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79-453: Manihot esculenta , commonly called cassava , manioc , or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae , native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions as an annual crop for its edible starchy tuberous root. Cassava

158-769: A flora of his homeland Sweden, Flora Svecica (1745), and in this, he recorded the Swedish common names, region by region, as well as the scientific names. The Swedish common names were all binomials (e.g. plant no. 84 Råg-losta and plant no. 85 Ren-losta); the vernacular binomial system thus preceded his scientific binomial system. Linnaean authority William T. Stearn said: By the introduction of his binomial system of nomenclature, Linnaeus gave plants and animals an essentially Latin nomenclature like vernacular nomenclature in style but linked to published, and hence relatively stable and verifiable, scientific concepts and thus suitable for international use. The geographic range over which

237-554: A cassava plant is the root. This is long and tapered, with an easily detached rough brown rind. The white or yellowish flesh is firm and even in texture. Commercial cultivars can be 5 to 10 centimetres (2 to 4 in) wide at the top, and some 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in) long, with a woody vascular bundle running down the middle. The tuberous roots are largely starch , with small amounts of calcium (16 milligrams per 100 grams), phosphorus (27 mg/100 g), and vitamin C (20.6 mg/100 g). Cassava roots contains little protein , whereas

316-423: A famine reserve and is invaluable in managing labor schedules. It offers flexibility to resource-poor farmers because it serves as either a subsistence or a cash crop. Worldwide, 800 million people depend on cassava as their primary food staple. Cassava roots, peels and leaves are dangerous to eat raw because they contain linamarin and lotaustralin , which are toxic cyanogenic glycosides . These are decomposed by

395-403: A fine powder and used to make tapioca, a popular starch used to make bubbles, a chewy topping in bubble tea . Alcoholic beverages made from cassava include cauim (Brazil), kasiri (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname), parakari or kari (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam), and nihamanchi (South America), A safe processing method known as the "wetting method" is to mix the cassava flour with water into

474-557: A fungicide, then wrapping in plastic, freezing, or applying a wax coating. While alternative methods for controlling post-harvest deterioration have been proposed, such as preventing reactive oxygen species effects by using plastic bags during storage and transport, coating the roots with wax, or freezing roots, such strategies have proved to be economically or technically impractical, leading to breeding of cassava varieties with improved durability after harvest, achieved by different mechanisms. One approach used gamma rays to try to silence

553-520: A gene involved in triggering deterioration; another strategy selected for plentiful carotenoids , antioxidants which may help to reduce oxidization after harvest. Cassava is subject to pests from multiple taxonomic groups, including nematodes, and insects, as well as diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, and fungi. All cause reductions in yield, and some cause serious losses of crops. Several viruses cause enough damage to cassava crops to be of economic importance. The African cassava mosaic virus causes

632-780: A high-yielding form of shifting agriculture by the time of European contact in 1492. Cassava was a staple food of pre-Columbian peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in indigenous art . The Moche people often depicted cassava in their ceramics. Spaniards in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, and considered maize and cassava damaging to Europeans. The cultivation and consumption of cassava were nonetheless continued in both Portuguese and Spanish America. Mass production of cassava bread became

711-493: A higher effective yield. The use of tolerant and resistant cultivars is the most practical management method in most locales. Insects such as stem borers and other beetles, moths including Chilomima clarkei , scale insects, fruit flies, shootflies, burrower bugs , grasshoppers, leafhoppers, gall midges, leafcutter ants, and termites contribute to losses of cassava in the field, while others contribute to serious losses, between 19% and 30%, of dried cassava in storage. In Africa ,

790-901: A legend that cassava was introduced in 1880–1885 CE to the South Indian state of Kerala by the King of Travancore , Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja, after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice. However, there are documented cases of cassava cultivation in parts of the state before the time of Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja. Cassava is called kappa or maricheeni in Malayalam , and tapioca in Indian English usage. Optimal conditions for cassava cultivation are mean annual temperatures between 20 and 29 °C (68 and 84 °F), annual precipitation between 1,000 and 2,500 mm (39 and 98 in), and an annual growth period of no less than 240 days. Cassava

