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34-474: The group is unique for its formation and composition of minerals, particularly for its composition of anorthosite rock. The Marcy massif includes two separate groups of plutons , an eastern and western range. The western range is situated near the St. Regis and Long Lake quadrangles and the eastern Marcy group is sited near Jay , Hurricane Mountain , and the town of North Hudson . This article about

68-655: A rheologically liquid-state magma . Proterozoic anorthosites are typically >90% plagioclase, and the plagioclase composition is commonly between An 40 and An 60 (40–60% anorthite ). This compositional range is intermediate, and is one of the characteristics which distinguish Proterozoic anorthosites from Archean anorthosites (which are typically >An 80 ). Proterozoic anorthosites often have significant mafic components in addition to plagioclase. These phases can include olivine, pyroxene, Fe-Ti oxides, and/or apatite. Mafic minerals in Proterozoic anorthosites have

102-578: A dominance of 1:1 clay minerals (kaolinite and halloysite) in contrast to more mafic rock over which 2:1 clays develop. Outcrop An outcrop or rocky outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock or ancient superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth and other terrestrial planets . Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by soil and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely. However, in places where

136-591: A few of these bodies are mined as ores of aluminium. Anorthosite was prominently represented in rock samples brought back from the Moon, and is important in investigations of Mars , Venus , and meteorites . In the Adirondack Mountains, soils on anorthositic rock tend to be stony loamy sand with classic podzol profile development usually evident. In the San Gabriel Mountains , soils on anorthosite have

170-465: A fine-grained mafic groundmass. The plagioclase in these anorthosites is commonly An80-90. The primary economic value of anorthosite bodies is the titanium -bearing oxide ilmenite . However, some Proterozoic anorthosite bodies have large amounts of labradorite , which is quarried for its value as both a gemstone and a building material. Archean anorthosites, because they are aluminium -rich, have large amounts of aluminium substituting for silicon ;

204-470: A high plagioclase content (90–100% plagioclase), and are not found in association with contemporaneous ultramafic rocks. This is now known as 'the anorthosite problem.' Proposed solutions to the anorthosite problem have been diverse, with many of the proposals drawing on different geological subdisciplines. It was suggested early in the history of anorthosite debate that a special type of magma, anorthositic magma, had been generated at depth, and emplaced into

238-550: A location in Essex County, New York is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Anorthosite Anorthosite ( / ə ˈ n ɔːr θ ə s aɪ t / ) is a phaneritic , intrusive igneous rock characterized by its composition: mostly plagioclase feldspar (90–100%), with a minimal mafic component (0–10%). Pyroxene , ilmenite , magnetite , and olivine are the mafic minerals most commonly present. Anorthosites are of enormous geologic interest, because it

272-539: A record of relative changes within geologic strata . Accurate description, mapping, and sampling for laboratory analysis of outcrops made possible all of the geologic sciences and the development of fundamental geologic laws such as the law of superposition , the principle of original horizontality , principle of lateral continuity , and the principle of faunal succession . On Ordnance Survey maps in Great Britain , cliffs are distinguished from outcrops: cliffs have

306-643: A single straight belt, and must all have been emplaced intracratonally . The conditions and constraints of this pattern of origin and distribution are not clear. However, see the Origins section below. Many Proterozoic anorthosites occur in spatial association with other highly distinctive, contemporaneous rock types: the so-called 'anorthosite suite' or 'anorthosite- mangerite - charnockite -granite (AMCG) complex'. These rock types can include: Though co-eval , these rocks likely represent chemically-independent magmas, likely produced by melting of country rock into which

340-649: A wide range of composition, but are not generally highly magnesian. The trace-element chemistry of Proterozoic anorthosites, and the associated rock types, has been examined in some detail by researchers with the aim of arriving at a plausible genetic theory. However, there is still little agreement on just what the results mean for anorthosite genesis; see the 'Origins' section below. A very short list of results, including results for rocks thought to be related to Proterozoic anorthosites, Some research has focused on neodymium (Nd) and strontium (Sr) isotopic determinations for anorthosites, particularly for anorthosites of

374-452: Is as follows: The problem begins with the generation of magma, the necessary precursor of any igneous rock. Magma generated by small amounts of partial melting of the mantle is generally of basaltic composition. Under normal conditions, the composition of basaltic magma requires it to crystallize between 50 and 70% plagioclase, with the bulk of the remainder of the magma crystallizing as mafic minerals. However, anorthosites are defined by

