144-536: Man Laws ( Men of the Square Table ) are a series of beer commercials for Miller Lite , inspired by the supposed unwritten codes by which men live. The "Men of the Square Table" are a parody of King Arthur 's Knights of the Round Table . The "Square Table" they congregate around is located in what appears to be a secret, Dr. Strangelove -esque room with glass (probably soundproof) walls. The advertising campaign
288-483: A muškēnum than an awīlum : a muškēnum 's life may have been cheaper, but so were some of his fines. There was also inequality within these classes: laws 200 and 202, for example, show that one awīlum could be of higher rank than another. Martha Roth has shown that ideas of shame and honour motivated certain laws. The above principles are distant in spirit from modern systems of common and civil law , but some may be more familiar. One such principle
432-421: A beer tap at its base. Beer contains the phenolic acids 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid , vanillic acid , caffeic acid , syringic acid , p -coumaric acid , ferulic acid , and sinapic acid . Alkaline hydrolysis experiments show that most of the phenolic acids are present as bound forms and only a small portion can be detected as free compounds. Hops , and beer made with it, contain 8-prenylnaringenin which
576-605: A beer with the consistency of gruel, used by the semi-nomadic Natufians for ritual feasting, at the Raqefet Cave in the Carmel Mountains near Haifa in northern Israel . There is evidence that beer was produced at Göbekli Tepe during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (around 8500 BC to 5500 BC ). The earliest clear chemical evidence of beer produced from barley dates to about 3500–3100 BC , from
720-654: A consistent underlying legal system. As with the Code of Hammurabi, however, it is difficult to interpret the purpose and underlying legal systems of these earlier collections, prompting numerous scholars to question whether this should be attempted. Extant collections include: There are additionally thousands of documents from the practice of law, from before and during the Old Babylonian period. These documents include contracts, judicial rulings, letters on legal cases, and reform documents such as that of Urukagina , king of Lagash in
864-416: A daily ration of four to five litres of beer, which served as both nutrition and refreshment and was crucial to the pyramids' construction. Some of the earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer; examples include a prayer to the goddess Ninkasi , known as "The Hymn to Ninkasi", which served as both a prayer and a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people, and
1008-539: A degree that brewers of pale ale add gypsum in a process known as Burtonisation . The starch source provides the fermentable material and determines the strength and flavour of the beer. The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain. Grain is malted by soaking it in water, allowing it to begin germination , and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln. Malting produces enzymes that convert starches into fermentable sugars. Different roasting times and temperatures produce different colours of malt from
1152-431: A dense head and a creamy mouthfeel . In the 1980s, Guinness introduced the beer widget , a nitrogen-pressurised ball inside a can which creates a moderately dense, tight head. This approximates the effect of serving from a keg, at least for a British-style beer which does not have a specially large head. Cask-conditioned ales (or cask ales) are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers. These beers are termed " real ale " by
1296-481: A document from that year refers to a hop garden in the area paying a tithe to the monastery. It claims to be the oldest working brewery in the world. Top-fermented beers are most commonly produced with Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a top-fermenting yeast which clumps and rises to the surface, typically between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F). At these temperatures, yeast produces significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavour and aroma products, and
1440-448: A goat come next. Wolfram von Soden , who decades earlier called this way of thinking Listenwissenschaft ("list science"), often denigrated it. However, more recent writers, such as Marc Van De Mieroop, Jean Bottéro, and Ann Guinan, have either avoided value judgments or expressed admiration. Lists were central to Mesopotamian science and logic, and their distinctive structural principles let entries be generated infinitely. Linking
1584-507: A highly organised code similar to the Code of Justinian and the Napoleonic Code . There is also evidence that dīnātum , which in the Code of Hammurabi sometimes denote individual "laws", were enforced. One copy of the Code calls it a ṣimdat šarrim , "royal decree", which denotes a kind of enforced legislation. However, the arguments against this view are strong. Firstly, it would make
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#17328912993111728-401: A hope that "any wronged man who has a lawsuit" ( awīlum ḫablum ša awātam iraššû ) may have the laws of the stele read aloud to him and know his rights (3240'–3256'). This would bring Hammurabi praise (3257'–3275') and divine favour (3276'–3295'). Hammurabi wishes for good fortune for any ruler who heeds his pronouncements and respects his stele (3296'–3359'). However, he invokes the wrath of
1872-511: A hypothetical conditional. The durative , sometimes called the "present" in Assyriology, may express intention in the laws. For ease of English reading, some translations give preterite and perfect verbs in the protasis a present sense. In the apodosis, the verbs are in the durative, though the sense varies between permissive—"it is permitted that x happen"—and instructive—" x must/will happen". In both protasis and apodosis, sequence of action
2016-534: A medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions are present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use. Alcoholism reduces
2160-408: A non-profit UK beer organisation, has set a temperature standard range of 12°–14 °C (53°–57 °F) for cask ales to be served. Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a beer stein , a mug, a pewter tankard , a beer bottle or a can; or at music festivals and some bars and nightclubs, from a plastic cup. The shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence
2304-478: A person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking alcoholic beverages. In the United States, a total of 3.3 million deaths per year (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol. Code of Hammurabi The Code of Hammurabi
2448-608: A popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern Himalayas . The Andes in South America has Chicha , made from germinated maize (corn); while the indigenous peoples in Brazil have Cauim , a traditional drink made since pre-Columbian times by chewing manioc so that an enzyme ( amylase ) present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars; this is similar to Masato in Peru . Beers made from bread , among
2592-699: A relief portrait of Hammurabi alongside those of other historic lawgivers. There are replicas of the stele in numerous institutions, including the headquarters of the United Nations in New York City and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin . Hammurabi (or Hammurapi), the sixth king of the Amorite First Dynasty of Babylon , ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC ( middle chronology ). He secured Babylonian dominance over
2736-442: A seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles. Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer, then became commonly associated with less expensive, mass-produced beers, even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles. Plastic ( PET ) bottles are used by some breweries. The temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker's experience; warmer temperatures reveal