869-477: A myth relates that food derives from the body of Dewi Teknowati, who killed herself rather than accept the advances of the god Batara Guru . She was buried, and her lower leg grew into a cassava plant. In Trinidad, folk stories tell of a saapina or snake-woman; the word is related to sabada , meaning to pound, for what is traditionally a woman's work of pounding cassava. The identity of the Macushi people of Guyana

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948-485: A particularly common name is used varies; some common names have a very local application, while others are virtually universal within a particular language. Some such names even apply across ranges of languages; the word for cat , for instance, is easily recognizable in most Germanic and many Romance languages . Many vernacular names, however, are restricted to a single country and colloquial names to local districts. Some languages also have more than one common name for

1027-467: A previous issue was the cassava mealybug ( Phenacoccus manihoti ) and cassava green mite ( Mononychellus tanajoa ). These pests can cause up to 80 percent crop loss, which is extremely detrimental to the production of subsistence farmers. These pests were rampant in the 1970s and 1980s but were brought under control following the establishment of the Biological Control Centre for Africa of

1106-600: A rate of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per year, and as of 2005 was found throughout Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo. Viruses are a severe production limitation in the tropics. They are the primary reason for the complete lack of yield increases in the 25 years up to 2021. Cassava brown streak virus disease is a major threat to cultivation worldwide. Cassava mosaic virus (CMV)

1185-730: A thick paste, spread it in a thin layer over a basket and then let it stand for five hours at 30 °C in the shade. In that time, about 83% of the cyanogenic glycosides are broken down by linamarase ; the resulting hydrogen cyanide escapes to the atmosphere, making the flour safe for consumption the same evening. The traditional method used in West Africa is to peel the roots and put them into water for three days to ferment. The roots are then dried or cooked. In Nigeria and several other west African countries, including Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Burkina Faso, they are usually grated and lightly fried in palm oil to preserve them. The result

1264-504: Is a foodstuff called garri . Fermentation is also used in other places such as Indonesia, such as Tapai . The fermentation process also reduces the level of antinutrients, making the cassava a more nutritious food. The reliance on cassava as a food source and the resulting exposure to the goitrogenic effects of thiocyanate has been responsible for the endemic goiters seen in the Akoko area of southwestern Nigeria. A traditional method used by

1343-415: Is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection . Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see inbreeding and population bottlenecks ) can cause reduced biological fitness and an increased chance of extinction , although as explained by genetic drift new genetic variants, that may cause an increase in the fitness of organisms, are more likely to fix in the population if it

1422-501: Is available on the US market in bottled form. Raw cassava is 60% water, 38% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and has negligible fat (table). In a 100-gram ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 -ounce) reference serving, raw cassava provides 670 kilojoules (160 kilocalories) of food energy and 23% of the Daily Value (DV) of vitamin C, but otherwise has no micronutrients in significant content (i.e., above 10% of

1501-421: Is closely bound up with the growth and processing of cassava in their slash-and-burn subsistence lifestyle. A story tells that the great spirit Makunaima climbed a tree, cutting off pieces with his axe; when they landed on the ground, each piece became a type of animal. The opossum brought the people to the tree, where they found all the types of food, including bitter cassava. A bird told the people how to prepare

1580-484: Is grown in sweet and bitter varieties; both contain toxins, but the bitter varieties have them in much larger amounts. Cassava has to be prepared carefully for consumption, as improperly prepared material can contain sufficient cyanide to cause poisoning . The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as famine food during times of food insecurity . Farmers may however choose bitter cultivars to minimise crop losses. The generic name Manihot and

1659-432: Is harvested at three to four month, when it reaches about 30 to 45 cm (12 to 18 in) above ground; it is dried in the sun until its dry matter content approaches 85 percent. The hay contains 20–27 percent protein and 1.5–4 percent tannin . It is valued as a source of roughage for ruminants such as cattle. Cassava is used in laundry products, especially as starch to stiffen shirts and other garments. In Java,

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1738-461: Is in these remarks from a book on marine fish: In scientific binomial nomenclature, names commonly are derived from classical or modern Latin or Greek or Latinised forms of vernacular words or coinages; such names generally are difficult for laymen to learn, remember, and pronounce and so, in such books as field guides, biologists commonly publish lists of coined common names. Many examples of such common names simply are attempts to translate

