136-693: In New Zealand politics , Māori electorates , colloquially known as the Māori seats ( Māori : Ngā tūru Māori ), are a special category of electorate that give reserved positions to representatives of Māori in the New Zealand Parliament . Every area in New Zealand is covered by both a general and a Māori electorate; as of 2020, there are seven Māori electorates. Since 1967, candidates in Māori electorates have not needed to be Māori themselves, but to register as
272-405: A minority government ruled (however, every government has been led by one or other of the two main parties). First M%C4%81ori elections Edward Stafford Independent Edward Stafford Independent The first Māori elections were held in 1868 in four newly formed Māori electorates during the term of 4th Parliament . All subsequent Māori elections were always held as part of
408-585: A mixed-member proportional (MMP) system . MPs usually belong to political parties . New Zealand has a multi-party system , though the dominant parties have historically been the Labour Party and the National Party (or its predecessors). Minority governments are common and typically dependent on confidence-and-supply agreements with other parties in the House of Representatives. Executive power in New Zealand
544-518: A " mandate " from voters and authority to implement manifestos (although this view has been criticised as being simplistic when applied to coalition arrangements). The National Party won the largest number of seats in the 2023 general election and, following negotiations, formed a majority three-party coalition government with the ACT and NZ First parties. Since November 2023 , the Labour Party has formed
680-402: A British colony in 1840, politics in New Zealand was dominated by Māori chiefs as leaders of hapū and iwi , utilising Māori customs as a political system. The Māori were organised into large, extended family groups known as iwi, and these iwi were further divided into smaller hapū (subtribes). Each hapū had its own leadership structure, with chiefs ( rangatira ) who were responsible for
816-548: A Labour government came to power in 1935. During fourteen years in office (1935–1949), the Labour Party implemented a broad array of social and economic legislation, including comprehensive social security , a large-scale public works programme, a forty-hour working week, and compulsory unionism . The National Party won control of the government in 1949, accepting most of Labour's welfare measures. Except for two brief periods of Labour governments in 1957–1960 and 1972–1975, National held power until 1984. The greatest challenge to
952-402: A distinct part of the New Zealand political system. Māori electorates operate much as do general electorates, but have as electors people who are Māori , or of Māori descent, ( see Māori people § Demographics ) and who choose to place their names on a separate electoral roll rather than on the "general roll". There are two features of the Māori electorates that make them distinct from
1088-412: A final party vote of 1.2%, thus allowing co-leader, Debbie Ngarewa-Packer , to enter Parliament as a List MP. Following the 2023 general election , Te Pāti Māori won a record six of the seven Māori electorates, unseating Labour from all but one of the seats. The scheme has inspired some policymakers as a potential solution for underrepresented indigenous peoples . In Australia, some have put forward
1224-426: A growing recognition of the importance of political party funding as a public policy concern. To address this, specific regulations have been implemented to set limits on foreign donations, ensuring that they do not exceed NZ$ 50 and placing restrictions on anonymous donations, which are limited to a maximum of NZ$ 1,500. These limitations aim to promote transparency and accountability in the political process by curbing
1360-472: A huge 25,000-acre reserve to the activists, provided they stopped the destruction. Commissioners set up to investigate the issue said that the activities "could fairly be called hostile". A power struggle ensued resulting in the arrest of all the prominent leaders by a large government force in 1881. Historian Hazel Riseborough describes the event as a conflict over who had authority or mana —the Government or
1496-543: A member's bill which proposed automatically placing Māori on the Māori electoral roll and renaming the "general electoral district" the "non-Māori electoral district." On 15 November 2022, the opposition National Party abandoned its opposition to the Māori Electoral Option bill after the Labour Government agreed to allow people of Māori descent to switch between the general and Māori rolls at any time except
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#17329091896621632-422: A pariah class – make laws for them, and so on ignoring their right to partake in the making of those laws. You may mock me as to Maoris sitting in parliament. My dear Friend, I am not a fool nor attribute to political forms mysterious virtues, but I know all that the sitting in parliament brings in its train and I say that ignore tenure to land and ignore the sitting in parliament and all that belongs thereto and
1768-511: A referendum on the Māori electorates due to the defeat of the Māori Party at the 2017 election. In return for forming a government with the Labour Party , New Zealand First agreed to drop its demand for the referendum. The party has not stood candidates in the Māori electorates since the 1999 New Zealand general election . From 1868 to 1996, four Māori electorates existed (out of a total that slowly changed from 76 to 99). They comprised: With
1904-576: A review of New Zealand's constitutional arrangements, and the introduction of the Whānau Ora indigenous health initiative. Discontentment with the Māori Party's support agreement with National particularly the Marine and Coastal Areas Bill 2011 led the party's Te Tai Tokerau Member Hone Harawira to secede from the Māori Party and form the radical left-wing Mana Movement . During the 2011 general election ,
2040-519: A role in the choice and formation of a governing coalition, and they conducted talks with the National Party . In the end they remained in Opposition. Similarly in 2008 , the Māori Party aimed to win all seven Māori electorates. However, in the election, they managed to increase their four electorates only to five. Although the National government had enough MPs to govern without the Māori Party, it invited
2176-481: A second member co-leader Marama Fox into Parliament as their party vote entitled them to one further list seat. During the 2017 general election , the Māori Party formed an electoral pact with the Mana Movement leader and former Māori Party MP Hone Harawira not to contest Te Tai Tokerau as part of a deal to regain the Māori electorates from the Labour Party. Despite these efforts, Labour captured all seven of
2312-403: A separate Māori roll. However, Māori may choose to vote in and to run for the non-reserved electorates and the party list (since 1996), and as a result, many have now entered Parliament outside of the reserved seats. The first organised political party in New Zealand was founded in 1891, and its main rival was founded in 1909—New Zealand had a de facto two-party system from that point until
2448-478: A short time later, in 1905, another re-arrangement of electoral law caused the debate to flare up again. The Minister of Māori Affairs , James Carroll , supported proposals for the abolition of Māori electorates, pointing to the fact that he himself had won the general electorate of Waiapu . Other Māori MPs, such as Hōne Heke Ngāpua , remained opposed. In the end, proposals for the abolition or reform of Māori electorates did not proceed. Considerably later, in 1953,