2880-450: A seated Shamash. Shamash wears the horned crown of divinity and has a solar attribute, flames, spouting from his shoulders. Contrastingly, Scheil, in his editio princeps , identified the seated figure as Hammurabi and the standing figure as Shamash. Scheil also held that the scene showed Shamash dictating to Hammurabi while Hammurabi held a scribe's stylus , gazing attentively at the god. Martha Roth lists other interpretations: "that
3024-531: A secondary carbohydrate source, such as maize (corn), rice, wheat, or sugar, often termed an adjunct , especially when used alongside malted barley. Less widely used starch sources include millet , sorghum , and cassava root in Africa; potato in Brazil; and agave in Mexico. Water is the main ingredient, accounting for 93% of beer's weight. The level of dissolved bicarbonate influences beer's finished taste. Due to
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#17328912993113168-421: A sequence. Van De Mieroop provides the following examples: If a physician performs major surgery with a bronze lancet upon an [ awīlum ] and thus heals the [ awīlum ], or opens an [ awīlum ]'s temple with a bronze lancet and thus heals the [ awīlum ]'s eye, he shall take ten shekels of silver (as his fee). If a physician performs major surgery with a bronze lancet upon an [ awīlum ] and thus causes
3312-472: A single group of nondrinkers, which hides the health benefits of lifelong abstention from ethanol. The long-term health effects of continuous, moderate or heavy alcohol consumption include the risk of developing alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease . Alcoholism , also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems. It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence . In
3456-404: A source of bitterness, flavour, and aroma. The longer the hops are boiled, the more bitterness they contribute, but the less hop flavour and aroma remain. The wort is cooled and the yeast is added. The wort is then fermented, often for a week or longer. The yeast settles, leaving the beer clear. During fermentation, most of the carbon dioxide is allowed to escape through a trap . The carbonation
3600-411: A store or a bar, rather than buying pre-bottled beer, can reduce the environmental impact of beer consumption. Most beers are cleared of yeast by filtering when packaged in bottles and cans. However, bottle conditioned beers retain some yeast—either by being unfiltered, or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast. Many beers are sold in cans, though there is considerable variation in
3744-533: A strong, sweet drink rather like mead or cider . Whatever the case, the meaning of bēor expanded to cover the meaning of ale . When hopped ale from Europe was imported into Britain in the late Middle Ages, it was described as 'beer' to differentiate it from the British unhopped ale, later acquiring a broader meaning. Beer is one of the world's oldest prepared alcoholic drinks. The earliest archaeological evidence of fermentation consists of 13,000 year-old residues of
3888-403: A tooth for a tooth when one man destroys another's. Punishments determined by lex talionis could be transferred to the sons of the wrongdoer. For example, law 229 states that the death of a homeowner in a house collapse necessitates the death of the house's builder. The following law 230 states that if the homeowner's son died, the builder's son must die also. Persons were not equal before
4032-561: A variety of gods individually to turn their particular attributes against the defacer. For example: "may the [storm] god Adad ... deprive him of the benefits of rain from heaven and flood from the springs" (3509'–3515': adad... zunnī ina šamê mīlam ina nagbim līṭeršu ); "may the god [of wisdom] Ea ... deprive him of all understanding and wisdom, and may he lead him into confusion" (3440'–3451': ea... uznam u nēmeqam līṭeršu-ma ina mīšītim littarrūšu ). Gods and goddesses are invoked in this order: The Code of Hammurabi
4176-484: A very unusual code—Reuven Yaron called the designation "Code" a "persistent misnomer". Vital areas of society and commerce are omitted. For example, Marc Van De Mieroop observes that the Code "deals with cattle and agricultural fields, but it almost entirely ignores the work of shepherds, vital to Babylonia's economy". Then, against the legislation theory more generally, highly implausible circumstances are covered, such as threshing with goats, animals far too unruly for
4320-507: A year. A brewpub is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a pub or other drinking establishment . The highest density of breweries in the world, most of them microbreweries, exists in Franconia , Germany, especially in the district of Upper Franconia , which has about 200 breweries. The Benedictine Weihenstephan brewery in Bavaria , Germany, can trace its roots to the year 768, as
4464-546: Is 281 lines long and extremely forceful. Some of the curses are very vivid: "may the god Sin ... decree for him a life that is no better than death" (3486'–3508': sîn... balāṭam ša itti mūtim šitannu ana šīmtim lišīmšum ); "may he [the future defacer] conclude every day, month, and year of his reign with groaning and mourning" (3497'–3501': ūmī warḫī šanāt palēšu ina tānēḫim u dimmatim lišaqti ); may he experience "the spilling of his life force like water" (3435'–3436': tabāk napištišu kīma mê ). Hammurabi implores
Man Laws - Misplaced Pages Continue
4608-476: Is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East . It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian , purportedly by Hammurabi , sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon . The primary copy of the text is inscribed on a basalt stele 2.25 m (7 ft 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) tall. The stele
4752-423: Is a potent phytoestrogen . Hop also contains myrcene , humulene , xanthohumol , isoxanthohumol , myrcenol , linalool , tannins, and resin . The alcohol 2M2B is a component of hops brewing. Barley, in the form of malt, brings the condensed tannins prodelphinidins B3 , B9 and C2 into beer. Tryptophol , tyrosol , and phenylethanol are aromatic higher alcohols ( congeners ) produced by yeast during
4896-496: Is a preservative. Yeast is the microorganism responsible for fermenting beer. It metabolises the sugars, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide , and thereby turns wort into beer. In addition, yeast influences the character and flavour. The dominant types of beer yeast are top-fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae and bottom-fermenting Saccharomyces pastorianus . Brettanomyces ferments lambics , and Torulaspora delbrueckii ferments Bavarian weissbier . Before
5040-401: Is an alcoholic beverage produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches from cereal grain—most commonly malted barley , although wheat , maize (corn), rice , and oats are also used. The grain is mashed to convert starch in the grain to sugars , which dissolve in water to form wort . Fermentation of the wort by yeast produces ethanol and carbonation in the beer. Beer
5184-403: Is brewed with a large proportion of wheat although it often also contains a significant proportion of malted barley . Wheat beers are usually top-fermented . Stout is a dark beer made using roasted barley, and typically brewed with slow fermenting yeast. There are a number of variations including dry stout (such as Guinness ), sweet stout, and Imperial (or Russian) stout. Stout was originally
5328-453: Is brewing. It converts the grain into a sugary liquid called wort and then ferments this into beer in a using yeast . The first step, mixing malted barley with hot water in a mash tun , is " mashing ". The starches are converted to sugars, and the sweet wort is drained off. The grains are washed to extract as much fermentable liquid from the grains as possible. The sweet wort is put into a kettle, or "copper", and boiled. Hops are added as