1817-406: Is predominantly consumed in boiled form, but substantial quantities are processed to extract cassava starch, called tapioca , which is used for food, animal feed, and industrial purposes. The Brazilian farofa , and the related garri of West Africa, is an edible coarse flour obtained by grating cassava roots, pressing moisture off the obtained grated pulp, and finally drying it (and roasting in

1896-412: Is propagated by cutting the stem into sections of approximately 15 cm (5.9 in), these being planted prior to the wet season. Cassava growth is favorable under temperatures ranging from 25 to 29 °C (77 to 84 °F), but it can tolerate temperatures as low as 12 °C (54 °F) and as high as 40 °C (104 °F). These conditions are found, among other places, in the northern part of

1975-402: Is rather small. When all individuals in a population are identical with regard to a particular phenotypic trait, the population is said to be 'monomorphic'. When the individuals show several variants of a particular trait they are said to be polymorphic . The Russian geneticist Alexander Sergeevich Serebrovsky first formulated the concept in the 1920s as genofond (gene fund), a word that

2054-545: Is sometimes described as the "bread of the tropics" but should not be confused with the tropical and equatorial bread tree (Encephalartos) , the breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) or the African breadfruit (Treculia africana) . This description definitely holds in Africa and parts of South America; in Asian countries such as Vietnam fresh cassava barely features in human diets. There is

2133-475: Is sufficient to eliminate all toxicity. The cyanide is carried away in the processing water and the amounts produced in domestic consumption are too small to have environmental impact. The larger-rooted, bitter varieties used for production of flour or starch must be processed to remove the cyanogenic glucosides. The large roots are peeled and then ground into flour, which is then soaked in water, squeezed dry several times, and toasted. The starch grains that flow with

2212-625: Is sufficient to kill a rat. Excess cyanide residue from improper preparation causes goiters and acute cyanide poisoning, and is linked to ataxia (a neurological disorder affecting the ability to walk, also known as konzo ). It has also been linked to tropical fibrocalcific pancreatitis in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis. Symptoms of acute cyanide intoxication appear four or more hours after ingesting raw or poorly processed cassava: vertigo, vomiting, goiter , ataxia , partial paralysis, collapse, and death. It can be treated easily with an injection of thiosulfate (which makes sulfur available for

2291-650: Is the Cape dikkop (or "gewone dikkop", not to mention the presumably much older Zulu name "umBangaqhwa"); Burhinus vermiculatus is the "water dikkop". The thick joints in question are not even, in fact, the birds' knees, but the intertarsal joints —in lay terms the ankles. Furthermore, not all species in the genus have "thick knees", so the thickness of the "knees" of some species is not of clearly descriptive significance. The family Burhinidae has members that have various common names even in English, including " stone curlews ", so

2370-479: Is vital when productivity has declined due to pests and diseases , and smallholders tend to retain less productive but more diverse gene pools . MeFT1 (FT) is a gene producing FT proteins which affect the formation of storage roots in many plants, including this one. Alleles in cassava include MeFT1 and MeFT2 . MeFT1 expression in leaves seems to not be photoperiodic , while MeFT2 clearly is. MeFT1 expression encourages motivation of sucrose towards

2449-408: Is widespread in Africa, causing cassava mosaic disease (CMD). Bredeson et al. 2016 find the M. esculenta cultivars most widely used on that continent have M. carthaginensis subsp. glaziovii genes of which some appear to be CMD resistance genes . Although the ongoing CMD pandemic affects both East and Central Africa, Legg et al. found that these two areas have two distinct subpopulations of

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2528-599: The Gulf Coastal Plain in Mexico. In this part of Mexico the following soil types have been shown to be good for cassava cultivation: phaeozem , regosol , arenosol , andosol and luvisol . Before harvest, the leafy stems are removed. The harvest is gathered by pulling up the base of the stem and cutting off the tuberous roots. Cassava deteriorates after harvest, when the tuberous roots are first cut. The healing mechanism produces coumaric acid , which oxidizes and blackens

2607-515: The ICZN has formal rules for biological nomenclature and convenes periodic international meetings to further that purpose. The form of scientific names for organisms, called binomial nomenclature , is superficially similar to the noun-adjective form of vernacular names or common names which were used by non-modern cultures. A collective name such as owl was made more precise by the addition of an adjective such as screech . Linnaeus himself published