2584-631: A voter in the Māori electorates people need to declare that they are of Māori descent. The Māori electorates were introduced in 1867 under the Maori Representation Act. They were created in order to give Māori a more direct say in parliament. The first Māori elections were held in the following year during the term of the 4th New Zealand Parliament . The electorates were intended as a temporary measure lasting five years but were extended in 1872 and made permanent in 1876. Despite numerous attempts to dismantle Māori electorates, they continue to form
2720-466: Is Dame Cindy Kiro . A governor-general formally has the power to appoint and dismiss ministers and to dissolve Parliament; and the power to reject or sign bills into law by royal assent after passage by the House of Representatives. The governor-general chairs the Executive Council , which is a formal committee consisting of all ministers, who advise the governor-general on the exercising of
2856-425: Is appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister. As of 2019 the incumbent Chief Justice is Dame Helen Winkelmann . All other superior court judges are appointed on the advice of the chief justice, the attorney-general , and the solicitor-general . Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence from
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#17329091896622992-607: Is based on immigration , social integration, and suppression of far-right politics , that has wide public and political support. New Zealand is regarded as one of the most honest countries in the world, and it was ranked first in the world in 2017 for lowest perceived level of corruption by the organisation Transparency International . Democracy and rule of law are founding political principles in New Zealand. Early European settlers believed that traditional British legal principles (including individual title to land) would be upheld in New Zealand. The nation's history, such as
3128-552: Is based on the principle that while the King reigns , the Government rules . Although an integral part of the process of government, the King and his governor-general remain politically neutral and are not personally involved in the everyday aspects of governing. The New Zealand Government exercises authority on behalf of and by the consent of the sovereign. The government is made up of ministers , who are selected from among MPs and accountable to Parliament . Most ministers are members of
3264-405: Is either directly elected by voters in a single-member district via FPP or appointed from their party's list . Parliament normally has 120 seats , though some elections have resulted in overhang , as is currently the case (as of December 2023 ). In the first eight elections under MMP, from 1996 to 2017 , no party won a majority of seats. Seven electorates are reserved for MPs elected on
3400-637: Is established by statute, with the first Municipal Corporations Act having been passed by the Legislative Council in 1842. Local governance is currently defined by the Local Government Act 2002 . Local elections are held every three years to choose regional , city and district councillors, including mayors , and community board members. New Zealand maintains a network of 32 embassies, 20 high commissions and 95 consulates abroad, and holds relations with about 150 countries. New Zealand
3536-811: Is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum , the Pacific Community , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , the East Asia Summit , and the ASEAN Regional Forum . It is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and a founding member of the United Nations (UN). New Zealand is party to a number of free-trade agreements , most prominently Closer Economic Relations with Australia and
3672-429: Is largely ceremonial, and his residual powers—called collectively the " royal prerogative "—are mostly exercised through the government of the day. These include the power to enact legislation , to sign treaties and to declare war. Since the King is not usually resident in New Zealand, the functions of the sovereign are delegated to their representative, the governor-general. As of 2021 , the incumbent Governor-General
3808-658: Is often regarded as the birthplace of the labour movement in New Zealand, as it was the location of the founding of one of the main political organisations which became part of the New Zealand Labour Party. Māori political affairs have been developing through legislation such as the Resource Management Act 1991 and the Te Ture Whenua Māori Act 1993 and many more. Since colonisation in the 1800s, Māori have had their customary laws oppressed, with
3944-531: Is the sovereign and head of state , while his prime minister serves as the head of government . The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the King and the House of Representatives . The King is represented by the governor-general when not present in the country himself. Members of Parliament (MPs) are each elected to the House of Representatives for a flexible term of office, with general elections held at least every three years using
4080-521: The OECD average of 69%. Human rights remain a central focus in New Zealand politics, with a strong commitment to ensuring the protection and promotion of individual freedoms and equality. However, the New Zealand Human Rights Commission asserts there is clear evidence that structural discrimination is a real and ongoing socioeconomic issue, exemplified by Māori overrepresentation in
4216-416: The 1893 election , with a high 85% turnout (compared to 70% of men). The achievement of women's suffrage in New Zealand was groundbreaking, as most other democracies did not grant women the right to vote until after World War I. Women were not eligible to be elected to the House of Representatives until 1919 though, when three women, including Ellen Melville stood. The first woman to win an election (to
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4352-410: The 1976 census , with census staff lacking authority to insist on the card being completed. This had little practical effect for non-Māori, but it transferred Māori to the general roll if the card was not handed in. Only 40% of the potential population registered on the Māori roll. This reduced the number of calls for the abolition of Māori electorates, as many presumed that Māori would eventually abandon
4488-454: The 1st Parliament in 1853), and then for the two gold fields electorates ( Goldfields electorate in 1863 and Goldfields Towns electorate in 1866). In all four electorates, the nomination meeting was held on Wednesday, 15 April 1868. Political parties would not form until after the 1890 elections , so all members were Independents . At the nomination meeting in Napier , held in front of
4624-717: The Bill of Rights 1689 ), and statutes of the New Zealand Parliament . In interpreting common law, the courts have endeavoured to preserve uniformity with common law as interpreted in the United Kingdom and related jurisdictions. New Zealand is a unitary state rather than a federation —local government has only the powers conferred upon it by the national Parliament. These powers have traditionally been distinctly fewer than in some other countries; for example, police and education are run by central government . Local government