5472-478: Is broad, including, for example, criminal law , family law , property law , and commercial law . Modern scholars responded to the Code with admiration at its perceived fairness and respect for the rule of law , and at the complexity of Old Babylonian society. There was also much discussion of its influence on the Mosaic Law . Scholars quickly identified lex talionis —the "eye for an eye" principle—underlying
5616-448: Is conveyed by suffixing verbs with -ma , "and". -ma can also have the sense "but". The Code is relatively well-understood, but some items of its vocabulary are controversial. As mentioned, the terms awīlum and muškēnum have proved difficult to translate. They probably denote respectively a male member of a higher and lower social class. Wolfram von Soden, in his Akkadisches Handwörterbuch , proposed that muškēnum
5760-417: Is determined by the malt. The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts. Pale lager and pale ale are terms used for beers made from malt dried and roasted with the fuel coke . Coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642, but it was not until around 1703 that the term pale ale was used. In terms of sales volume, most of today's beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in
5904-428: Is either a soldier or [an auxiliary] who is taken captive in a royal fortress, and his son is able to perform the service obligation, the field and orchard shall be given to him, and he shall perform his father's service obligation. If his son is young and is unable to perform his father's service obligation, one third of the field and orchard shall be given to his mother, and his mother shall raise him. Here, following
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6048-516: Is not a meal in itself. A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that moderate ethanol consumption brought no mortality benefit compared with lifetime abstention from ethanol consumption. Some studies have concluded that drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men, per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease , stroke , diabetes mellitus , and early death. Some of these studies combined former ethanol drinkers and lifelong abstainers into
6192-454: Is often increased either by transferring the beer to a pressure vessel and introducing pressurised carbon dioxide or by transferring it before the fermentation is finished so that carbon dioxide pressure builds up inside the container. The basic ingredients of beer are water; a starch source, usually malted barley ; a brewer's yeast to produce the fermentation; and a flavouring such as hops . A mixture of starch sources may be used, with
6336-425: Is often replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is distributed in bottles and cans, and is commonly available on draught in pubs and bars. The brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries . The strength of modern beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume (ABV). Some of
6480-420: Is one of the oldest alcoholic drinks in the world, the most widely consumed, and the third most popular drink after water and tea . Most modern beer is brewed with hops , which add bitterness and other flavours and act as a natural preservative and stabilising agent . Other flavouring agents, such as gruit , herbs, or fruits, may be included or used instead of hops. In commercial brewing, natural carbonation
6624-458: Is partially frozen and the ice is repeatedly removed, until the desired strength is reached, a process that may class the product as spirits rather than beer. The German brewery Schorschbräu's Schorschbock , a 31% ABV eisbock, and Hair of the Dog 's Dave , a 29% abv barley wine made in 1994, used the same fractional freezing method. A 60% ABV blend of beer with whiskey was jokingly claimed as
6768-522: Is perhaps justified by Hammurabi's interest in his subjects' affairs. His affinities with many different gods are stressed throughout. He is portrayed as dutiful in restoring and maintaining temples and peerless on the battlefield. The list of his accomplishments has helped establish that the text was written late in Hammurabi's reign. After the list, Hammurabi explains that he fulfilled Marduk's request to establish "truth and justice" ( kittam u mīšaram ) for
6912-451: Is short: "I am Hammurabi, the shepherd, selected by the god Enlil" ( ḫammurabi rē'ûm nibīt enlil anāku ). Then Hammurabi continues for over 200 lines in a single nominal sentence with the anāku delayed to the very end (291). Hammurabi repeatedly calls himself na'dum , "pious" (lines 61, 149, 241, and 272). The metaphor of Hammurabi as his people's shepherd also recurs. It was a common metaphor for ancient Near Eastern kings, but
7056-452: Is that the Code is not a true code but an abstract treatise on how judgments should be formulated. This led Fritz Rudolf Kraus, in an early formulation of the theory, to call it jurisprudence ( Rechtssprüche ). Kraus proposed that it was a work of Mesopotamian scholarship in the same category as omen collections like šumma ālu and ana ittišu . Others have provided their own versions of this theory. A. Leo Oppenheim remarked that
7200-472: Is the presumption of innocence ; the first two laws of the stele prescribe punishments, determined by lex talionis , for unsubstantiated accusations. Written evidence was valued highly, especially in matters of contract . One crime was given only one punishment. The laws also recognized the importance of the intentions of a defendant. Lastly, the Code's establishment on public stelae was supposedly intended to increase access to justice. Whether or not this
7344-453: Is the longest and best-organised legal text from the ancient Near East, as well as the best-preserved. The classification below (columns 1–3) is Driver & Miles', with several amendments, and Roth's translation is used. Laws represented by letters are those reconstructed primarily from documents other than the Louvre stele. The purpose and legal authority of the Code have been disputed since
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#17328912993117488-424: Is the sole commercial use of hops . The flower of the hop vine acts as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today. The flowers themselves are often called "hops". The first historical mention of the use of hops in beer dates from 822 AD in monastery rules written by Adalard of Corbie , though widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer began in the thirteenth century. Before then, beer
7632-710: Is usually around 4% to 6%, measured as alcohol by volume (ABV). The perceived bitterness is measured by the International Bitterness Units scale (IBU), defined in co-operation between the American Society of Brewing Chemists and the European Brewery Convention . The international scale was a development of the European Bitterness Units scale, often abbreviated as EBU, and the bitterness values should be identical. Beer colour
7776-466: The CAMRA organisation. When a cask arrives in a pub, it is placed horizontally on a " stillage " frame, designed to hold it steady and at the right angle, and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature (typically between 11–13 °C or 52–55 °F), before being tapped and vented—a tap is driven through a rubber bung at the bottom of one end, and a hard spile is used to open a hole in the uppermost side of
7920-495: The Code of Ur-Nammu , when Hammurabi produced his own Code. This suggests that earlier collections may have not only resembled the Code but influenced it. Raymond Westbrook maintained that there was a fairly consistent tradition of "ancient Near Eastern law" which included the Code of Hammurabi, and that this was largely customary law . Nonetheless, there are differences: for example, Stephen Bertman has suggested that where earlier collections are concerned with compensating victims,
8064-528: The Industrial Revolution was made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries . During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal to industrial manufacture , while domestic production ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century. In 1912, brown bottles began to be used by