2686-501: The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) under the leadership of Hans Rudolf Herren . The Centre investigated biological control for cassava pests; two South American natural enemies Anagyrus lopezi (a parasitoid wasp) and Typhlodromalus aripo (a predatory mite) were found to effectively control the cassava mealybug and the cassava green mite, respectively. In 2022, world production of cassava root

2765-504: The Lucayans to detoxify cassava is by peeling, grinding, and mashing; filtering the mash through a basket tube to remove the hydrogen cyanide; and drying and sieving the mash for flour. The poisonous filtrate water was boiled to release the hydrogen cyanide, and used as a base for stews. Bioengineering has been applied to grow cassava with lower cyanogenic glycosides combined with fortification of vitamin A , iron and protein to improve

2844-645: The vector , Bemisia tabaci whiteflies. Genetically engineered cassava offers opportunities for the improvement of virus resistance, including CMV and CBSD resistance. Among the most serious bacterial pests is Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis , which causes bacterial blight of cassava . This disease originated in South America and has followed cassava around the world. Bacterial blight has been responsible for near catastrophic losses and famine in past decades, and its mitigation requires active management practices. Several other bacteria attack cassava, including

2923-656: The 16th century. Around the same period, it was introduced to Asia through Columbian Exchange by Portuguese and Spanish traders, who planted it in their colonies in Goa, Malacca, Eastern Indonesia, Timor and the Philippines. Cassava has also become an important crop in Asia. While it is a valued food staple in parts of eastern Indonesia, it is primarily cultivated for starch extraction and bio-fuel production in Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. Cassava

3002-569: The Caribbean when temperature and rainfall are high. Nematode pests of cassava are thought to cause harms ranging from negligible to seriously damaging, making the choice of management methods difficult. A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include Pratylenchus brachyurus , Rotylenchulus reniformis , Helicotylenchus spp., Scutellonema spp. and Meloidogyne spp., of which Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne javanica are

3081-594: The Hebrew Language publish from time to time short dictionaries of common name in Hebrew for species that occur in Israel or surrounding countries e.g. for Reptilia in 1938, Osteichthyes in 2012, and Odonata in 2015. Gene pool The gene pool is the set of all genes , or genetic information , in any population , usually of a particular species . A large gene pool indicates extensive genetic diversity , which

3160-467: The HiFi genome assembly revealed extensive chromosome rearrangements and abundant intra-genomic and inter-genomic divergent sequences, with significant structural variations mostly related to long terminal repeat retrotransposons. Although smallholders are otherwise economically inefficient producers, they are vital to productivity at particular times. Small cassava farmers are no exception. Genetic diversity

3239-683: The SSAR switched to an online version with a searchable database. Standardized names for the amphibians and reptiles of Mexico in Spanish and English were first published in 1994, with a revised and updated list published in 2008. A set of guidelines for the creation of English names for birds was published in The Auk in 1978. It gave rise to Birds of the World: Recommended English Names and its Spanish and French companions. The Academy of

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3318-524: The Secretariat for the AFNC. SSA is an accredited Standards Australia (Australia's peak non-government standards development organisation) Standards Development The Entomological Society of America maintains a database of official common names of insects, and proposals for new entries must be submitted and reviewed by a formal committee before being added to the listing. Efforts to standardize English names for

3397-501: The amphibians and reptiles of North America (north of Mexico) began in the mid-1950s. The dynamic nature of taxonomy necessitates periodical updates and changes in the nomenclature of both scientific and common names. The Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles (SSAR) published an updated list in 1978, largely following the previous established examples, and subsequently published eight revised editions ending in 2017. More recently

3476-509: The author introduced into it so many new English names, that are to be found in no dictionary, and that do not preclude the necessity of learning with what Latin names they are synonymous. A tolerable idea may be given of the danger of too great a multiplicity of vulgar names, by imagining what geography would be, or, for instance, the Post-office administration, supposing every town had a totally different name in every language. Various bodies and

