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61-518: Designed by Spanish engineer Agustín de Betancourt with a roof without internal support for 45 metres (148 ft) (the building's width), it was erected from 1817 to 1825 by the Russian architect Joseph Bové , who clothed it in its Neoclassical exterior, an order of Roman Doric columns enclosing bays of arch-headed windows in a blind arcade, painted white and cream yellow. The roof, with its internal rafters and beams exposed, rests on external columns of

122-650: A day. Thanks to the power of the Kronstadt Fortress the destruction of Leningrad, then the main industrial and cultural centre of the Soviet Union, was successfully prevented. The honorary status of " City of Military Glory " was conferred on it by the President of the Russian Federation Dmitriy Medvedev on April 27, 2009, citing the "courage, endurance and mass heroism, exhibited by defenders of

183-470: A place of pilgrimage for Orthodox Christians for many years due to the memory of Saint John of Kronstadt . The name of the city is alternatively spelled as Kronshtadt , Cronstadt or Kronštadt . It is derived from German Kronstadt ( lit.   ' crown city ' ). The district is referred to as Kronshtadtsky District . Kronstadt was founded by Peter the Great , whose Imperial Russian forces took

244-493: A prominent Kronstadt landmark, was destroyed on Communist orders in 1932. St John of Kronstadt , one of the most venerated Russian saints, served there as priest from 1855 to 1908. The controversial dam that took 30 years to build (1980–2011) now links Kotlin island to the mainland from north and south, not only acts as part of the flood defences, but lets through shipping and completes the St Petersburg ring-road system, across

305-683: A time dominated both inward and outward trade, especially in the reign of Catherine the Great . They became an integral part of British trade and foreign policy through the Board of Trade in London. A number of the British settlers became naturalised Russians. Trading alliances were sharply interrupted by the outbreak of the Crimean War (1854). Kronstadt was thoroughly refortified in the 19th century. The old three-decker forts, five in number, which formerly constituted

366-431: Is built on level ground on the island and is thus exposed to flooding, most notably in 1824. The port is icebound for 140–160 days in the year, from the beginning of December to April. A very large proportion of the inhabitants are sailors. On the south side of the city there are three harbours: the large western or merchant harbour, the western flank of which is formed by a great pier joining the fortifications which traverse

427-606: Is regarded as the culmination of Russian Neo-Byzantine architecture . The Pyotrovsky Gardens is a park that surrounds the monument to Peter the Great who founded the city. There are a number of historic buildings, such as the Dutch Kitchen and the former Italian Palace , that recall the city's mercantile and military past. Among other public buildings are the Naval Hospital, the British Seamen's Hospital (established in 1867),

488-612: Is surrounded by an enceinte . In summer 1891, the French fleet was officially received in Kronstadt . It was a first step towards the forthcoming Franco-Russian Alliance . During the Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) riots of the February Revolution , the sailors of Petrograd joined the revolution and executed their officers, thus gaining a reputation as dedicated revolutionaries. During

549-811: The Bolshevik government in Soviet Kronstadt. The garrison had previously been a centre of major support for the Bolsheviks, and throughout the Civil War of 1917–1921, the naval forces at Kronstadt had been at the vanguard of the main Bolshevik attacks. Their demands included freedom of speech , the end of deportation to work camps, a change in Soviet war politics, and liberation of the soviets ( workers' councils ) from "party control". After brief negotiations, Leon Trotsky (then

610-694: The Tuscan order , between which vaulted windows are placed in the arched openings. Under the gables of the facades as well as in the middle part of the side walls there are three wooden gates. The main facade was supposed to be the Southern one facing the Kutafya Tower - one of the four entrances to the Kremlin . The internal space of the Manege was well illuminated by the daylight owing to the windows which formed about one third of

671-742: The fall of French monarchy , Betancourt returned to Madrid with his new finds. In 1792, Betancourt was appointed the Director of the Royal Cabinet of Machinery, and catalogued hundreds of its exhibits scouted in France, England and the Netherlands . In 1793–1795, he continued intelligence in England. This assignment was interrupted by Spain's alliance with revolutionary France (1796). In Paris, Betancourt teamed up with Abraham-Louis Breguet in perfecting their version of