4760-598: The Cabinet , which is the main decision-making body of the Government. It is headed by the prime minister, who is the most senior minister formally appointed by the governor-general. Other ministers are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the head of government. According to the V-Dem Democracy Indices New Zealand was the sixth-most electoral democratic country in the world in 2023. The country ranks highly for government transparency and had
4896-603: The Internet Party , founded by controversial Internet entrepreneur Kim Dotcom and led by former Alliance MP Laila Harré known as Internet MANA . Hone was defeated by Labour candidate Kelvin Davis , who was tacitly endorsed by the ruling National Party, New Zealand First, and the Māori Party. During the 2014 election, Labour captured six of the Māori electorates with the Māori Party being reduced to co-leader Te Ururoa Flavell 's Waiariki electorate . The Māori Party managed to bring
5032-760: The New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement . Historically New Zealand aligned itself strongly with the United Kingdom and had few bilateral relations with other countries. In the later 20th century, relationships in the Asia-Pacific region became more important. New Zealand has also traditionally worked closely with Australia , whose foreign policy followed a similar historical trend. In turn, many Pacific Islands (such as Samoa ) have looked to New Zealand's lead. A large proportion of New Zealand's foreign aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment. Despite
5168-695: The Official Opposition to the National–ACT–NZ First Government. The leader of the Opposition heads a Shadow Cabinet , which scrutinises the actions of the Cabinet led by the prime minister. The Opposition within Parliament helps to hold the Government to account through parliamentary questions , non-government bills, and the possibility of no-confidence motions . The New Zealand judiciary has four basic levels of courts: The Supreme Court
5304-710: The Waitangi Tribunal to hear claims of breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi to be made back to 1840. In 1987, the government introduced the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act , banning visits by nuclear powered ships; the implementation of a nuclear-free zone brought about New Zealand's suspension from the ANZUS security alliance with the United States and Australia. In October 1990,
5440-499: The first capital , and Auckland , the second capital. The first voting rights in New Zealand were legislated in 1852 as the New Zealand Constitution Act for the 1853 elections and reflected contemporary British practice. The electoral franchise was limited to property-owning male British subjects over 21 years old. The property qualification was relatively liberal in New Zealand compared to Britain, such that by
5576-547: The first past the post (FPP) electoral system . Under FPP the candidate in a given electorate (district) that received the most votes was elected to the House of Representatives. The only deviation from the FPP system during this time occurred in the 1908 and 1911 elections when a second-ballot system was used; the second-ballot legislation was repealed in 1913. The elections since 1935 have been dominated by two political parties , National and Labour . Public criticism of
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5712-547: The gold rush era starting 1858 suffrage was extended to all British gold miners who owned a 1-pound mining license. The conservatives had been influenced by the militant action of gold miners in Victoria at Eureka. Many gold miners had moved to the New Zealand fields bringing their radical ideas. The extended franchise was modelled on the Victorian system. In 1863 the mining franchise was extended to goldfield business owners. In 1870,
5848-542: The protection of LGBT rights , culminating in the legalisation of same-sex marriage in 2013. In 2020, the Abortion Legislation Act , which fully decriminalised abortion in New Zealand , was supported by members across all parties in Parliament. The idea of serving as a moral example to the world has been an important element of New Zealand national identity . The opposition to apartheid in South Africa in
5984-597: The second article , gave the Crown the pre-emptive right for all land purchases from Māori. This was the chief source of income for the Crown, and later the Provinces, as they would pass on the land to the settlers with a significant margin. But it also put some control over the way Māori were dealt with. The colony obtained much self-control from the Crown with the New Zealand Constitution Amendment Act, which
6120-448: The 1970s and 1980s, protests against French nuclear testing at Moruroa atoll in the 1970s, and popular support for New Zealand's anti-nuclear policy in the 1980s ( see § Modern political history ) are manifestations of this. From the 1990s New Zealand's anti-nuclear position has become a key element of government policy (irrespective of party) and of the country's "distinctive political identity". Before New Zealand becoming
6256-428: The 1986 rupture in the ANZUS military alliance (as a result of New Zealand's nuclear-free policy ), New Zealand has maintained good working relations with the United States and Australia on a broad array of international issues. Political change in New Zealand has been gradual and pragmatic, rather than revolutionary. The nation's approach to governance has emphasised social welfare , and multiculturalism , which
6392-465: The Council offices, two candidates were proposed. Karaitiana Takamoana was the first one to be proposed. Tareha Te Moananui was the other person put forward. When the returning officer asked for a show of hands, the outcome was 34 to 33 vote in favour of Moananui. When Europeans contested elections, it was common for the trailing party to demand a poll at this point, but this did not happen. Hence, Moananui
6528-569: The Electoral Commission. Complaints included Electoral Commission staff at polling booths being unaware of the Māori roll and insisting electors were unregistered when their names did not appear on the general roll; Electoral Commission staff giving incorrect information about the Māori electorates; electors being given incorrect voting forms and electors being told they were unable to vote for Te Pāti Māori (the Māori Party) unless they were on
6664-427: The FPP system began in the 1950s and intensified after Labour lost elections in 1978 and 1981 despite having more overall votes than National. An indicative (non-binding) referendum to change the voting system was held in 1992, which led to a binding referendum during the 1993 election . As a result, New Zealand has used the mixed-member proportional (MMP) system since 1996. Under MMP, each member of Parliament
6800-478: The House Margaret Wilson , and Chief Justice Dame Sian Elias . After the 2020 election, women made up half of the 120 MPs in the House of Representatives, marking the highest level of women's political representation since they were first allowed to stand for Parliament in 1919. The right-leaning National Party and the left-leaning Labour Party have dominated New Zealand political life since
6936-485: The House of Representatives as bills . They have to go through a process of approval by the House and governor-general before becoming acts of Parliament (i.e. statutory law ). The lawmakers are called members of Parliament , or MPs. Parliament is elected for a maximum term of three years, although an election may be called earlier in exceptional circumstances. Suffrage is nearly universal for permanent residents eighteen years of age and older, women having gained