3555-493: The authors of many technical and semi-technical books do not simply adapt existing common names for various organisms; they try to coin (and put into common use) comprehensive, useful, authoritative, and standardised lists of new names. The purpose typically is: Other attempts to reconcile differences between widely separated regions, traditions, and languages, by arbitrarily imposing nomenclature, often reflect narrow perspectives and have unfortunate outcomes. For example, members of

3634-459: The bitter varieties containing much larger amounts. The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as famine food during times of food insecurity . For example, during the shortages in Venezuela in the late 2010s, dozens of deaths were reported due to Venezuelans resorting to eating bitter cassava in order to curb starvation. Cases of cassava poisoning were also documented during

3713-435: The case of both farofa and garri ). Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after rice and maize , making it an important staple ; more than 500 million people depend on it. It offers the advantage of being exceptionally drought-tolerant , and able to grow productively on poor soil. The largest producer is Nigeria, while Thailand is the largest exporter of cassava starch. Cassava

3792-535: The cassava enzyme linamarase , releasing poisonous hydrogen cyanide . Cassava varieties are often categorized as either bitter (high in cyanogenic glycosides) or sweet (low in those bitter compounds). Sweet cultivars can contain as little as 20 milligrams of cyanide per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter cultivars may contain as much as 1000 milligrams per kilogram. Cassavas grown during drought are especially high in these toxins. A dose of 25 mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside, which contains 2.5 mg of cyanide,

3871-606: The cassava safely. Common name In chemistry , IUPAC defines a common name as one that, although it unambiguously defines a chemical, does not follow the current systematic naming convention, such as acetone , systematically 2-propanone , while a vernacular name describes one used in a lab, trade or industry that does not unambiguously describe a single chemical, such as copper sulfate , which may refer to either copper(I) sulfate or copper(II) sulfate. Sometimes common names are created by authorities on one particular subject, in an attempt to make it possible for members of

3950-408: The choice of the name "thick-knees" is not easy to defend but is a clear illustration of the hazards of the facile coinage of terminology. For collective nouns for various subjects, see a list of collective nouns (e.g. a flock of sheep, pack of wolves). Some organizations have created official lists of common names, or guidelines for creating common names, hoping to standardize

4029-498: The common name "manioc" both derive from the Guarani (Tupi) name mandioca or manioca for the plant. The specific name esculenta is Latin for 'edible'. The common name "cassava" is a 16th century word from the French or Portuguese cassave , in turn from Taíno caçabi . The common name "yuca" or "yucca" is most likely also from Taíno, via Spanish yuca or juca . The harvested part of

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4108-669: The equator, where it can be produced at up to 2,000 m (7,000 ft) above sea level, and with 50 to 5,000 mm (2 to 200 in) of rain per year. These environmental tolerances suit it to conditions across much of South America and Africa. Cassava yields a large amount of food energy per unit area of land per day – 1,000,000 kJ/ha (250,000 kcal/ha), as compared with 650,000 kJ/ha (156,000 kcal/ha) for rice, 460,000 kJ/ha (110,000 kcal/ha) for wheat and 840,000 kJ/ha (200,000 kcal/ha) for maize. Cassava, yams ( Dioscorea spp.), and sweet potatoes ( Ipomoea batatas ) are important sources of food in

4187-611: The famine accompanying the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) in China. Farmers may select bitter cultivars to reduce crop losses. Societies that traditionally eat cassava generally understand that processing (soaking, cooking, fermentation, etc.) is necessary to avoid getting sick. Brief soaking (four hours) of cassava is not sufficient, but soaking for 18–24 hours can remove up to half the level of cyanide. Drying may not be sufficient, either. For some smaller-rooted, sweet varieties, cooking

4266-466: The first Cuban industry established by the Spanish. Ships departing to Europe from Cuban ports such as Havana , Santiago , Bayamo , and Baracoa carried goods to Spain, but sailors needed to be provisioned for the voyage. The Spanish also needed to replenish their boats with dried meat, water, fruit, and large amounts of cassava bread. Sailors complained that it caused them digestive problems. Portuguese traders introduced cassava to Africa from Brazil in

4345-417: The flavors and also impart them (even if dry) to foods such as rice and chicken cooked in it. The poisonous but volatile hydrogen cyanide is evaporated by heating. Nevertheless, improperly cooked cassava has been blamed for a number of deaths. Amerindians from Guyana reportedly made an antidote by steeping chili peppers in rum . The natives of Guyana traditionally brought the product to town in bottles, and it