8208-739: The Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin , in the United States. This innovation has since been accepted worldwide as it prevents light rays from degrading the quality and stability of beer. The brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers, ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries . As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres (35 billion US gallons) of beer are sold per year, producing global revenues of US$ 294.5 billion. In 2010, China's beer consumption hit 450 billion litres (120 billion US gallons), or nearly twice that of
8352-653: The Louvre , in Room 227 of the Richelieu wing. At the top is an image of Hammurabi with Shamash , the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the image are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: One fifth contain a prologue and epilogue, while the remaining four fifths contain what are generally called the laws. Near the bottom, seven columns of the laws, each with more than eighty lines, were polished and erased in antiquity. The stele
8496-615: The Mesopotamian plain through military prowess, diplomacy, and treachery. When Hammurabi inherited his father Sin-Muballit 's throne, Babylon held little local sway; the local hegemon was Rim-Sin of Larsa . Hammurabi waited until Rim-Sin grew old, then conquered his territory in one swift campaign, leaving his organisation intact. Later, Hammurabi betrayed allies in Eshnunna , Elam , and Mari to gain their territories. Hammurabi had an aggressive foreign policy, but his letters suggest he
8640-547: The mineral properties of each region 's water, specific areas were originally the sole producers of certain types of beer, each identifiable by regional characteristics. Dublin 's hard water is well-suited to making stout , such as Guinness , while the Plzeň Region 's soft water is ideal for brewing Pilsner , such as Pilsner Urquell . The waters of Burton in England contain gypsum , which benefits making pale ale to such
8784-472: The "high-five" celebration. After a short discussion on the topic, the men will come to a consensus on a new Man Law, at which point the men raise their beer bottles (or sometimes cans) and proclaim, "Man Law!", at which point the Square Table's elderly scribe would write the new Man Law down. The Miller Brewing Co. unveiled a new football-related advertising campaign to effectively replace the Man Law ads starting
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#17328912993118928-617: The 21st century, larger breweries have repeatedly absorbed smaller breweries. In 2002, South African Breweries bought the North American Miller Brewing Company to found SABMiller , becoming the second-largest brewery after North American Anheuser-Busch . In 2004, the Belgian Interbrew was the third-largest brewery by volume, and the Brazilian AmBev was the fifth-largest. They merged into InBev , becoming
9072-456: The Babylonian sky god and king of the gods , granted rulership over humanity to Marduk . Marduk chose the centre of his earthly power to be Babylon, which in the real world worshipped him as its tutelary god . Marduk established the office of kingship within Babylon. Finally, Anum, along with the Babylonian wind god Enlil , chose Hammurabi to be Babylon's king. Hammurabi was to rule "to prevent
9216-527: The CO 2 emissions from a 6-pack of micro-brew beer is about 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds). The loss of natural habitat potential from the 6-pack of micro-brew beer is estimated to be 2.5 square metres (26 square feet). Downstream emissions from distribution, retail, storage and disposal of waste can be over 45% of a bottled micro-brew beer's CO 2 emissions. Where legal, the use of a refillable jug, reusable bottle or other reusable containers to transport draught beer from
9360-668: The Code evinced. Several singled out perceived secularism : Owen Jenkins, for example, but even Charles Souvay for the Catholic Encyclopedia , who opined that unlike the Mosaic Law the Code was "founded upon the dictates of reason". The question of the Code's influence on the Mosaic Law received much early attention. Scholars also identified Hammurabi with the Biblical figure Amraphel , but this proposal has since been abandoned. The relief appears to show Hammurabi standing before
9504-401: The Code of Hammurabi and similar Mesopotamian law collections "represent an interesting formulation of social criticism and should not be taken as normative directions". This interpretation bypasses the problem of low congruence between the Code and actual legal judgments. Secondly, the Code does bear striking similarities to other works of Mesopotamian scholarship. Key points of similarity are
9648-469: The Code of Lipit-Ishtar in 1947, the Laws of Eshnunna in 1948, and the Code of Ur-Nammu in 1952. Early commentators dated Hammurabi and the stele to the 23rd century BC. However, this is an earlier estimate than even the " ultra-long chronology " would support. The Code was compiled near the end of Hammurabi's reign. This was deduced partly from the list of his achievements in the prologue. Scheil enthused about
9792-418: The Code or any other law collection, despite the great scale of the corpus. Two references to prescriptions on "a stele" ( narû ) come closest. In contrast, numerous judgments cite royal mīšarum -decrees. Raymond Westbrook held that this strengthened the argument from silence that ancient Near Eastern legal "codes" had legal import. Furthermore, many Old Babylonian judgments run entirely counter to
9936-434: The Code suggests about Old Babylonian society and its legal system. For example, whether it demonstrates that there were no professional advocates, or that there were professional judges. Scholars who approach the Code as a self-contained document renounce such claims. One principle widely accepted to underlie the Code is lex talionis , or "eye for an eye". Laws 196 and 200 respectively prescribe an eye for an eye and
10080-411: The Code to the scribal tradition within which "list science" emerged also explains why trainee scribes copied and studied it for over a millennium. The Code appears in a late Babylonian (7th–6th century BC) list of literary and scholarly texts. No other law collection became so entrenched in the curriculum. Rather than a code of laws, then, it may be a scholarly treatise. Much has been written on what
10224-768: The Code was published by Father Jean-Vincent Scheil in 1902, in the fourth volume of the Reports of the Delegation to Persia ( Mémoires de la Délégation en Perse ). After a brief introduction with details of the excavation, Scheil gave a transliteration and a free translation into French, as well as a selection of images. Editions in other languages soon followed: in German by Hugo Winckler in 1902, in English by C. H. W. Johns in 1903, and in Italian by Pietro Bonfante, also in 1903. The Code
10368-403: The Code's prescriptions. A second theory is that the Code is a sort of law report, and as such contains records of past cases and judgments, albeit phrased abstractly. This would provide one explanation for the casuistic format of the "laws"; indeed, Jean Bottéro believed he had found a record of a case that inspired one. However, such finds are inconclusive and very rare, despite the scale of
10512-550: The Mesopotamian legal corpus. Furthermore, legal judgments were frequently recorded in Mesopotamia, and they recount the facts of the case without generalising them. These judgments were concerned almost exclusively with points of fact, prompting Martha Roth to comment: "I know of only one case out of thousands extant that might be said to revolve around a point of law". A third theory, which has gained traction within Assyriology,
10656-512: The Scandinavian languages, the usual word for beer was the word whose Modern English form is ale . The modern word beer comes into present-day English from Old English bēor , itself from Common Germanic , it is found throughout the West Germanic and North Germanic dialects (modern Dutch and German bier , Old Norse bjórr ). The earlier etymology of the word is debated:
10800-451: The Square Table's de facto leader. The ads would consist of the men bringing up a certain topic or situation, sometimes simple beer-related topics, such as whether anything other than beer can be stored in the garage fridge, or if one can take leftover beers that he brought to a party back home; other topics would be slightly more serious, such as how long one can wait before asking out his best friend's ex-girlfriend, or if it's time to retire
10944-458: The United States, but only 5 per cent sold were premium beers, compared with 50 per cent in France and Germany. Beer is the most widely consumed of all alcoholic drinks. A widely publicised study in 2018 suggested that sudden decreases in barley production due to extreme drought and heat could in the future cause substantial volatility in the availability and price of beer. The process of making beer
11088-579: The [ awīlum ]'s death, or opens an [ awīlum ]'s temple with a bronze lancet and thus blinds the [ awīlum ]'s eye, they shall cut off his hand. Laws 215 and 218 illustrate the principle of opposition: one variable of the first law, the outcome of the operations, is altered to create the second. If there is either a soldier or [an auxiliary] who is taken captive while serving in a royal fortress [...] if he should [...] return and get back to his city, they shall return to him his field and orchard and he himself shall perform his service obligation. If there
11232-531: The alcohol content of their beers. Samuel Adams reached 20% ABVwith Millennium , and then surpassed that amount to 25.6% ABV with Utopias . The strongest beer brewed in Britain was Baz's Super Brew by Parish Brewery, a 23% ABVbeer. In September 2011, the Scottish brewery BrewDog produced Ghost Deer, which, at 28%, they claim to be the world's strongest beer produced by fermentation alone. The product claimed to be
11376-554: The ancient advice ("Fill your belly. Day and night make merry") to Gilgamesh , recorded in the Epic of Gilgamesh by the alewife Siduri , may, at least in part, have referred to the consumption of beer. The Ebla tablets , discovered in 1974 in Ebla , Syria , show that beer was produced in the city in 2500 BC. A fermented drink using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake , mould
11520-509: The aristocracy"; others have left it untranslated. Certain legal terms have also proved difficult to translate. For example, dīnum and dīttum can denote the law in general as well as individual laws, verdicts, divine pronouncements and other phenomena. mīšarum can likewise denote the law in general as well as a kind of royal decree. The Code of Hammurabi bears strong similarities to earlier Mesopotamian law collections. Many purport to have been written by rulers, and this tradition
11664-422: The beer appear bright and clean, rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles such as wheat beers . Clarifying agents include isinglass , from the swimbladders of fish; Irish moss , a seaweed; kappa carrageenan , from the seaweed Kappaphycus cottonii ; Polyclar (artificial); and gelatin . Beer marked "suitable for vegans" is clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents. In
11808-400: The beers to continue to ferment, and to clear any sediment. Lager yeast is a cool bottom-fermenting yeast ( Saccharomyces pastorianus ). Lager typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7–12 °C (45–54 °F), and then a long secondary fermentation at 0–4 °C (32–39 °F) (the lagering phase). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions inhibit
11952-412: The brewing process. as secondary products of alcoholic fermentation Beers vary in their nutritional content. The ingredients used to make beer, including the yeast , provide a rich source of nutrients; therefore beer may contain nutrients including magnesium , selenium , potassium , phosphorus , biotin , chromium and B vitamins . Beer is sometimes referred to as "liquid bread ", though beer
12096-474: The case detailed in the protasis ("if" clause ) and the remedy given in the apodosis ("then" clause). The protasis begins šumma , "if", except when it adds to circumstances already specified in a previous law (e.g. laws 36, 38, and 40). The preterite is used for simple past verbs in the protasis, or possibly for a simple conditional. The perfect often appears at the end of the protasis after one or more preterites to convey sequence of action, or possibly
12240-623: The cask. The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment, so it must be left for a suitable period of hours to days to "drop" (clear) again, as well as to fully condition the beer . At this point the beer is ready to sell, either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump, or simply being "gravity-fed" directly into the glass. Draught beer's environmental impact can be 68% lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences. A life cycle study of one beer brand, including grain production, brewing, bottling, distribution and waste management, shows that
12384-696: The city of Plzeň in the present-day Czech Republic . The modern pale lager is light in colour due to use of coke for kilning, which gives off heat with little smoke. Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade. Other colourants—such as caramel—are also widely used to darken beers. Very dark beers, such as stout , use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer. Some have roasted unmalted barley. Beer ranges from less than 3% alcohol by volume (abv) to around 14% abv, though this strength can be increased to around 20% by re-pitching with champagne yeast, and to 55% ABVby
12528-449: The container from which it is dispensed, and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide ". It is applied to both bottle conditioned and cask conditioned beers. As for the types of top-fermented beers, pale ale predominantly uses pale malt. It is one of the world's major beer styles and includes India pale ale (IPA). Mild ale has a predominantly malty palate. It is usually dark, with an abv of 3% to 3.6%. Wheat beer
12672-405: The development of Assyriological science since the days of Rawlinson and Layard ". Charles Francis Horne commended the "wise law-giver" and his "celebrated code". James Henry Breasted noted the Code's "justice to the widow, the orphan, and the poor", but remarked that it "also allows many of the old and naïve ideas of justice to stand". Commentators praised the advanced society they believed
12816-426: The development of artificial refrigeration and by the 1870s, was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager. Chilling beer makes it more refreshing, though below 15.5 °C (60 °F) the chilling starts to reduce taste awareness and reduces it significantly below 10 °C (50 °F). Beer served unchilled—either cool or at room temperature—reveal more of their flavours. Cask Marque ,
12960-599: The earliest forms of the drink, are Sahti in Finland, Kvass in Russia and Ukraine , and Bouza in Sudan. 4000 years ago fermented bread was used in Mesopotamia. Food waste activists got inspired by these ancient recipes and use leftover bread to replace a third of the malted barley that would otherwise be used for brewing their craft ale. Beer is measured and assessed by colour, by strength and by bitterness. The strength of modern beer
13104-450: The earliest writings mention the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating it, while "The Hymn to Ninkasi ", a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, contains a recipe for it. Beer forms part of the culture of many nations and is associated with social traditions such as beer festivals , as well as activities like pub crawling , pub quizzes , and pub games . In early forms of English and in
