021, he
9153-525: The former's adviser Mohammed Heikal and Arafat was declared by Nasser to be the "leader of the Palestinians." In December 1967 Ahmad Shukeiri resigned his post as PLO Chairman . Yahya Hammuda took his place and invited Arafat to join the organization. Fatah was allocated 33 of 105 seats of the PLO Executive Committee while 57 seats were left for several other guerrilla factions. Throughout 1968, Fatah and other Palestinian armed groups were
9266-584: The groundwork for Fatah's future financial support, he enlisted contributions from the many wealthy Palestinians working in Kuwait and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf , such as Qatar (where he met Mahmoud Abbas in 1961). These businessmen and oil workers contributed generously to the Fatah organization. Arafat continued this process in other Arab countries, such as Libya and Syria. In 1962, Arafat and his closest companions migrated to Syria—a country sharing
9379-777: The history of the Jewish people , and specifically the Holocaust . Halter has directed a film, The Righteous (1994; Polish: Tzedek ). The Righteous was nominated for a César Award for Best Documentary Film . Halter is also narrator and interviewer in the film, in which he asks the question of people who saved Jews during the war "Why did you do it?". Halter and his wife, Clara, traced around 200 such Gentiles , creating many hours of videotape and around 1,000 pages of interview transcripts. They went through them all, verified their stories, initially choosing 42 stories. They refined it down to 36 men and women in 14 countries, after he "remembered
9492-555: The latter part of the 1960s Arafat's profile grew; in 1967 he joined the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and in 1969 was elected chair of the Palestinian National Council (PNC). Fatah's growing presence in Jordan resulted in military clashes with King Hussein 's Jordanian government and in the early 1970s it relocated to Lebanon. There, Fatah assisted the Lebanese National Movement during
9605-525: The magazine Élements , which published works by Israeli, Palestinian , and other Arab writers. His first book was Le Fou et les Rois ( The Jester and the Kings ), an autobiography published in 1976. His novels include The Messiah ; The Mysteries of Jerusalem ; The Book of Abraham (1986) and its sequel, The Children of Abraham (1990); The Wind of the Khazars (2003) — a piece of historical fiction about
9718-424: The marriage, and given the choice again would not repeat it. In mid-1995, Arafat's wife Suha gave birth in a Paris hospital to a daughter, named Zahwa after Arafat's mother. Arafat's full name was Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf Arafat al-Qudwa al-Husseini. Mohammed Abdel Rahman was his first name, Abdel Raouf was his father's name and Arafat his grandfather's. Al-Qudwa was the name of his tribe and al-Husseini
9831-567: The media. He documents violations of human rights during searches of activists' residences as well as emergency responses. In January 2017, the Crimean Center for Counteracting Extremism arrested and detained the lawyer. He was taken to a local facility of the Russian Federal Security Service for questioning. A district tribunal ruled that Kurbedinov was guilty of doing propaganda work for terrorist groups and organizations. He
9944-512: The negotiations in Oslo led to Arafat being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , alongside Israeli Prime Ministers Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres , in 1994. At the time, Fatah's support among the Palestinians declined with the growth of Hamas and other militant rivals. In late 2004, after effectively being confined within his Ramallah compound for over two years by the Israeli army, Arafat fell into
10057-427: The orders of Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad , a close friend of Urabi, Arafat was subsequently arrested, found guilty by a three-man jury and sentenced to death. However, he and his colleagues were pardoned by President Salah Jadid shortly after the verdict. The incident brought Assad and Arafat to unpleasant terms, which would surface later when Assad became President of Syria. On 13 November 1966, Israel launched
10170-552: The others gradually founded the group that became known as Fatah . The exact date for the establishment of Fatah is unknown. In 1959, the group's existence was attested to in the pages of a Palestinian nationalist magazine, Filastununa Nida al-Hayat (Our Palestine, The Call of Life), which was written and edited by Abu Jihad. FaTaH is a reverse acronym of the Arabic name Harakat al-Tahrir al-Watani al-Filastini which translates into "The Palestinian National Liberation Movement". "Fatah"
10283-499: The provisions of the Declaration and emphasises the duty of the state to protect HRDs from violence, retaliation and intimidation as a consequence of their human rights work. The Declaration also places responsibility to protect human rights at the individual level and especially upon individuals in professions that may affect human rights such as law enforcement, judges, etc. Women human rights defenders (WHRDs) are women who defend human rights , and defenders of all genders who defend