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732-603: The optical telegraph . Later however, the French chose a competing design by Claude Chappe . Betancourt built his telegraph in Spain, between Madrid and Cádiz in 1798. In 1783 he was involved in launching Spain's first hot-air balloon (the scene can be seen in a picture by A. Carnicero in the Prado national museum). In 1797, Betancourt's achievements were rewarded with the positions of Chief Inspector of Ports and Communications in Spain, Chief of

793-470: The 19th century, the left bank of Oka River was developing according to his master plan. Russia's first steamship , Yelizaveta was designed jointly by Charles Baird and Betancourt (1815). In 1810, Betancourt completed his steam-powered dredge . It was used to deepen the shallow waters around Kronstadt and build a canal between this island and the Izhorsky foundries on the mainland. He could not patent

854-735: The Baltic Fleet. All forts and batteries of the city were reconstructed. At 23:37 on June 21, 1941, fleet operational readiness Number 1 was announced by Baltic Fleet Commander Vice Admiral V. Tributs on the order of the People's Commissar of the Navy Admiral N.G. Kuznetsov. Several hours later the first German aircraft began dropping mines into the canal outside Kronstadt. The duty officer, first lieutenant S. Kushnerev, ordered anti-aircraft batteries to open fire on enemy planes. Several aircraft were shot down or damaged. Twenty-seven German planes took part in

915-455: The Bolsheviks. This was followed on August 18, 1919, by a raid of seven Royal Navy Coastal Motor Boats inside the harbour of Kronstadt itself, damaging the Soviet battleships Petropavlovsk and Andrei Pervozvanny , and sinking a submarine supply ship, the Pamiat Azova . In 1921, a group of naval officers and men, together with soldiers and civilian supporters, rebelled against

976-618: The Civic Hospital, the Admiralty (founded in 1785), the arsenal, dockyards and foundries, the School of Marine Engineering, and the English Church. The Kronstadt port was once considered the most fortified port in the world. It still retains some of its old "forts" on small fortified artificial islands. Originally, there were 22 such forts, situated in line with the southern and northern shores of

1037-561: The Corps of Engineers of the Spanish military, and other important assignments. In 1802, he founded Spain's first civil engineering college, the School of the Corps of Engineers, and managed the institution until 1807. Soon after the establishment in 1794 of the École Polytechnique in Paris, Gaspard Monge had proposed a class on the analysis of mechanisms and described the subject to fellow teachers. When

1098-459: The Directorate of Communications. He recruited and trained such architects as Auguste de Montferrand and Leo Carboniere . In 1811–1813, Betancourt built Saint Petersburg's first bridge across Malaya Nevka , connecting Kamenny Island with Aptekarsky Island that is known as Kamennoostrovsky Bridge now. This seven-span wooden bridge, named after Betancourt, served for a record fifty years and

1159-629: The Goznak currency printshop. Betancourt's Medal is an annual award instituted in 1997 by Russian Railways for excellence in science and education. Kronstadt Kronstadt ( Russian : Кроншта́дт , romanized :  Kronshtadt , IPA: [krɐnˈʂtat] ) is a Russian port city in Kronshtadtsky District of the federal city of Saint Petersburg , located on Kotlin Island , 30 km (19 mi) west of Saint Petersburg, near

1220-683: The Gulf of Finland. Some fortifications were located inside the city itself and one was on the western shore of Kronslot Island, on the other side of the main navigational channel. The construction of the Saint Petersburg Dam led to some of the forts being demolished. The dam, a levee-causeway-Seagate combination also enabled Kronstadt and some of the forts being reached by land. Among the most important surviving forts are: There are daily bus and water tours to Kronstadt from Saint Petersburg . The now demolished older St Andrew Cathedral (1817), once

1281-560: The Manege before a crowd of 12,000. During the Soviet years, the building was used as an art gallery. It was there that Nikita Khrushchev chided avant-garde artists for promoting degenerate art , an episode known as the Manege Affair . On 14 March 2004, the night of a Russian presidential election in which Vladimir Putin was overwhelmingly re-elected for a second four-year term, the building caught fire and burnt down, killing two firefighters. The wooden beams and rafters collapsed, leaving