13248-707: The freeze-distilling process. The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice or beer style. The pale lagers that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4–6%, with a typical ABVof 5%. The customary strength of British ales is quite low, with many session beers being around 4% abv. In Belgium, some beers, such as table beer are of such low alcohol content (1%–4%) that they are served instead of soft drinks in some schools. The weakest beers are described as 'alcohol-free' , typically containing 0.05% ABV; this compares to low alcohol beers which may contain 1.2% ABV or less, and conventional beers which average 4.4% ABV. The strength of beers has climbed during
13392-458: The gods on any man who disobeys or erases his pronouncements (3360'–3641', the end of the text). The epilogue contains much legal imagery, and the phrase "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak" (3202'–3203': dannum enšam ana lā ḫabālim ) is reused from the prologue. However, the king's main concern appears to be ensuring that his achievements are not forgotten and his name not sullied. The list of curses heaped upon any future defacer
13536-483: The king is offering the laws to the god; that the king is accepting or offering the emblems of sovereignty of the rod and ring; or—most probably—that these emblems are the measuring tools of the rod-measure and rope-measure used in temple-building". Hammurabi may even be imitating Shamash. It is certain, though, that the draughtsman showed Hammurabi's close links to the divine realm, using composition and iconography. The prologue and epilogue together occupy one-fifth of
13680-418: The largest brewery. In 2007, SABMiller surpassed InBev and Anheuser-Busch when it acquired Royal Grolsch , the brewer of Dutch brand Grolsch. In 2008, when InBev (the second-largest) bought Anheuser-Busch (the third-largest), the new Anheuser-Busch InBev company became again the largest brewer in the world. As of 2020 , according to the market research firm Technavio, AB InBev was the largest brewing company in
13824-521: The later years of the 20th century. Vetter 33, a 10.5% ABV (33 degrees Plato , hence Vetter "33") doppelbock , was listed in the 1994 Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest beer at that time, though Samichlaus , by the Swiss brewer Hürlimann, had also been listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest at 14% |BV. Since then, some brewers have used champagne yeasts to increase
13968-562: The law ; not just age and profession but also class and gender dictated the punishment or remedy they received. Three main kinds of person, awīlum , muškēnum , and wardum (male)/ amtum (female), are mentioned throughout the Code. A wardum / amtum was a male/female slave. As for awīlum and muškēnum , though contentious, it seems likely that the difference was one of social class, with awīlum meaning something like "gentleman" and muškēnum something like "commoner". The penalties were not necessarily stricter for
14112-513: The list format and the order of the items, which Ann Guinan describes as a complex "serial logic". Marc Van De Mieroop explains that, in common with other works of Mesopotamian scholarship such as omen lists, king lists, and god lists, the entries of the Code of Hammurabi are arranged according to two principles. These are "opposition"—whereby a variable in one entry is altered to make another entry—and "pointillism"—whereby new conditions are added to an entry, or paradigmatic series pursued, to generate
14256-439: The mid-20th century. Theories fall into three main categories: that it is legislation , whether a code of law or a body of statutes ; that it is a sort of law report , containing records of past cases and judgments; and that it is an abstract work of jurisprudence . The jurisprudence theory has gained much support within Assyriology. The term "code" presupposes that the document was intended to be enforced as legislation. It
14400-457: The mid-3rd millennium BC, whose reforms combatted corruption. Mesopotamia has the most comprehensive surviving legal corpus from before the Digest of Justinian , even compared to those from ancient Greece and Rome . The first copy of the text found, and still the most complete, is on a 2.25 m (7 ft 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) stele . The stele is now displayed on the ground floor of
14544-730: The natural production of esters and other byproducts, resulting in a "cleaner"-tasting beer. With improved modern yeast strains, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically no more than 2 weeks. Some traditional lagers are still stored for several months. Lambic , a beer of Belgium , is naturally fermented using wild yeasts, rather than cultivated. Many of these are not strains of brewer's yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness. Yeast varieties such as Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Brettanomyces lambicus are common in lambics. In addition, other organisms such as Lactobacillus bacteria produce acids which contribute to
14688-467: The people (292–302), although the prologue never directly references the laws. The prologue ends "at that time:" (303: inūmišu ) and the laws begin. Unlike the prologue, the 500-line epilogue is explicitly related to the laws. The epilogue begins (3144'–3151'): "these are the just decisions which Hammurabi ... has established" ( dīnāt mīšarim ša ḫammurabi... ukinnu-ma ). He exalts his laws and his magnanimity (3152'–3239'). He then expresses
14832-407: The perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style. Breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion, as this increases sales of their product. The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation. The rate of flow from the tap or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the centre or down
14976-608: The prescriptions themselves bear "an astonishing absence ... of all theological or even ceremonial law". The laws are written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian. Their style is regular and repetitive, and today they are a standard set text for introductory Akkadian classes. However, as A. Leo Oppenheim summarises, the cuneiform signs themselves are "vertically arranged ... within boxes placed in bands side by side from right to left", an arrangement already antiquated by Hammurabi's time. The laws are expressed in casuistic format: they are conditional sentences with
15120-467: The principle of pointillism, circumstances are added to the first entry to create more entries. Pointillism also lets list entries be generated by following paradigmatic series common to multiple branches of scholarship. It can thus explain the implausible entries. For example, in the case of the goat used for threshing (law 270), the previous laws concern other animals that were used for threshing. The established series of domesticated beasts dictated that
15264-441: The proportion between different countries. In Sweden in 2001, 63.9% of beer was sold in cans. People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. A technology developed by Crown Holdings for the 2010 FIFA World Cup is the 'full aperture' can, so named because the entire lid is removed during the opening process, turning the can into a drinking cup. Cans protect the beer from light (thereby preventing spoilage) and have
15408-875: The range of flavours in a beer but cooler temperatures are more refreshing. Most drinkers prefer pale lager to be served chilled, a low- or medium-strength pale ale to be served cool, while a strong barley wine or imperial stout to be served at room temperature. Beer writer Michael Jackson proposed a five-level scale for serving temperatures: well chilled (7 °C or 45 °F) for "light" beers (pale lagers); chilled (8 °C or 46 °F) for Berliner Weisse and other wheat beers; lightly chilled (9 °C or 48 °F) for all dark lagers, altbier and German wheat beers; cellar temperature (13 °C or 55 °F) for regular British ale , stout and most Belgian specialities ; and room temperature (15.5 °C or 60 °F) for strong dark ales (especially trappist beer ) and barley wine . Drinking chilled beer began with