10396-535: The purpose of better understanding patterns of HRD risks. Such categorisation may discern professional vs. non-professional activity, or differentiate based on the specific rights that are being defended such as the rights of women, or indigenous land rights. Self-identification as a human rights defender is more common among professional human rights advocates who work within established institutions, governments, or NGOs. Individuals who work outside of these systems commonly self-identify as 'activists', 'leaders', or by
10509-474: The ranks of the Palestinian fedayeen , Arafat fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood , although he did not join the organization. He took part in combat in the Gaza area (which was the main battleground of Egyptian forces during the conflict). In early 1949, the war was winding down in Israel's favor, and Arafat returned to Cairo due to a lack of logistical support. After returning to the university, Arafat studied civil engineering and served as president of
10622-627: The regular military force of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which was created by the Arab League in 1964. On 31 December, a squad from al-Assifa , Fatah's armed wing, attempted to infiltrate Israel, but they were intercepted and detained by Lebanese security forces. Several other raids with Fatah's poorly trained and badly-equipped fighters followed this incident. Some were successful, others failed in their missions. Arafat often led these incursions personally. Arafat
10735-504: The right to freedom of association, physical attack, and even murder. In 2020, at least 331 HRDs were murdered in 25 countries. The international community and some national governments have attempted to respond to this violence through various protections, but violence against HRDs continues to rise. Women human rights defenders and environmental human rights defenders (who are very often indigenous) face greater repression and risks than human rights defenders working on other issues. In 1998,
10848-418: The right to observe fair trials ; the right to unhindered access to and communication with non-governmental and intergovernmental organisations ; the right to access resources for the purpose of protecting human rights, including the receipt of funds from abroad; and the rights of free expression , association and assembly. The Declaration indicates that states have a responsibility to implement and respect
10961-583: The rights of lesbians, gays and transgender individuals. Environmental human rights defenders or simply environmental defenders , have been defined by the UN Environment Programme as, "defenders carrying out a vast range of activities related to land and environmental rights, including those working on issues related to extractive industries, and construction and development projects." They also state that environmental defenders are, "defending environmental rights, including constitutional rights to
11074-415: The rights of women and rights related to gender and sexuality. Their work and the challenges they face have been recognized by a United Nations (UN) resolution in 2013, which calls for specific protection for women human rights defenders. A woman human rights defender can be an Indigenous woman fighting for the rights of her community, a woman advocating against torture, an LGBTQI rights campaigner,
11187-406: The specific rights they defend. This means they are targeted just because they are women, LGBTI people or for identifying with their struggles. They also face additional obstacles connected with Institutional discrimination and inequality and because they challenge, or are seen to be challenging, patriarchal power and social norms . They are more at risk of facing gender based violence in the home and
11300-564: The target of a major Israeli army operation in the Jordanian village of Karameh , where the Fatah headquarters—as well as a mid-sized Palestinian refugee camp —were located. The town's name is the Arabic word for 'dignity', which elevated its symbolism in the eyes of the Arab people , especially after the collective Arab defeat in 1967. The operation was in response to attacks, including rockets strikes from Fatah and other Palestinian militias, within
11413-445: The time, in contrast to other Palestinian factions, which often became satellites of nations such as Egypt, Iraq , Saudi Arabia, Syria and others. In accordance with his ideology, Arafat generally refused to accept donations to his organization from major Arab governments, in order to act independently of them. He did not want to alienate them, and sought their undivided support by avoiding ideological alliances. However, to establish
11526-476: The town of Jerash , near the border with Syria. With the help of Munib Masri , a pro-Palestinian Jordanian cabinet member, and Fahd al-Khomeimi, the Saudi ambassador to Jordan, Arafat managed to enter Syria with nearly two thousand of his fighters. However, due to the hostility of relations between Arafat and Syrian President Hafez al-Assad (who had since ousted President Salah Jadid ), the Palestinian fighters crossed