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1342-417: The Manege. The structure was used first as a traditional manège , an indoor riding academy, to house parades of horsemen and a training school for officers. The 180 m long Manege was large enough to hold an entire infantry regiment—over two thousand soldiers— as well as an invited audience. Since 1831 it has been an exhibition place. In 1867, Hector Berlioz and Nikolai Rubinstein performed at

1403-718: The Minister of War in the Soviet Government, and the leader of the Red Army ) responded by sending the army to Kronstadt, along with the Cheka . The uprising was thus suppressed following a massacre . In the late 1930s, the fortified city became the base of the Soviet Baltic Fleet. During that time it was an important training centre for the Soviet navy. The Kronstadt naval dockyard overhauled and repaired surface ships and submarines for

1464-482: The School of Bridges and Roads. In France, Betancourt published treatises on engineering (e.g. on coal mining), but his real assignment was to scout new technologies for the benefit of Spain and to acquire modern machinery for the future Cabinet of Machinery in Madrid, envisioned by Chief minister Floridablanca . In 1788, he travelled to England , visiting James Watt and Matthew Boulton , pioneers in steam engines . Watt

1525-804: The Soviet Union, one of the conditions was that the Soviets could locate one naval base in Finland at Porkkala. Submarine warfare in the Baltic Sea reached its final stage after peace was reached with Finland. The Baltic Fleet sent more than 125,000 people to serve on shore at the front. Eighty-three thousand people fought directly on the Leningrad Front. For the protection of Leningrad 10 brigades of naval infantry, four regiments, and more than 40 separate battalions and companies were formed in Kronstadt. The Luftwaffe and German artillery sent thousands of bombs and shells onto

1586-619: The area of the walls. The Manege's enlarged proportions, columns, pylons and restrained colour scheme underscore the monumentality of the building. 55°45′12″N 37°36′44″E  /  55.75333°N 37.61222°E  / 55.75333; 37.61222 Agust%C3%ADn de Betancourt Agustín de Betancourt y Molina (Russian: Августин Августинович де Бетанкур , romanized : Avgustin Avgustinovich de Betankur ; French : Augustin Bétancourt ; 1 February 1758 – 24 July 1824)

1647-518: The battleship Marat . To prevent an enemy landing, 13 artillery batteries were established in Kronstadt with nine more batteries outside the city, on the island of Kotlin. The main lookout was located in the Naval Cathedral . Visual range reached 45 km (28 mi). The coastal defence forces of Kronstadt included two infantry regiments. In late August, the Red Army in the Baltic States

1708-468: The breadth of the island on one side. The middle harbour was used chiefly for fitting out and repairing vessels. The eastern or military harbour was used for docking vessels of the Russian Navy. The Peter and Catherine Canals connected with the merchant and middle harbours across the city. Between them stood the old Italian Palace of Prince Menshikov, whose site was later occupied by a school for pilots. In

1769-501: The city in the struggle for the freedom and independence of the Motherland". With changing historical trends, the population saw peaks and troughs partly determined by the expansion and then decline of the naval base and dockyard. Note Census data of 1897 includes military personnel Recent population data indicate it has stabilised as follows: 43,385 ( 2002 Census ) ; 43,005 ( 2010 Census ) . The city of Kronstadt

1830-471: The civil war, the sailors participated on the red side , until 1921, when they rebelled against Bolshevik rule in the Kronstadt rebellion . Kronstadt with its supporting forts and minefields was key in protecting Petrograd from foreign forces. Despite this, the cruiser Oleg was torpedoed and sunk by a small motor boat after participating in the bombardment of Krasnaya Gorka fort that had revolted against

1891-498: The class was first taught in 1806 by Hachette , Betancourt was among its students. Another student was José María Lanz , whose lecture notes were revised and published together with Betancourt as Essai sur la composition des machines (1808; 2nd ed. 1819; 3rd ed. 1840), encouraged to do so by Monge and Hachette. This textbook on machine design became widespread in European universities. It was translated to English as Analytical essay of