15552-412: The relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: one fifth contains a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, while the remaining four fifths contain what are generally called the laws. In the prologue, Hammurabi claims to have been granted his rule by the gods "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak". The laws are casuistic , expressed as "if ... then" conditional sentences . Their scope
15696-641: The relief portion of the stele, especially the beards of Hammurabi and Shamash, was reworked at the same time. Roth suggests the stele was taken as plunder from Sippar, where Hammurabi lived towards the end of his reign. Fragments of a second and possibly third stele recording the Code were found along with the Louvre stele at Susa. Over fifty manuscripts containing the laws are known. They were found not only in Susa but also in Babylon, Nineveh , Assur , Borsippa , Nippur , Sippar , Ur, Larsa, and more. Copies were created during Hammurabi's reign, and also after it, since
15840-530: The result is often a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling apple, pear, pineapple, banana , plum, or prune, among others. After the introduction of hops into England from Flanders in the 15th century, "ale" came to mean an unhopped fermented brew, while "beer" meant a brew with an infusion of hops. The term ' real ale ' was coined by the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) in 1973 for "beer brewed from traditional ingredients, matured by secondary fermentation in
15984-435: The role of yeast in fermentation was understood, fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts. A few styles, such as lambics , rely on this method today, but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast cultures . Some brewers add clarifying agents or finings to beer, which typically precipitate (collect as a solid) out along with protein solids, and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product. This process makes
16128-708: The same grain. Darker malts produce darker beers. Nearly all beers use barley malt for most of the starch, as its fibrous hull remains attached to the grain during threshing. After malting, barley is milled, which finally removes the hull, breaking it into large pieces. These pieces remain with the grain during the mash and act as a filter bed during lautering , when sweet wort is separated from insoluble grain material. Other grains, including wheat, rice, oats , and rye , and less frequently, corn and sorghum may be used. Some brewers have produced gluten-free beer , made with sorghum, for those who cannot consume gluten -containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye. Flavouring beer
16272-416: The side) into the glass all influence the result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and the release of carbonation . A beer tower or portable beer tap is sometimes used in bars and restaurants to allow a group of customers to serve themselves. The device consists of a tall container with a cooling mechanism and
16416-647: The site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran . Beer is recorded in the written history of ancient Egypt , and archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilizations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk (modern day Iraq) were paid by their employers with volumes of beer. During the building of the Great Pyramids in Giza, Egypt , each worker got
16560-560: The sourness. Around the world, many traditional and ancient starch-based drinks are classed as beer. In Africa, there are ethnic beers made from sorghum or millet , such as Oshikundu in Namibia and Tella in Ethiopia. Kyrgyzstan also has a beer made from millet; it is a low alcohol, somewhat porridge-like drink called "Bozo". Bhutan , Nepal, Tibet and Sikkim also use millet in Chhaang ,
16704-453: The stele's fragments were found on the tell of the Susa acropolis ( l'Acropole de Suse ), between December 1901 and January 1902. The few, large fragments made assembly easy. Scheil hypothesised that the stele had been taken to Susa by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nakhunte and that he had commissioned the erasure of several columns of laws to write his legend there. It has been proposed that
16848-460: The stele's importance and perceived fairness, calling it "a moral and political masterpiece". C. H. W. Johns called it "one of the most important monuments in the history of the human race". He remarked that "there are many humanitarian clauses and much protection is given the weak and the helpless", and even lauded a "wonderful modernity of spirit". John Dyneley Prince called the Code's rediscovery "the most important event which has taken place in
16992-584: The strong from oppressing the weak" (37–39: dannum enšam ana lā ḫabālim ). He was to rise like Shamash over the Mesopotamians (the ṣalmāt qaqqadim , literally the "black-headed people") and illuminate the land (40–44). Hammurabi then lists his achievements and virtues (50–291). These are expressed in noun form, in the Akkadian first person singular nominal sentence construction "[noun] ... anāku " ("I am [noun]"). The first nominal sentence (50–53)
17136-503: The strongest beer by a Dutch brewery in July 2010. Draught (also spelled "draft") beer from a pressurised keg using a lever-style dispenser and a spout is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet. Some beers may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture. Nitrogen produces fine bubbles, resulting in
17280-411: The strongest beer made is Schorschbräu's 2011 Schorschbock 57 with 57,5% ABV. It was preceded by The End of History , a 55% Belgian ale , made by BrewDog in 2010. The same company had previously made Sink The Bismarck! , a 41% ABV IPA , and Tactical Nuclear Penguin , a 32% ABV Imperial stout . Each of these beers are made using the eisbock method of fractional freezing , in which a strong ale
17424-464: The strongest variety of porter , a dark brown beer popular with the street and river porters of eighteenth century London. Lager is cool-fermented beer. Pale lagers are the most commonly drunk beers in the world. Many are of the " pilsner " type. The name "lager" comes from the German "lagern" for "to store", as brewers in Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars during the warm summer months, allowing
17568-491: The sweetness of the malt; the bitterness of beers is measured on the International Bitterness Units scale . Hops further contribute floral, citrus, and herbal aromas and flavours. They have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms, and aids in " head retention", the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last. The acidity of hops
17712-465: The task (law 270). The laws are also strictly casuistic ("if ... then"); unlike in the Mosaic Law, there are no apodictic laws (general commands). These would more obviously suggest prescriptive legislation. The strongest argument against the legislation theory, however, is that most judges appear to have paid the Code no attention. This line of criticism originated with Benno Landsberger in 1950. No Mesopotamian legal document explicitly references
17856-400: The text became a part of the scribal curriculum. Copies have been found dating from one thousand years after the stele's creation, and a catalogue from the library of Neo-Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (685–631 BC) lists a copy of the "judgments of Hammurabi". The additional copies fill in most of the stele's original text, including much of the erased section. The editio princeps of
18000-444: The text. Out of around 4,130 lines, the prologue occupies 300 lines and the epilogue occupies 500. They are in ring composition around the laws, though there is no visual break distinguishing them from the laws. Both are written in poetic style, and, as William W. Davies wrote, "contain much ... which sounds very like braggadocio". The 300-line prologue begins with an etiology of Hammurabi's royal authority (1–49). Anum ,
18144-619: The three main theories are that the word originates in Proto-Germanic * beuzą (putatively from Proto-Indo-European * bʰeusóm ), meaning ' brewer's yeast , beer dregs'; that it is related to the word barley , or that it was somehow borrowed from Latin bibere 'to drink'. Christine Fell , in Leeds Studies in English (1975), suggests that the Old English/Norse word bēor did not originally denote ale or beer, but