11639-500: The uprising, which lasted until 1992–93. Abu Jihad had previously been assigned the responsibility of the Palestinian territories within the PLO command and, according to biographer Said Aburish , had "impressive knowledge of local conditions" in the Israeli-occupied territories . On 16 April 1988, as the Intifada was raging, Abu Jihad was assassinated in his Tunis household by an Israeli hit squad. Arafat had considered Abu Jihad as
11752-551: Was agreed upon between the two sides, but Nasser died of a massive heart attack hours after the summit, and the conflict resumed shortly afterward. By 25 September, the Jordanian Army achieved dominance, and two days later Arafat and Hussein agreed to a ceasefire in Amman. The Jordanian Army inflicted heavy casualties on the Palestinians—including civilians—who suffered approximately 3,500 fatalities. After repeated violations of
11865-645: Was an Arab nationalist and began procuring weapons to be smuggled into Mandatory Palestine , for use by irregulars in the Arab Higher Committee and the Army of the Holy War militias. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , Arafat left the university and, along with other Arabs, sought to enter Palestine to join Arab forces fighting against Israeli troops and the creation of the state of Israel. However, instead of joining
11978-590: Was assaulted by intruders at his home in Paris , who took nothing except his keys. This was not the first time he had been assaulted, with previous attempts having been accompanied by "a few anti-Semitic or racist words". Halter remarried in 2023. Daughter of Jacques Derogy, Marianne Weitzmann was 15 years old when she first met Marek. They met in 2020 and were married in the 3ème arrondissement of Paris on 7 February 2023. She died on 21 August 2024. Halter's non-fiction works include: Human rights defender A human rights defender or human rights activist
12091-449: Was detained in Syria's Mezzeh Prison when a Palestinian Syrian Army officer, Yusef Urabi , was killed. Urabi had been chairing a meeting to ease tensions between Arafat and Palestinian Liberation Front leader Ahmed Jibril , but neither Arafat nor Jibril attended, delegating representatives to attend on their behalf. Urabi was killed during or after the meeting amid disputed circumstances. On
12204-488: Was heavily beaten by his father for going to the Jewish quarter in Cairo and attending religious services. When she asked Arafat why he would not stop going, he responded by saying that he wanted to study Jewish mentality. In 1944, Arafat enrolled in the University of King Fuad I and graduated in 1950. At university, he engaged Jews in discussion and read publications by Theodor Herzl and other prominent Zionists. By 1946, he
12317-766: Was planned and carried out with the full knowledge and personal approval of Yasser Arafat." Arafat denied any involvement in the operation and insisted it was carried out independently by the Black September Organization. Israel claimed that Arafat was in ultimate control over these organizations and therefore had not abandoned terrorism. In addition, some circles within the US State Department viewed Arafat as an able diplomat and negotiator who could get support from many Arab governments at once. An example of that, we find in March 1973 that Arafat tried to arrange for
12430-652: Was sentenced to 10 days of imprisonment. Yasser Arafat Yasser Arafat (4 or 24 August 1929 – 11 November 2004), also popularly known by his kunya Abu Ammar , was a Palestinian political leader. He was chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004, President of the State of Palestine from 1989 to 2004 and President of the Palestinian Authority (PNA) from 1994 to 2004. Ideologically an Arab nationalist and
12543-461: Was soon besieged and bombarded by the IDF; Arafat declared the city to be the " Hanoi and Stalingrad of the Israeli army." The Civil War's first phase ended and Arafat—who was commanding Fatah forces at Tel al-Zaatar—narrowly escaped with assistance from Saudi and Kuwaiti diplomats. Towards the end of the siege, the US and European governments brokered an agreement guaranteeing safe passage for Arafat and
12656-488: Was that of the clan to which the al-Qudwas belonged. The al-Husseini clan was based in Gaza and is not related to the well-known al-Husayni clan of Jerusalem. Since Arafat was raised in Cairo, the tradition of dropping the Mohammed or Ahmad portion of one's first name was common; notable Egyptians such as Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak did so. However, Arafat dropped Abdel Rahman and Abdel Raouf from his name as well. During
12769-423: Was the second-youngest of seven children and was, along with his younger brother Fathi , the only offspring born in Cairo. Jerusalem was the family home of his mother, Zahwa Abul Saud, who died from a kidney ailment in 1933, when Arafat was four years of age. Arafat's first visit to Jerusalem came when his father, unable to raise seven children alone, sent Yasser and his brother Fathi to their mother's family in
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