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#17329091896627072-475: The Labour-dominated coalition and from her Te Tai Hauāuru parliamentary seat. In the resulting by-election on 10 July 2004, standing under the banner of the newly formed Māori Party , she received over 90% of the 7,000-plus votes cast. The parties then represented in Parliament had not put up official candidates in the by-election. The new party's support in relation to Labour therefore remained untested at
7208-563: The Liberal Party, said that the absence of Māori voters from general electorates prevented " pākehā members of the House from taking that interest in Māori matters that they ought to take". The Māori MPs, however, mounted a strong defence of the electorates, with Wi Pere depicting guaranteed representation in parliament as one of the few rights Māori possessed not "filched from them by the Europeans". The electorates continued in existence. Just
7344-578: The Māori Affairs Amendment Act 1967. Since then, this progressive change in attitude has materialised as legislation to protect the natural environment or Taonga, and the courts by establishing treaty principles that always have to be considered when deciding laws in the courts. Moreover, the Māori Lands Act 2016 was printed both in te reo Māori and English—the act itself affirms the equal legal status of te reo . Women's suffrage
7480-431: The Māori Party retained three of the Māori electorates while Labour increased its share of the Māori electorates to three, taking Te Tai Tonga . The Mana Movement retained Te Tai Tokerau. Tensions between the Māori Party and Mana Movement combined with competition from the Labour Party fragmented the Māori political voice in Parliament. In the 2014 election , Mana Movement leader Hone Harawira formed an electoral pact with
7616-473: The Māori Party to support their minority government on confidence and supply in return for policy concessions and two ministerial posts outside of Cabinet. The Māori Party signed a confidence and supply agreement with National on the condition that the Māori electorates were not abolished unless the Māori voters agreed to abolish them. Other policy concessions including a review of the Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004 ,
7752-410: The Māori electoral boundaries vary significantly from the general electorates. Five to 18 general electorates fit into any one Māori electorate. Māori electoral boundaries are superimposed over the electoral boundaries used for general electorates; thus every part of New Zealand simultaneously belongs both in a general seat and in a Māori seat. Shortly after each census all registered Māori electors have
7888-471: The Māori electorates are directly accountable to those voters, those representatives are not required to be Māori themselves. In 1976, the National Government introduced the option for Māori to decide whether to enrol individually on the general electoral roll or the Māori roll. A large number of people (Māori and non-Māori) failed to fill out an electoral re-registration card that was distributed with
8024-422: The Māori electorates as largely unimportant. The gradual improvement of Māori elections owes much to long-serving Māori MP Eruera Tirikatene , who himself experienced problems in his own election. From the election of 1951 onwards, the voting for Māori and general electorates was held on the same day. Confusion around the Māori electorates during the 2017 general election was revealed in a number of complaints to
8160-402: The Māori electorates of their own accord. A number of currently active political parties oppose, or have opposed, the existence of Māori electorates. The National Party has advocated abolition of the Māori electorates, though as of 2023 the party is not opposed to the seats. National did not stand candidates in Māori electorate from the 2005 election through the 2020 election. Bill English ,
8296-517: The Māori electorates with Labour candidate Tāmati Coffey unseating Māori Party co-leader Flavell in Waiariki. Three years later , despite a historic landslide to the Labour party, Māori party candidate Rawiri Waititi successfully unseated Coffey, returning the Māori Party – now calling itself Te Pāti Māori – to Parliament. Special votes raised Te Pāti Māori's party vote from a provisional result of 1% to
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#17329091896628432-511: The Māori roll. In June 2022, the Justice Minister Kris Faafoi of the incumbent Labour Party introduced a bill to allow people of Māori descent to switch between the general and Māori electoral rolls at any time. At the time, Māori were only allowed to switch between the two rolls every five years. To pass into law, the bill needed 75% majority support in Parliament. In addition, Māori Party co-leader Rawiri Waititi introduced
8568-483: The National Party again formed a government, for the first of three three-year terms. Despite promises to halt the unpopular reform process, the new National government largely advanced the free-market policies of the preceding government. Public disillusionment resulting from perceived "broken promises" of the previous two governments fuelled demand for electoral reform in New Zealand . In 1996, New Zealand inaugurated
8704-673: The October 2023 general election , are the ACT Party (right-wing, classical-liberal ), the Green Party (left-wing, environmentalist ), New Zealand First ( populist and nationalist ), and Te Pāti Māori ( Māori rights -based). Parties must register with the Electoral Commission in order to contest the party vote in an election. The table below summarises the results of the latest general election . In recent years, there has been
8840-603: The Parihaka protestors. In 1882 the export of meat in the first refrigerated ship started a period of sustained economic export-led growth. This period is notable for the influence of new social ideas and movements such as the Fabians and the creation in 1890 of the first political party, the Liberals . Their leader, former gold miner Richard Seddon from Lancashire, was premier from 1893 to 1906. The Liberals introduced new taxes to break
8976-472: The ability of one owner to sell land without consent of the joint owners is what led to the New Zealand Wars . James FitzGerald , who in 1865 was for a brief period Minister of Māori Affairs , explained his attitudes to James Crowe Richmond as follows: Two rules are deeply fixed in my mind. 1. To expect men to respect law who don't enjoy it is absurd. 2. To try and govern a folk by our courts and at
9112-436: The ability to pass supply bills . While it is rare for a single party to have an outright majority, coalitions may be formed between parties; even if a single party or coalition lacks a majority, it can form a Cabinet with agreed confidence and supply from minor parties. After a government is formed, it also requires practical support from a majority for government bills to be enacted. Parties in government are said to have
9248-431: The adoption of MMP in 1996. Since then New Zealand has been a multi-party system, with at least five parties elected in every general election since. By rarely producing an overall majority for one party, MMP also ensures that parties need to agree with other parties to pass laws. In the late 1990s, a phenomenon called " waka-jumping " emerged as MPs increasingly switched their party allegiance while in Parliament, prompting