4424-464: The general public (including such interested parties as fishermen, farmers, etc.) to be able to refer to one particular species of organism without needing to be able to memorise or pronounce the scientific name. Creating an "official" list of common names can also be an attempt to standardize the use of common names, which can sometimes vary a great deal between one part of a country and another, as well as between one country and another country, even where

4503-517: The genus Burhinus occur in Australia, Southern Africa, Eurasia, and South America. A recent trend in field manuals and bird lists is to use the name " thick-knee " for members of the genus. This, in spite of the fact that the majority of the species occur in non-English-speaking regions and have various common names, not always English. For example, "Dikkop" is the centuries-old South African vernacular name for their two local species: Burhinus capensis

4582-707: The leaves are rich in it, except for being low in methionine , an essential amino acid . The complete and haplotype-resolved African cassava (TME204) genome has been reconstructed and made available using the Hi-C technology. The genome shows abundant novel gene loci with enriched functionality related to chromatin organization, meristem development, and cell responses. Differentially expressed transcripts of different haplotype origins were enriched for different functionality during tissue development. In each tissue, 20–30% of transcripts showed allele-specific expression differences with <2% of direction-shifting. Despite high gene synteny,

4661-457: The leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root. An outbreak of the virus in Africa in the 1920s led to a major famine. The virus is spread by the whitefly and by the transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late-1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus spread at

4740-706: The modern (now binding) International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants contains the following: Art. 68. Every friend of science ought to be opposed to the introduction into a modern language of names of plants that are not already there unless they are derived from a Latin botanical name that has undergone but a slight alteration. ... ought the fabrication of names termed vulgar names, totally different from Latin ones, to be proscribed. The public to whom they are addressed derives no advantage from them because they are novelties. Lindley's work, The Vegetable Kingdom, would have been better relished in England had not

4819-494: The most widely reported and economically important. Meloidogyne spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply. Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection. Other pests and diseases can gain entry through

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4898-406: The nutrition of people in sub-Saharan Africa. In Guyana the traditional cassareep is made from bitter cassava juice. The juice is boiled until it is reduced by half in volume, to the consistency of molasses and flavored with spices —including cloves , cinnamon , salt , sugar , and cayenne pepper . Traditionally, cassareep was boiled in a soft pot, the actual "pepper pot", which would absorb

4977-454: The patient's body to detoxify by converting the poisonous cyanide into thiocyanate). Chronic, low-level exposure to cyanide may contribute to both goiter and tropical ataxic neuropathy , also called konzo , which can be fatal. The risk is highest in famines, when as many as 3 percent of the population may be affected. Like many other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain antinutritional factors and toxins, with

5056-546: The physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged tuberous roots, but plant height can be reduced if the root system is reduced. Nematicides reduce the numbers of galls per feeder root, along with fewer rots in the tuberous roots. The organophosphorus nematicide femaniphos does not reduce crop growth or harvest yield. Nematicide use in cassava does not increase harvested yield significantly, but lower infestation at harvest and lower subsequent storage loss provide

5135-620: The related Xanthomonas campestris pv. cassavae , which causes bacterial angular leaf spot. Several fungi bring about significant crop losses, one of the most serious being cassava root rot; the pathogens involved are species of Phytophthora , the genus which causes potato blight. Cassava root rot can result in losses of as much as 80 percent of the crop. A major pest is a rust caused by Uromyces manihotis . Superelongation disease, caused by Elsinoë brasiliensis , can cause losses of over 80 percent of young cassava in Latin America and

5214-438: The relevant DV). Cassava has been studied as a feedstock to produce ethanol as a biofuel , including to improve the efficiency of conversion from cassava flour, and to convert crop residues such as stems and leaves as well as the more easily processed roots. China has created facilities to produce substantial amounts of ethanol fuel from cassava roots. Cassava tubers and hay are used worldwide as animal feed. Young cassava hay

5293-408: The reproductive organs, as shown by experimental overexpression reducing storage root accumulation. Wild populations of M. esculenta subspecies flabellifolia , shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years ago. Forms of the modern domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in