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1952-635: The construction of machines (1820, published by Rudolph Ackermann ) and by Thomas Fenwick as Essays on practical mechanics (1822) and to German by Wilhelm Kreyher as Versuch über die Zusammensetzung der Maschinen (1829). In 1807, Betancourt left Spain for Paris, where he was inducted into the French Academy of Sciences ; ironically, James Watt was inducted simultaneously. Betancourt was recruited into Russian service by Ivan Muravyov-Apostol (Ambassador to Spain until 1806) and left France for Saint Petersburg in 1808. Betancourt joined Russian service in

2013-491: The day of the fire. The Rectangular in plan one-storey building of the Moscow Manege is an example of Classicism architecture . The building was 166 m long, 44 m wide and about 15 m high. The original floor area of the Manege was 7,424.67 m ². The facades of the building have an arcade of seven arched apertures with semi-columns and are crowned with plain gables without decorations. The side walls are flanked by semi-columns of

2074-448: The design immediately, because Russian patent law was enacted later, in 1812; eventually, patent was granted to completely different people. After the French invasion of Russia (1812) , Russian monetary system was ruined by war expenditure and a flood of counterfeit bills. Dmitry Guriev , Minister of Finance, assigned Betancourt to set up a modern currency printing facility. By 1816, Betancourt examined all existing printshop and persuaded

2135-538: The end of 1941, 82 naval operations had taken place. Hitler was enraged, because Soviet submarines frequently disrupted military supplies of strategic materials from Sweden to Germany. The Germans tried to block the exit completely from the Gulf of Finland with anti-submarine nets and mines. Despite these efforts, the Soviet submariners continued to attack German ships. In 1942, 29 German vessels were sunk. Submarines cooperated with reconnaissance aircraft in searching for military targets. Soviet submarines had broken through

2196-624: The fire of 2004. In 1816, accidental fire destroyed the Makaryev Fair . The Fairgrounds were transferred to Nizhny Novgorod , equipped with temporary wooden shacks. Betancourt visited the site in 1817 and proposed a six million rouble, four-year project to rebuild the Fair in stone. He supervised overall planning and financing, while Montferrand, as the chief architect, was designing individual buildings and ensembles. Despite his Petersburg projects, Betancourt travelled to Nizhny Novgorod every year to inspect

2257-505: The first attack, and three were destroyed by the anti-aircraft guns of the 1st Air Defence Regiment of the Baltic Fleet. This regiment was situated in the southern forts. During World War II , Kronstadt was subject to several bombing raids by the Luftwaffe . In August 1941 the Luftwaffe began bombing Kronstadt repeatedly. The most notable bombing was Stuka ace Hans-Ulrich Rudel 's sinking of

2318-618: The frozen sea, and placed in cuttings made in the ice. Thus, several new small islands were created, and forts were erected on them, virtually closing access to Saint-Petersburg by sea. Only two narrow navigable channels remained, with forts guarding them. One of the first governors of Kronstadt was a veteran of the Royal Scots Navy , Admiral Thomas Gordon who was a refugee in Russia from the Scottish union with England and became chief commander of

2379-545: The government to build a new factory equipped with steam-driven machinery. He designed the buildings, machinery and the technological process, using his childhood experience in textile mills. The new printshop (present-day Saint Petersburg Goznak ) was inaugurated in 1818. Betancourt is credited with design of Russia's first modern highway between Saint Petersburg and Moscow, as well as numerous industrial projects like Tula and Kazan armouries . In 1809, Betancourt set up Saint Petersburg Institute of Communications Engineers,

2440-537: The head of the Gulf of Finland . It is linked to the former Russian capital by a combination levee - causeway -seagate, the St Petersburg Dam , part of the city's flood defences, which also acts as road access to Kotlin island from the mainland. Founded in the early 18th century by Peter the Great , it became an important international centre of commerce whose trade role was later eclipsed by its strategic significance as