9384-496: The alternative is war, extermination to the weaker race and financial disaster to the stronger. In his letter, FitzGerald was referring to the financial consequences of the land wars that were crippling the country. Donald McLean introduced the Maori Representation Act in 1867. This allowed for the creation of four Māori electorates. One of the strong underlying motives was to overcome the problem with land ownership, which prevented Māori from enrolling as electors, as alluded to in
9520-454: The committee. Politics of New Zealand The politics of New Zealand ( Māori : tōrangapū o Aotearoa ) function within a framework of an independent , unitary , parliamentary democracy . The system of government is based on the Westminster system , and the legal system is modelled on the common law of England . New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy in which King Charles III
9656-418: The criminal justice system, comprising 45% of convicted individuals and 53% of those imprisoned. Political redress for historical grievances is also ongoing ( see § Māori politics and legislation ). Since the 1970s, New Zealand has shown a more socially liberal outlook. Beginning with the decriminalisation of same-sex sexual activity in 1986, successive governments have progressively increased
9792-614: The definitions of the Constitution Act. As a consequence, Māori were effectively unable to register as voters. The Constitution Act made an allowance, in Section 71, for some districts to be set aside where Māori laws, customs and ways of life were maintained "for the Government of themselves, in all their Relations and Dealings with each other", provided these were "not repugnant to general principles of humanity." Whilst this would have allowed some degree of self-governance by Māori, Section 71
9928-463: The development of political parties in New Zealand , all early Māori MPs functioned as independents . When the Liberal Party formed, however, Māori MPs began to align themselves with the new organisation, with either Liberal candidates or Liberal sympathisers as representatives. Māori MPs in the Liberal Party included James Carroll , Āpirana Ngata and Te Rangi Hīroa . There were also Māori MPs in
10064-612: The electoral system whereby four electorate seats were reserved for representatives who were specifically Māori ended. Following the Electoral Amendment Act 1967, the 100-year-old disqualification preventing Europeans from standing as candidates in Māori electorates was removed. Simultaneously, the act allowed Māori to stand in general electorates. Since 1967, therefore, there has not been any electoral guarantee of representation by candidates who have Māori descent. While this still means that those elected to represent Māori electors in
10200-680: The end, the setting up of Māori electorates separate from existing electorates assuaged the conservative opposition to the bill. The bill was intended as a temporary measure, giving specific representation to Māori until the land ownership issue was resolved. However, the Maori seats continued to become a permanent feature of the New Zealand parliament. The first four Māori members of parliament, elected in 1868 , were Tāreha Te Moananui ( Eastern Maori ), Frederick Nene Russell ( Northern Maori ) and John Patterson ( Southern Maori ), who all retired in 1870; and Mete Kīngi Te Rangi Paetahi ( Western Maori ) who
10336-711: The executive (the Sovereign and the Executive Council), the legislature (Parliament) and the judiciary (Courts). Parliament is responsible for passing laws, adopting the annual Budget , and exercising control of the executive government. It currently has a single chamber , the House of Representatives . Before 1951 there was a second chamber, the Legislative Council . The House of Representatives meets in Parliament House, Wellington . Laws are first proposed to
10472-492: The executive government. Judges are appointed according to their qualifications, personal qualities, and relevant experience. A judge may not be removed from office except by the attorney-general upon an address of the House of Representatives for proved misbehaviour. New Zealand law has three principal sources: English common law , certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament enacted before 1947 (notably
10608-444: The first and later Labour governments' policies on the welfare state and a regulated economy that combined state and private enterprise came from the Labour Party itself. After regaining control in 1984, the fourth Labour government instituted a series of radical market -oriented reforms. It privatised state assets and reduced the role of the state in the economy. It also instituted several other more left-wing reforms, such as allowing
10744-431: The first ever major re-alignment of Māori electoral boundaries occurred, addressing inequalities in voter numbers. Again, the focus on Māori electorates prompted further debate about their existence. The National Party government of the day had a commitment to the assimilation of Māori, and had no Māori MPs, and many believed that they would abolish the electorates. However, the government had other matters to attend to, and
10880-433: The general and Māori rolls at anytime until the three month period before elections. The Electoral Commission subsequently launched a campaign to encourage non-voters to register with either the general or Māori rolls. For the 2023 New Zealand general election , the cutoff date was set at midnight 13 July 2023. By 3 July 2023, over 12,000 people had switched between the Māori and general rolls; with 6,662 people shifting from
11016-460: The general elections. New Zealand's parliamentary history begins with the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 , a British Act of Parliament that granted limited self-rule to the settlers in the colony. This was a reaction to widespread frustration with the colonial authorities, and in particular the nearly unlimited power of the Governor . The Constitution Act established a bicameral parliament, with
11152-411: The general electorates. First, there are a number of skills that are essential for candidates to have in order to engage with their constituencies and ensure a clear line of accountability to representing the 'Māori voice'. This includes proficiency in te reo Māori , knowledge of tikanga Māori , whakawhanaungatanga skills and confidence on the marae . Second, the geographical size of
11288-497: The general seat of Tauranga from 1984 to 2005 – gained the Northern Māori seat (electing Tau Henare to Parliament), and in the 1996 election New Zealand First captured all the Māori electorates for one electoral term. Labour regained the electorates in the following election in the 1999 election . A development of particular interest to Māori came in 2004 with the resignation of Tariana Turia from her ministerial position in
11424-436: The general to Māori rolls and 5,652 switching vice versa. Political expert and academic Dr Rawiri Taonui and journalist Tommy de Silva described that the increase of voters on the Māori roll as a form of strategic voting that reinforced the relevance of the Māori seats and Māori vote to New Zealand politics. Periodically there have been calls for the abolition of the Māori electorates. The electorates aroused controversy even at
11560-591: The idea of dedicating seats to Aboriginal Australians . In 1983, Frank Walker , the New South Wales Minister for Aboriginal Affairs , proposed that each state send one Aboriginal senator to the federal parliament, and also the creation of four Aboriginal electorates for the NSW Legislative Assembly . In 1995, MLC Franca Arena moved the Parliament of New South Wales to an inquiry and report on