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408-488: Is commonly present in anorthosites. Mineralogically, labradorite is a compositional term for any calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar containing 50–70 molecular percent anorthite (An 50–70), regardless of whether it shows labradorescence. The mafic mineral in Proterozoic anorthosite may be clinopyroxene , orthopyroxene , olivine , or, more rarely, amphibole . Oxides , such as magnetite or ilmenite , are also common. Most anorthosite plutons are very coarse grained ; that is,

442-480: Is some of the oldest lunar rock and the original cumulate of the lunar magma ocean , with the Mg-suite forming from later impacts and plutonism. However, debate exists on the magma ocean fractionation complicated by surface impact mixing with evidence potentially indicating MAN being older and more primitive. Lunar anorthosite is associated with two other rock types: norite and troctolite . Together, they comprise

476-649: Is still not fully understood how they form. Most models involve separating plagioclase crystals based on their density. Plagioclase crystals are usually less dense than magma; so, as plagioclase crystallizes in a magma chamber, the plagioclase crystals float to the top, concentrating there. Anorthosite on Earth can be divided into five types: Of these, the first two are the most common. These two types have different modes of occurrence, appear to be restricted to different periods in Earth's history , and are thought to have had different origins. Lunar anorthosites constitute

510-522: Is supported by the fact that aluminum is more soluble in orthopyroxene at high pressure. In this model, the HAOM represent lower-crustal cumulates that are related to the anorthosite source-magma. One problem with this model is that it requires the anorthosite source-magma to sit in the low crust for a considerable time. To solve this, some authors suggest that the HAOMs may have formed in the lower crust independent of

544-461: The "ANT" suite of moon rocks. Archean anorthosites represent the second largest anorthosite deposits on Earth. Most have been dated between 3,200 and 2,800 Ma, and commonly associated with basalts and/or greenstone belts. Archean anorthosites are distinct texturally and mineralogically from Proterozoic anorthosite bodies. Their most characteristic feature is the presence of equant, euhedral megacrysts (up to 30 cm) of plagioclase surrounded by

578-423: The Earth's surface due to human excavations such as quarrying and building of transport routes. Outcrops allow direct observation and sampling of the bedrock in situ for geologic analysis and creating geologic maps . In situ measurements are critical for proper analysis of geological history and outcrops are therefore extremely important for understanding the geologic time scale of earth history. Some of

612-701: The Nain Plutonic Suite (NPS). Such isotopic determinations are of use in gauging the viability of prospective sources for magmas that gave rise to anorthosites. Some results are detailed below in the 'Origins' section. Many Proterozoic-age anorthosites contain large crystals of orthopyroxene with distinctive compositions. These are the so-called high-alumina orthopyroxene megacrysts (HAOM). HAOM are distinctive because 1) they contain higher amounts of Al than typically seen in orthopyroxenes; 2) they are cut by numerous thin lathes of plagioclase, which may represent exsolution lamellae; and 3) they appear to be older than

646-409: The Nain Plutonic Suite. The Nd and Sr isotopic data show the magma which produced the anorthosites cannot have been derived only from the mantle. Instead, the magma that gave rise to the Nain Plutonic Suite anorthosites must have had a significant crustal component. This discovery led to a slightly more complicated version of the previous hypothesis: Large amounts of basaltic magma form a magma chamber at

680-531: The anorthosite source-magma. Later, the anorthosite source-magma may have entrained pieces of the HAOM-bearing lower crust on its way upward. Other researchers consider the chemical compositions of the HAOM to be the product of rapid crystallization at moderate or low pressures, eliminating the need for a lower-crustal origin altogether. The origins of Proterozoic anorthosites have been a subject of theoretical debate for many decades. A brief synopsis of this problem

714-465: The anorthosite, but some anorthosites are undeformed, thereby invalidating the suggestion. The discovery, in the late 1970s, of anorthositic dykes in the Nain Plutonic Suite, suggested that the possibility of anorthositic magmas existing at crustal temperatures needed to be reexamined. However, the dykes were later shown to be more complex than was originally thought. In summary, though liquid-state processes clearly operate in some anorthosite plutons,

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748-424: The anorthosites in which they are found. The origins of HAOMs are debated. One possible model suggests that, during anorthosite formation, a mantle-derived melt (or partially-crystalline mush) was injected into the lower crust and began crystallizing. HAOMs would have crystallized out during this time, perhaps as long as 80–120 million years. The HAOM-bearing melt could then have risen to the upper crust. This model

782-457: The anorthosites intruded. Importantly, large volumes of ultramafic rocks are not found in association with Proterozoic anorthosites. Since they are primarily composed of plagioclase feldspar, most of Proterozoic anorthosites appear, in outcrop , to be grey or bluish. Individual plagioclase crystals may be black, white, blue, or grey, and may exhibit an iridescence known as labradorescence on fresh surfaces. The feldspar variety labradorite