2501-616: The heights of spacecraft) in Russia and some other countries of the former Russian Empire are measured according to the Kronstadt sea-gauge. Yuri Gagarin , the first man in space, said in 1967 that it was "the Hub of the Universe". The modern city's most striking landmark is considered to be the enormous Naval Cathedral , dedicated to St Nicholas and built between 1908 and 1913 in Anchor Square which also contains many military memorials. The cathedral

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2562-655: The island of Kotlin from the Swedes during the Great Northern War in 1703. The first fortifications were inaugurated on 18 May [ O.S. 7 May] 1704. These fortifications, known as Kronshlot  [ ru ] (Кроншлот), were constructed very quickly. During the winter, the Gulf of Finland freezes over completely. Under the command of Governor-general Alexander Danilovich Menshikov , workers used thousands of frames (caissons) made of logs from evergreen trees filled with stones which were moved by horses across

2623-593: The main naval fortress of the Russian Empire began observations in 1707. This monitoring was necessary because the water level of the Finnish Gulf could change considerably in a short time, creating problems for shipping. The annual flood also required close monitoring of the water level. The Kronstadt sea-gauge with the tide gauge pavilion is the zero level of the Baltic system of highs and lows. All depths and altitudes (even

2684-460: The mine barrages in the Gulf of Finland in 1942. To keep the Soviet submarine force away from Baltic shipping stronger efforts were planned. The minefields would be larger and in addition a double submarine net would be laid from Porkkala to Naissaar in Operation Walross . The blockade of the Gulf of Finland turned out to be 100% effective. But in 1944, when Finland signed a peace treaty with

2745-517: The nations' first engineering college, and headed the Institute until 1824. In 1822, Betancourt fell into disfavor at the court, and lost his chair as the Director of Communications, but retained other state jobs. In 1823 he was struck by the death of his only daughter and never recovered from this loss. In February 1824 he finally resigned, and died on 14 July 1824 in Saint Petersburg , Russia . He

2806-528: The naval dockyard and the Arsenal factory. The German air raids in September 1941, damaged ships of the Baltic Fleet and the infrastructure of the naval dockyard. Several sections of the yard were destroyed, the docks were heavily bombed causing the death of dozens of workers and engineers. Nevertheless, the naval yard continued its work. Despite the siege, the workers persevered with their work, often working 18–20 hours

2867-588: The port of Kronstadt from 1727 to 1741. Just as Kronstadt became populated and fortified, it attracted merchants from maritime powers most notably, the Dutch, the British and the Germans through the old Hanse connections. The community of British merchants or "factors" came to be known as the English Factory , despite the fact that many of them were Scots. They settled both in Kronstadt and in St Petersburg itself and for

2928-436: The primary maritime defence outpost of the former Russian capital. The main base of the Russian Baltic Fleet was located in Kronstadt, guarding the approaches to Saint Petersburg. In March 1921, the island city was the site of the Kronstadt rebellion . The historic centre of the city and its fortifications are part of the World Heritage Site that is Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments . Kronstadt has been

2989-452: The principal defences and had resisted the Anglo-French fleets during the Crimean War , became of secondary importance. From the plans of Eduard Totleben a new fort, Fort Constantine , and four batteries were constructed (1856–1871) to defend the principal approach, and seven batteries to cover the shallower northern channel. All these fortifications were low and thickly armoured earthworks with heavy Krupp guns on their ramparts. The city

3050-487: The progress of construction. The Saviour Cathedral, also known as Old Fair Cathedral (Спасский собор, Староярмарочный собор), was designed by Betancourt (overall structure) and Montferrand (facade and interiors) together and completed in 1822, the year when the Fair opened for its first season. The fair operated until 1930. Betancourt designed other buildings for Nizhny, including the city jail, three brick foundries, and helped in preservation of two ancient churches. Throughout

3111-418: The rank of Major General , assigned to the Directorate of Communications. His first extant work is the famous fountain in Tsarskoye Selo (1810), with sculpture by Pavel Sokolov immortalized by Alexander Pushkin 's poetry. In 1816, Betancourt was promoted to head the Commission for Construction and Hydraulics, a national institution targeted primarily at Saint Petersburg development; since 1819 he also headed