11696-573: The idea of providing seats dedicated to people of Aboriginal background, modelled on the Māori electorates, to create opportunity for Indigenous representation in that parliament. The Standing Committee on Social Issues, of which she was not part, released a report on the merits of the system in November 1998. The report is said to have been well-researched, with a thorough discussion of the system's mechanics, and through which paths it could come to fruition. The NSW Government members, however, did not conclude
11832-951: The implementation of a 2001 law mandating the resignation of waka-jumping MPs; this legislation expired in 2005, but a renewed effort to prevent waka-jumping emerged with the passage of the Electoral (Integrity) Amendment Act 2018 . Historically the two largest, and oldest, parties are the New Zealand Labour Party (formed in 1916) and the New Zealand National Party (formed in 1936). Labour has generally positioned itself as centre-left in New Zealand politics, and has featured socialist (historically) and social-democratic principles in its platform and legislation, while National has generally positioned itself as centre-right , and has liberal and conservative tendencies. Other smaller parties represented in Parliament, following
11968-493: The imposition of a Westminster democracy and political style. As reparations from the colonial war and general discrepancies during colonisation, the New Zealand Government has formally apologised to those iwi affected, through settlements and legislation. In the 1960s Māori Politics Relations began to exhibit more positivity. The legislature enacted a law to help Māori retrieve back their land, not hinder them, through
12104-562: The influence of the wealthy conservative sheep farm owners. They also purchased more land from Māori. (By 1910, Māori in parts of the North Island retained very little land, and the amount of Māori land would decrease precipitously as a result of government purchases. ) The early 20th century saw the rise of the trade union movement and labour parties (see Socialism in New Zealand § Unions and workers' parties ) , which represented organised workers. The West Coast town of Blackball
12240-502: The interests of Her Majesty’s subjects of the Native Race that temporary provisions should be made for the special representation of Her Majesty’s Native subjects in the House of Representatives and Provincial Councils of said Colony. The expectation was that Māori landholdings would be converted to individual title within the next few years. At that point, the franchise was to revert to the normal rules based on property ownership. As such,
12376-451: The introduction of the MMP electoral system after 1993, the rules regarding the Māori electorates changed. Today, the number of electorates floats, meaning that the electoral population of a Māori seat can remain roughly equivalent to that of a general seat. For the 1996 election , the first under MMP, the Electoral Commission defined five Māori electorates: A sixth Māori electorate was added for
12512-414: The issue of the Māori electorates gradually faded from view without any changes. Regardless, the possible abolition of the Māori electorates appeared indicated when they did not appear among the electoral provisions entrenched against future modification. In the 1950s the practice of reserving electorates for Māori was described by some politicians "as a form of ' apartheid ', like in South Africa". In 1967,
12648-497: The land ownership requirement. To vote, a person had to be male, a subject of the monarch, have title to land of at least 25 pounds, and not be in prison. Very few Maori qualified because of the property qualification - the land they owned was held in common and not by Crown grant: native title was not acceptable. Concern was raised that, indirectly, this ran contrary to section III of the Treaty of Waitangi which made all Maori subjects of
12784-579: The late 1850s 75% of adult New Zealand European males were eligible to vote, compared to 20% in England and 12% in Scotland. Around 100 Māori chiefs voted in the 1853 election. During the 1850s provincial -based government was the norm. Provincial councils were abolished in 1876. Politics was initially dominated by conservative and wealthy "wool lords" who owned multiple sheep farms, mainly in Canterbury . During
12920-559: The legacy of the British colonial rule evidenced in the Westminster system , continues to have an impact on political culture, despite New Zealand's political independence . As at 2021 , New Zealand is identified as a " full democracy " in the Economist Intelligence Unit 's Democracy Index . The country rates highly for civic participation in the political process, with 82% voter turnout during recent elections, compared with
13056-479: The meeting, Frederick Nene Russell was the only candidate proposed. He was thus declared elected. He represented the electorate of Northern Maori from 1868 to 1870 when he retired. At the nomination meeting near Woodend , three candidates were proposed. John Patterson , also known by his Māori name of Hone Paratene Tamanui a Rangi, was elected on 20 June in the Southern Maori electorate. He represented
13192-409: The monarch with corresponding voting and representation rights. The act originally agreed to set up four electorates specially for Māori; three in the North Island and one covering the whole South Island. The four seats were a fairly modest concession on a per-capita basis at the time. Some MPs, such as James FitzGerald , regarded the concessions given to Māori as insufficient, while others disagreed. In
13328-578: The more conservative and rural Reform Party ; Maui Pomare , Taurekareka Henare and Taite Te Tomo . Since the Labour Party first came to power in 1935 , however, it has dominated the Māori electorates. For a long period this dominance owed much to Labour's alliance with the Rātana Church , although the Rātana influence has diminished in recent times. In the 1993 election , however, the new New Zealand First party, led by Winston Peters – who himself held
13464-450: The new electoral system (mixed-member proportional representation, or MMP) to elect its Parliament . The MMP system was expected (among numerous other goals) to increase representation of smaller parties in Parliament and appears to have done so in the MMP elections to date. Between 1996 and 2020, neither National nor Labour had an absolute majority in Parliament, and for all but two of those years
13600-418: The next general election. The ACT Party opposes the Māori electorates. Its leader, David Seymour , has called for their abolition as recently as 2019. Hobson's Pledge , a lobby group founded by former ACT Party leader Don Brash , advocates abolishing the allocated Māori electorates, seeing them as outdated. New Zealand First , whose " Tight Five " once held all Māori seats, has advocated for abolition of
13736-577: The number of registered voters was only 41,500, but an additional 20,000 miners were also entitled to vote. After the brief Land War period ending in 1864, Parliament moved to extend the franchise to more Māori. Donald McLean introduced a bill for four temporary Māori electorates and extended the franchise to all Māori men over 21 in 1867. As such, Māori were universally franchised 12 years before European men. In 1879 an economic depression hit, resulting in poverty and many people, especially miners, returning to Australia. Between 1879 and 1881 Government