816-412: The base of the crust, and, while crystallizing, assimilating large amounts of crust. This small addendum explains both the isotopic characteristics and certain other chemical niceties of Proterozoic anorthosite. However, at least one researcher has cogently argued, on the basis of geochemical data, that the mantle's role in production of anorthosites must actually be very limited: the mantle provides only

850-447: The base of the crust. This theory has many appealing features, of which one is the capacity to explain the chemical composition of high-alumina orthopyroxene megacrysts (HAOM). This is detailed below in the section devoted to the HAOM. However, on its own, this hypothesis cannot coherently explain the origins of anorthosites, because it does not fit with, among other things, some important isotopic measurements made on anorthositic rocks in

884-440: The crust. However, the solidus of an anorthositic magma is too high for it to exist as a liquid for very long at normal ambient crustal temperatures, so this appears to be unlikely. The presence of water vapor has been shown to lower the solidus temperature of anorthositic magma to more reasonable values, but most anorthosites are relatively dry. It may be postulated, then, that water vapor be driven off by subsequent metamorphism of

918-480: The impetus (heat) for crustal melting, and a small amount of partial melt in the form of basaltic magma. Thus anorthosites are, in this view, derived almost entirely from lower crustal melts. On the Moon , anorthosite is the dominant rock type of the lunar highlands which covers ~80% of the lunar surface. Lunar anorthosite is characterized as ferroan anorthosite (FAN), or magnesium anorthosite (MAN). Pristine lunar FAN

952-704: The individual plagioclase crystals and the accompanying mafic mineral are more than a few centimetres long. Less commonly, plagioclase crystals are megacrystic, or larger than one metre long. However, most Proterozoic anorthosites are deformed , and such large plagioclase crystals have recrystallized to form smaller crystals, leaving only the outline of the larger crystals behind. While many Proterozoic anorthosite plutons appear to have no large-scale relict igneous structures (having instead post-emplacement deformational structures), some do have igneous layering , which may be defined by crystal size, mafic content, or chemical characteristics. Such layering clearly has origins with

986-758: The instance of the Nain Plutonic Suite or Mistastin crater in northern Labrador, Canada. Major occurrences of Proterozoic anorthosite are found in the southeast U.S., the Appalachian Mountains (e.g., the Honeybrook Upland of eastern Pennsylvania), eastern Canada (e.g., the Grenville Province), across southern Scandinavia and eastern Europe . Mapped onto the Pangaean continental configuration of that eon, these occurrences are all contained in

1020-651: The light-coloured areas of the Moon's surface and have been the subject of much research. The presence of Martian anorthosites has also been confirmed and is the subject of on-going research. Proterozoic anorthosites were emplaced during the Proterozoic Eon (c. 2,500–542 Ma ), though most were emplaced between 1,800 and 1,000 Ma. Proterozoic anorthosites typically occur as extensive stocks or batholiths . The areal extent of anorthosite batholiths ranges from relatively small (dozens or hundreds of square kilometers) to nearly 20,000 km (7,700 sq mi), in

1054-455: The mantle generates a basaltic magma, which does not immediately ascend into the crust. Instead, the basaltic magma forms a large magma chamber at the base of the crust and fractionates large amounts of mafic minerals, which sink to the bottom of the chamber. The co-crystallizing plagioclase crystals float, and eventually are emplaced into the crust as anorthosite plutons. Most of the sinking mafic minerals form ultramafic cumulates which stay at

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1088-580: The overlying cover is removed through erosion or tectonic uplift , the rock may be exposed, or crop out . Such exposure will happen most frequently in areas where erosion is rapid and exceeds the weathering rate such as on steep hillsides, mountain ridges and tops, river banks, and tectonically active areas. In Finland , glacial erosion during the last glacial maximum (ca. 11000 BC), followed by scouring by sea waves, followed by isostatic uplift has produced many smooth coastal and littoral outcrops. Bedrock and superficial deposits may also be exposed at

1122-406: The plutons are probably not derived from anorthositic magmas. Many researchers have argued that anorthosites are the products of basaltic magma, and that mechanical removal of mafic minerals has occurred. Since the mafic minerals are not found with the anorthosites, these minerals must have been left at either a deeper level or the base of the crust. A typical theory is as follows: partial melting of

1156-468: The types of information that cannot be obtained except from bedrock outcrops or by precise drilling and coring operations, are structural geology features orientations (e.g. bedding planes, fold axes, foliation ), depositional features orientations (e.g. paleo-current directions, grading, facies changes), paleomagnetic orientations. Outcrops are also very important for understanding fossil assemblages, and paleo-environment, and evolution as they provide

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