5372-487: The roots, making them inedible after a few days. This deterioration is related to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species initiated by cyanide release during mechanical harvesting. Cassava shelf life may be increased up to three weeks by overexpressing a cyanide-insensitive alternative oxidase, which suppressed ROS by 10-fold. Post-harvest deterioration is a major obstacle to the export of cassava. Fresh cassava can be preserved like potato, using thiabendazole or bleach as

5451-484: The same animal. For example, in Irish, there are many terms that are considered outdated but still well-known for their somewhat humorous and poetic descriptions of animals. w/ literal translations of the poetic terms Common names are used in the writings of both professionals and laymen . Lay people sometimes object to the use of scientific names over common names, but the use of scientific names can be defended, as it

5530-576: The same language is spoken in both places. A common name intrinsically plays a part in a classification of objects, typically an incomplete and informal classification, in which some names are degenerate examples in that they are unique and lack reference to any other name, as is the case with say, ginkgo , okapi , and ratel . Folk taxonomy , which is a classification of objects using common names, has no formal rules and need not be consistent or logical in its assignment of names, so that say, not all flies are called flies (for example Braulidae ,

5609-402: The scientific name into English or some other vernacular. Such translation may be confusing in itself, or confusingly inaccurate, for example, gratiosus does not mean "gracile" and gracilis does not mean "graceful". The practice of coining common names has long been discouraged; de Candolle's Laws of Botanical Nomenclature , 1868, the non-binding recommendations that form the basis of

5688-407: The so-called "bee lice") and not every animal called a fly is indeed a fly (such as dragonflies and mayflies ). In contrast, scientific or biological nomenclature is a global system that attempts to denote particular organisms or taxa uniquely and definitively , on the assumption that such organisms or taxa are well-defined and generally also have well-defined interrelationships; accordingly

5767-675: The south of Brazil. By 4600 BC, cassava pollen appears in the Gulf of Mexico lowlands, at the San Andrés archaeological site. The oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1,400-year-old Maya site, Joya de Cerén , in El Salvador . It became a staple food of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica, and the Taino people in the Caribbean islands , who grew it using

5846-456: The sweet variety is mild to the taste, like potatoes; Jewish households sometimes use it in cholent . It can be made into a flour that is used in breads, cakes and cookies. In Brazil, farofa , a dry meal made from cooked powdered cassava, is roasted in butter, eaten as a side dish, or sprinkled on other food. In Taiwanese culture, now spread to the United States, cassava "juices" are dried to

5925-445: The tropics. The cassava plant gives the third-highest yield of carbohydrates per cultivated area among crop plants, after sugarcane and sugar beets . Cassava plays a particularly important role in agriculture in developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa , because it does well on poor soils and with low rainfall, and because it is a perennial that can be harvested as required. Its wide harvesting window allows it to act as

6004-800: The use of common names. For example, the Australian Fish Names List or AFNS was compiled through a process involving work by taxonomic and seafood industry experts, drafted using the CAAB (Codes for Australian Aquatic Biota) taxon management system of the CSIRO , and including input through public and industry consultations by the Australian Fish Names Committee (AFNC). The AFNS has been an official Australian Standard since July 2007 and has existed in draft form (The Australian Fish Names List) since 2001. Seafood Services Australia (SSA) serve as

6083-415: The water during the soaking process are also used in cooking. The flour is used throughout South America and the Caribbean . Industrial production of cassava flour, even at the cottage level, may generate enough cyanide and cyanogenic glycosides in the effluents to have a severe environmental impact. There are many ways of cooking cassava . It has to be prepared correctly to remove its toxicity. The root of

6162-465: Was 330 million tonnes, led by Nigeria with 18% of the total (table). Other major growers were Democratic Republic of the Congo and Thailand. Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after rice and maize . making it an important staple; more than 500 million people depend on it. It offers the advantage of being exceptionally drought-tolerant , and able to grow productively on poor soil. Cassava grows well within 30° of

6241-461: Was imported to the United States from the Soviet Union by Theodosius Dobzhansky , who translated it into English as "gene pool." Harlan and de Wet (1971) proposed classifying each crop and its related species by gene pools rather than by formal taxonomy. Gene pool centres refers to areas on the earth where important crop plants and domestic animals originated. They have an extraordinary range of

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