13872-426: The numbers to do so as there would be " hikois from hell". In 2020, party leader Judith Collins announced that "I am not opposed to the Māori seats. The National Party has had a view for many years now that they should be done away with. But I just want people to feel that they all have opportunities for representation". In 2021, it was revealed that the National Party intended to run candidates in Māori electorates in
14008-492: The opportunity to choose whether they are included on the Māori or general electorate rolls. Since 31 March 2023, Māori electors have been able to change rolls at any time, except in the three months preceding a general or local election or after a notice of vacancy is issued for a by-election. Each five-yearly census and Māori Electoral Option determines the number of Māori electorates for the next one or two elections. The establishment of Māori electorates came about in 1867 during
14144-436: The party's leader in 2003, said that "the purpose of the Māori seats has come to an end", and in 2004 party leader Don Brash called the electorates an "anachronism". National announced in 2008 it would abolish the electorates when all historic treaty settlements have been resolved, which it aimed to complete by 2014. In 2014 though, then-Prime Minister John Key ruled out the abolition, saying he would not do it even if he had
14280-469: The political process, received universal suffrage twelve years before European men. Universal suffrage for non-Māori men over 21 years was introduced for the 1879 general elections . It is difficult to imagine these days how radical it was back then to grant universal suffrage to Māori men. It helped that there had been precedents to this, first in the Pensioner Settlements electorate (created for
14416-438: The polling booth. The Māori Party aimed to win all seven Māori electorates in 2005 . A Marae-Digipoll survey of Māori-roll voters in November 2004 gave it hope: 35.7% said they would vote for a Māori Party candidate, 26.3% opted for Labour, and five of the seven electorates appeared ready to fall to the new party. In the election, the new party won four of the Māori electorates. It seemed possible that Māori Party MPs could play
14552-502: The potential influence of foreign and anonymous contributions. King Charles III is New Zealand's sovereign and head of state . The New Zealand monarchy has been legally distinct from the British monarchy following the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 , and all Charles III's official business in New Zealand is conducted in the name of the " King of New Zealand ". The King's role
14688-467: The preamble of the Act made reference to 'temporary provisions' and the Act was to be in place for only five years. History has shown us, however, that Māori land stayed in communal ownership, and the franchise conditions for Māori electorates were extended in 1872 by another five years, and in 1876, the electorates were made permanent. It is important to note that male Māori, due to their practical exclusion from
14824-588: The preamble of the Act: Whereas owing to the peculiar nature of Māori land and to other causes the Native Aboriginal inhabitants of this Colony of New Zealand have heretofore with few exceptions been unable to become registered as electors or to vote at the election of members of the House of Representatives or of the Provincial Councils of the said Colony. And it is expedient for the better protection of
14960-533: The prerogative powers. Members of the Executive Council are required to be members of Parliament (MPs), and most are also in the Cabinet. Cabinet is the senior decision-making body in Government, led by the prime minister (currently Christopher Luxon ), who is also, by convention, the parliamentary leader of the largest governing party. The prime minister, being the de facto leader of New Zealand, exercises executive functions that are formally vested in
15096-434: The process received fewer resources. Māori electorates at first did not require registration for voting, which was later introduced. New practices such as paper ballots (as opposed to casting one's vote verbally) and secret ballots also came later to elections for Māori electorates than to general electorates. The authorities frequently delayed or overlooked reforms of the Māori electoral system, with Parliament considering
15232-551: The proportion reflects the proportion of voters on the Māori roll. For maps showing broad electoral boundaries, see selected links to individual elections at New Zealand elections . Former Māori Party co-leader Pita Sharples proposed the creation of an additional electorate, for Māori living in Australia , where there are between 115,000 and 125,000 Māori, the majority living in Queensland . As Māori electorates originated before
15368-519: The proposal appropriate and leaned towards other measures to facilitate Aboriginal representation. Another report was released in 2003 by the Legislative Assembly of Queensland 's Legal, Constitutional and Administrative Review Committee, inquiring how to help Indigenous self-determination . The idea of dedicated seats, however, although deemed to help reconciliation, was not suggested by the report because of strong opposition from some members of
15504-456: The proposals came from members of the opposition , and possibly had political motivations – in general, the Māori MPs had supported the governing Liberal Party , which had held power since 1891. Many MPs alleged frequent cases of corruption in elections for the Māori electorates. Other MPs, however, supported the abolition of Māori electorates for different reasons – Frederick Pirani , a member of
15640-559: The same time to say that our courts shall take no cognisance of their property is amazing folly. Two-thirds of the Northern Island is held under a tenure which is ignored by our law. Is it possible to govern any people by a law which does not recognise their estate in land? I blame no man for the past, but for the future I take this as my guide that a people cannot be governed by a law which pretends to be powerless to deal with their property; and that one race cannot govern another as
15776-583: The seat held by her late husband) was Elizabeth McCombs in 1933. Mabel Howard became the first female cabinet minister in 1947, being appointed to the First Labour Government. New Zealand was the first country in the world in which all the highest offices were occupied by women, between March 2005 and August 2006: the Sovereign Queen Elizabeth II , Governor-General Dame Silvia Cartwright , Prime Minister Helen Clark , Speaker of
15912-409: The seat in a by-election caused by the death of her husband Matiu in 1949. Currently Māori elections are held as part of New Zealand general elections , but in the past such elections took place separately, on different days (usually the day before the vote for general electorates) and under different rules. Historically, less organisation went into holding Māori elections than general elections, and
16048-454: The second MMP election in 1999 : Since 2002 , there have been seven Māori electorates. For the 2002 and 2005 elections , these were: From 2008 , Tainui was largely replaced by Hauraki-Waikato, giving the following seven Māori electorates: While seven out of 72 (9.7%) does not nearly reflect the proportion of voting-age New Zealanders who identify as being of Māori descent (about 14.8%), many Māori choose to enrol in general electorates, so
16184-477: The second lowest perceived level of corruption in the world in 2022. New Zealand is a unitary parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy . It has no formal codified constitution; the constitutional framework consists of a mixture of various documents (including certain acts of the United Kingdom and New Zealand Parliaments), the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi , and constitutional conventions . The Constitution Act in 1852 established