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3172-456: The second half of the 18th century the building of the former Italian palace was used by various military training institutions. In 1771–1798 the Sea Cadet Corps was housed there before being transferred to St Petersburg. From 1798 to 1872 the Navigation School was situated in the former palace. The Kronstadt tide gauge is situated near the former Italian palace. Sea level observations in Saint Petersburg began already in 1703. On Kotlin Island,

3233-435: The walls remaining on site. The official investigation concluded that a short circuit caused the fire, though there was media speculation that a fire at such a historic building, only a stone's throw from the Kremlin, on the night of a presidential election, may not have been coincidental. On 18 February 2005 the restored Manege resumed its operation as an exhibition hall by mounting the same exposition that had been scheduled for

3294-515: Was a Spanish engineer , who worked in Spain , France and Russia . His work ranged from steam engines and balloons to structural engineering and urban planning . As an educator , Betancourt founded and managed the Spanish Corps of Civil Engineers and the Saint Petersburg Institute of Communications Engineers. As an urban planner and construction manager, Betancourt supervised planning and construction in Saint Petersburg, Kronstadt , Nizhny Novgorod and other Russian cities. De Betancourt

3355-494: Was born in Puerto de la Cruz , Tenerife , Spain . The Tenerife Betancourt family can trace their surname to Jean de Béthencourt , who launched colonization of the Canary Islands in 1402, although he himself had no issue (the family name being carried onwards by Native Canarians that were batised with his). Augustín's father, also Augustín de Betancourt y Castro, was a well-educated businessman with interests in textile machinery. His sister, Maria del Carmen Betancourt y Molina ,

3416-422: Was buried at the Smolensk Lutheran cemetery in Saint Petersburg. His tomb, a 6.85-meter cast-iron column, was designed and made by Auguste de Montferrand and paid for by Nizhny Novgorod merchant society. In 1979, the grave was relocated to the Lazarevskoe Cemetery in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra . Saint Petersburg has three monuments to Betancourt: in University Embankment, in Communications University and inside

3477-511: Was delayed until Betancourt's death; the dome was erected only in 1841. In Moscow, Betancourt supervised construction of the Moscow Manege (1817). Architectural design was assigned to Leo Carboniere . The building, 166 meters long and 44.7 meters wide, required a single-span roof without any internal columns. Betancourt personally designed the wooden roof trusses and completed the whole project in six months. By 1824, roofing required replacement; new trusses, installed in 1824–1825, served until

3538-410: Was in a critical situation. Tallinn , the main base of the fleet, was in danger and an order to relocate the fleet from Tallinn to Kronstadt was given. By the time the Soviets had decided on a maritime evacuation of Tallinn, over 200 Soviet civilian and military vessels had been assembled in Tallinn harbour. After the evacuation of Tallinn , a submarine subdivision had been organized in Kronstadt. By

3599-461: Was reluctant to reveal the secrets of his trade, but Betancourt inspected Watt's engines working in London mills. Back in Paris, he wrote a treatise on steam engines and designed a steam-powered pump and a mechanical loom , also sending a collection of machinery to Madrid. In 1791, he concentrated on naval technologies – harbor dredging and drilling gun barrels (his own dredge design materialized twenty years later, in Kronstadt ). Shortly before

3660-412: Was the first known woman in Tenerife to publish a scientific article (also related to textile dyes ). In 1778, Augustin moved to Madrid to study engineering at the San Isidro Royal College, and never returned to Tenerife again. His first jobs, after graduation in 1783, were related to the Aragon Canal and mining in Almadén . In 1784, he travelled to Paris to study hydraulics and mechanics at

3721-526: Was the only wooden bridge to survive the disastrous 1824 flood. He designed similar bridges for Warsaw , Tula and Peterhof . In 1816, Alexander I of Russia assigned Betancourt to find an architect for rebuilding Saint Isaac's Cathedral . Betancourt promoted Montferrand and, in February 1818, the Tsar approved Montferrand's fifth draft. Betancourt provided Montferrand with an efficient, thoroughly calculated dome design utilizing three interconnected steel domes without any masonry vaults. Cathedral construction

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