18288-461: The two collections. Debate among Assyriologists has since centred around several aspects of the Code: its purpose, its underlying principles, its language, and its relation to earlier and later law collections. Despite the uncertainty surrounding these issues, Hammurabi is regarded outside Assyriology as an important figure in the history of law and the document as a true legal code. The U.S. Capitol has
18432-416: The week of September 2, 2007, to coincide with the start of the 2007 NFL Regular Season. The series is called More Taste League (MTL) and these ads consist of actor John C. McGinley portraying The Commish of beer to protect Miller Lite's status as the beer of choice. Miller had signed a new agency to handle their TV and radio ads, with the first ones to be unveiled during that time. Beer Beer
18576-468: The world, with Heineken second, CR Snow third, Carlsberg fourth, and Molson Coors fifth. A microbrewery , or craft brewery , produces a limited amount of beer. The maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a 'microbrewery' varies by region and by authority; in the US, it is 15,000 US beer barrels (1.8 megalitres; 390 thousand imperial gallons; 460 thousand US gallons)
18720-451: Was a response to negative feedback about prior sexist advertising. The campaign also included a website as well as print advertising. The ads featured the "Men of the Square Table", which consisted of men of great significance in different fields, such as football star Jerome Bettis , pro wrestler Triple H , actor/comedian Eddie Griffin , adventurer Aron Ralston , professional bull-rider Ty Murray , and actor Burt Reynolds , who acts as
18864-410: Was concerned with the welfare of his many subjects and was interested in law and justice. He commissioned extensive construction works, and in his letters, he frequently presents himself as his people's shepherd. Justice is also a theme of the prologue to the Code, and "the word translated 'justice' [ ešērum ]... is one whose root runs through both prologue and epilogue". Although Hammurabi's Code
19008-510: Was derived from šukênum , "to bow down/supplicate". As a word for a man of low social standing, it has endured, possibly from a Sumerian root, into Arabic ( miskīn ), Italian ( meschino ), Spanish ( mezquino ), and French ( mesquin ). However, some earlier translators, also seeking to explain the muškēnum 's special treatment, translated it as "leper" and even "noble". Some translators have supplied stilted readings for awīlum , such as "seignior", "elite man", and "member of
19152-599: Was different from every brewer. What they did not contain was hops , as that was a later addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot and again in 1067 by abbess Hildegard of Bingen . In 1516, William IV, Duke of Bavaria adopted the Reinheitsgebot (purity law), perhaps the oldest food-quality regulation still in use in the 21st century, according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water, hops , and barley- malt . Beer produced before
19296-553: Was flavoured with other plants such as grains of paradise or alehoof . Combinations of aromatic herbs, berries, and even wormwood were combined into aflavouring mixture known as gruit . Some beers today, such as Fraoch' by the Scottish Heather Ales company use plants other than hops for flavouring. and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie-Lancelot company, Hops contribute a bitterness that balances
19440-513: Was found at the site of the ancient Elamite city of Susa . Susa is in modern-day Khuzestan Province , Iran (Persia at the time of excavation). The stele was excavated by the French Archaeological Mission under the direction of Jacques de Morgan . Father Jean-Vincent Scheil published the initial report in the fourth volume of the Reports of the Delegation to Persia ( Mémoires de la Délégation en Perse ). According to Scheil,
19584-410: Was found in three large fragments and reconstructed. It is 225 cm (7 ft 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) high, with a circumference is 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) at the summit and 190 cm (6 ft 3 in) at the base. Hammurabi's image is 65 cm (2 ft 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) high and 60 cm (1 ft 11 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) wide. The Louvre stele
19728-430: Was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today. Alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers may have contained fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices, and other substances such as narcotic herbs. This mixture was called gruit, where if some were improperly heated could cause hallucinations. The mixture of gruit
19872-583: Was not used to saccharify the rice (amylolytic fermentation); the rice was probably prepared for fermentation by chewing or malting . During the Vedic period in Ancient India , there are records of the consumption of the beer-like sura . Xenophon noted that during his travels, beer was being produced in Armenia . Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it
20016-513: Was probably widespread. Earlier law collections express their god-given legitimacy similarly. Like the Code of Hammurabi, they feature prologues and epilogues: the Code of Ur-Nammu has a prologue, the Code of Lipit-Ishtar a prologue and an epilogue, and the Laws of Eshnunna an epilogue. Also, like the Code of Hammurabi, they uphold the "one crime, one punishment" principle. The cases covered and language used are, overall, strikingly similar. Scribes were still copying earlier law collections, such as
20160-460: Was rediscovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran, where it had been taken as plunder six hundred years after its creation. The text itself was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium. The stele now resides in the Louvre Museum . The top of the stele features an image in relief of Hammurabi with Shamash , the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below
20304-478: Was the first Mesopotamian law collection to be discovered, it was not the first written; several earlier collections survive. These collections were written in Sumerian and Akkadian . They also purport to have been written by rulers. There were almost certainly more such collections, as statements of other rulers suggest the custom was widespread. The similarities between these law collections make it tempting to assume
20448-463: Was thought to be the earliest Mesopotamian law collection when it was rediscovered in 1902—for example, C. H. W. Johns' 1903 book was titled The Oldest Code of Laws in the World . The English writer H. G. Wells included Hammurabi in the first volume of The Outline of History , and to Wells too the Code was "the earliest known code of law". However, three earlier collections were rediscovered afterwards:
20592-497: Was true, suggesting that a wronged man have the stele read aloud to him (lines 3240'–3254') is a concrete measure in this direction, given the inaccessibility of scribal education in the Old Babylonian period. The prologue asserts that Hammurabi was chosen by the gods. Raymond Westbrook observed that in ancient Near Eastern law, "the king was the primary source of legislation". However, they could delegate their god-given legal authority to judges. However, as Owen B. Jenkins observed,
20736-481: Was used by Scheil in his editio princeps , and widely adopted afterwards. C. H. W. Johns, one of the most prolific early commentators on the document, proclaimed that "the Code well deserves its name". Recent Assyriologists have used the term without comment, as well as scholars outside Assyriology. However, only if the text was intended as enforced legislation can it truly be called a code of law and its provisions laws. The document, on first inspection, resembles
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