16320-473: The separate electorates, while emphasising that the decision should be made by Māori voters. During the 2017 election campaign , the New Zealand First leader Winston Peters announced that if elected his party would hold a binding referendum on whether Maori electorates should be abolished. During post-election negotiations with the Labour Party, Peters indicated that he would consider dropping his call for
16456-460: The sole power of selling the title. Settlers could then negotiate with individuals and as soon as one of them was a willing seller, transfer of title could happen. With that system in place, 95% of the North Island was able to be transferred to settlers or the Government by 1900. In historian Claudia Orange's assessment, the 1865 Act "introduced revolutionary change". The increased land sales and
16592-410: The sovereign (by way of the prerogative powers). Ministers within Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions. For a government to be formed, typically following a general election, it must be able to command the support of the majority of MPs in the House of Representatives. This entails having their confidence and
16728-513: The system of government and these were later consolidated in 1986 . Constitutional rights are protected under common law and are strengthened by the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 and Human Rights Act 1993 , although these are not entrenched and can be overturned by Parliament with a simple majority. The Constitution Act 1986 describes the three branches of government in New Zealand:
16864-410: The term of the 4th Parliament with the Maori Representation Act, drafted by Napier member of parliament Donald McLean . Parliament passed the act after lengthy debate, and during a period of warfare between the government and some North Island Māori hapū and was seen as a way to reduce conflict between cultures. Its primary aim was to enfranchise Maori who were indirectly excluded from parliament by
17000-524: The three month period before general and local elections; giving the Government the 75% majority need to pass the bill into law. Te Pāti Māori criticised the compromise, with Waititi and fellow co-leader Debbie Ngarewa-Packer describing the changes as "second-rate" and a "half pie ka pai" respectively. Waititi's member bill had already been voted down in early November. The Electoral (Māori Electoral Option) Legislation Act 2022 came into force on 31 March 2023; allowing people of Māori descent to switch between
17136-462: The time of their origin, and given their intended temporary nature, there have been a number of attempts to abolish them. The reasoning behind these attempts has varied – some have seen the electorates as an unfair or unnecessary advantage for Māori, while others have seen them as discriminatory and offensive. In 1902, a consolidation of electoral law prompted considerable discussion of the Māori electorates, and some MPs proposed their abolition. Many of
17272-511: The upper house (the Legislative Council ) appointed, and the lower house (the House of Representatives ) elected every five years. In addition, it allowed for six provincial councils , elected every four years. To be eligible to vote, the following criteria had to be met: In theory, this would have allowed Māori men to vote, but most of their land was communally held (rather than held by individuals) and held in customary title (i.e. unregistered as opposed to freehold) and thus fell outside of
17408-407: The vote in 1893 . As in many other parliamentary systems of government, the executive (called "the Government") is drawn from and is answerable to Parliament—for example, a successful motion of no confidence will force a government either to resign or to seek a parliamentary dissolution and an early general election . Almost all parliamentary elections between 1853 and 1996 were held under
17544-526: The well-being and governance of their people. After the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi , a colonial governor and his small staff acted on behalf of the British Government based on the British political system. Whereas Māori systems had dominated before 1840, governors attempting to introduce British systems met with mixed success in Māori communities. More isolated Māori were little influenced by the Government. Most influences were felt in and around Russell ,
17680-418: Was concerned at the activities of Māori activists based on confiscated land at Parihaka . Activists destroyed settlers' farm fences and ploughed up roads and land, which incensed local farmers. Arrests followed but the activities persisted. Fears grew among settlers that the resistance campaign was a prelude to armed conflict. The Government itself was puzzled as to why the land had been confiscated and offered
17816-473: Was declared elected. He was the first of the four to speak in Parliament. He represented the electorate of Eastern Maori from 1868 to the end of the term in 1870, when he retired. This was recalled by his descendant, Pita Sharples , in Parliament 140 years later. The nomination meeting for the Northern Maori electorate was held at the residence of the resident magistrate of Russell , Mr Barstow. At
17952-499: Was defeated in 1871. These four men were the first New Zealand-born members of the New Zealand Parliament. The second four members were Karaitiana Takamoana (Eastern Maori); Wi Katene (Northern Maori); Hōri Kerei Taiaroa (Southern Maori); and Wiremu Parata (Western Maori). The first Māori woman MP was Iriaka Rātana , who represented the Western Maori electorate. Like Elizabeth McCombs , New Zealand's first woman MP, Rātana won
18088-691: Was established in 2004, under the Supreme Court Act 2003 , and replaced the Privy Council in London as New Zealand's court of last resort . The High Court deals with serious criminal offences and civil matters, and hears appeals from subordinate courts. The Court of Appeal hears appeals from the High Court on points of law. The chief justice , the head of the judiciary, presides over the Supreme Court and
18224-503: Was granted after about two decades of campaigning by women such as Kate Sheppard and Mary Ann Müller and organisations such as the New Zealand branch of the Women's Christian Temperance Union . On 19 September 1893 the governor, Lord Glasgow , signed a new Electoral Act into law. As a result, New Zealand became the first self-governing nation in the world in which all women had the right to vote in parliamentary elections. Women first voted in
18360-400: Was never implemented. The single most important issues in the 1850s and 1860s was that of land and land sales. With land held by Māori and the settler population increasing rapidly, there was a huge demand for making land available for new settlers. Many settlers took for granted that Māori land would progressively become available for agricultural development. The Treaty of Waitangi , in
18496-473: Was passed in 1857. This transferred much decision making from Britain to the colony, and without this change, the Native Land Acts of 1862 and 1865 would not have been possible. Those Acts abolished Crown pre-emption of land (thus nullifying the treaty's second article ), and enabled certificate of title to be issued to individual Māori, with titles held by no more than ten individuals, but each individual had
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