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61-722: Commissioned by the Indo-Afghan courtier Khan Jahan Lodi , the Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani was the first major historical work that aimed to present a full history of the Afghan people, with an objective of defining their origins. Previous works on the Afghans were political histories, written mostly about the Lodis and the Surs . In the view of Nile Green , the work was an attempt to situate Afghan identity in

122-453: A royal decree of Zahir Shah formally granted Pashto the status of an official language, with full rights to use in all aspects of government and education – despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun royal family and bureaucrats mostly spoke Persian. Thus Pashto became a national language , a symbol for Pashtun nationalism . The constitutional assembly reaffirmed the status of Pashto as an official language in 1964 when Afghan Persian

183-513: A descendant of Daulat Khan Lodi , a governor of Lahore who betrayed the Lodi dynasty by inviting the conquest of the first Mughal ruler Babur . Jahangir's assessment may have been incorrect or fabricated to justify the promotions that Khan Jahan Lodi was receiving under his rule. Pir Khan spent a number of his formative years in the Deccan , while his father served under two consecutive Mughal governors of

244-463: A potential threat to his kingship. He deputed Khan Jahan Lodi to recover the territories surrendered to the Nizam Shahis, but the latter met with failure. In 1629 Khan Jahan Lodi presented himself at the royal court, where Shah Jahan asked him to let go of some of his retinue. Khan Jahan Lodi spent eight terse months at court, nominally serving as governor of Malwa, until October 1629 when he fled for

305-645: A promoter of the wealth and antiquity of Afghanistan's Pashto culture." From the 16th century, Pashto poetry become very popular among the Pashtuns. Some of those who wrote in Pashto are Bayazid Pir Roshan (a major inventor of the Pashto alphabet ), Khushal Khan Khattak , Rahman Baba , Nazo Tokhi , and Ahmad Shah Durrani , founder of the modern state of Afghanistan or the Durrani Empire . The Pashtun literary tradition grew in

366-608: A rank of 6000 zat and 6000 sowar , the second-highest rank of that era. Historian Richard Eaton notes that Jahangir held him in great confidence despite his minimal political/military accomplishments. Scholars have explained Khan Jahan Lodi's rise as part of Jahangir's strategy to conciliate and recruit Afghans into the Mughal imperial system. This group was hostile to Mughal rule in Akbar's time, and participated in key rebellions. Jahangir may have hoped that Khan Jahan Lodi's example would improve

427-525: A sister; Muhammad Khan was killed in the Deccan while serving under prince Daniyal. He had at least four sons, many of whom were killed during his rebellion; some of his sons included Aziz and Farid. He was a Sunni Muslim , and held an interest in Sufism . He was a charismatic individual, which may have helped facilitate his popularity with Jahangir. During the height of his career as a noble of Jahangir, he sponsored

488-522: A variety very similar to it, while others have attempted to place it closer to Bactrian . However, neither position is universally agreed upon. What scholars do agree on is the fact that Pashto is an Eastern Iranian language sharing characteristics with Eastern Middle Iranian languages such as Bactrian, Khwarezmian and Sogdian . Compare with other Eastern Iranian Languages and Old Avestan : Zə tā winə́m /ɐz dɐ wənən/ Az bū tū dzunim Strabo , who lived between 64 BC and 24 CE, explains that

549-665: A work of history in the Persian language titled Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani ( lit.   ' The Khan Jahan's History ' ), written by Nimat Allah al-Harawi , which described the ethnogenesis of the Afghans. This work was the first systematic attempt to present the history of the Afghans, and inspired several later Persian-language histories in the genre. The work includes a biography of Khan Jahan Lodi himself. Pashto Pashto ( / ˈ p ʌ ʃ t oʊ / PUH -shto , / ˈ p æ ʃ t oʊ / PASH -toe ; پښتو , Pəx̌tó , [pəʂˈto, pʊxˈto, pəʃˈto, pəçˈto] )

610-421: Is "one of the primary markers of ethnic identity" amongst Pashtuns. A national language of Afghanistan , Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south, and southwest, but also in some northern and western parts of the country. The exact number of speakers is unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 45–60% of the total population of Afghanistan . In Pakistan , Pashto

671-567: Is an Eastern Iranian language in the Indo-European language family , natively spoken in northwestern Pakistan and southern and eastern Afghanistan . It has official status in Afghanistan and the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . It is known in historical Persian literature as Afghani ( افغانی , Afghāni ). Spoken as a native language mostly by ethnic Pashtuns , it is one of

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732-541: Is spoken by 15% of its population, mainly in the northwestern province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and northern districts of Balochistan province. It is also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province , areas of Gilgit-Baltistan and in Islamabad . Pashto speakers are found in other major cities of Pakistan, most notably Karachi , Sindh, which may have the largest Pashtun population of any city in

793-555: Is taught poorly in schools in Pakistan. Moreover, in government schools material is not provided for in the Pashto dialect of that locality, Pashto being a dialectically rich language. Further, researchers have observed that Pashtun students are unable to fully comprehend educational material in Urdu. Professor Tariq Rahman states: "The government of Pakistan, faced with irredentist claims from Afghanistan on its territory, also discouraged

854-453: The Berar and Balaghat regions. Granting political asylum to a rebel Mughal noble was a serious challenge to Mughal authority that Shah Jahan could not tolerate. He deputed three armies totalling 50,000 troops southwards against the Nizam Shahis, and followed suit by moving his court to Burhanpur . Khan Jahan Lodi commanded 40,000 troops. A number of destructive clashes followed, which aggravated

915-472: The Deccan famine of 1630–1632 . Khan Jahan Lodi's influence among Afghans of the subcontinent led to political upheaval at the north-west frontier, where Afghans threatened to capture Peshawar , but this was suppressed by Mughal forces. In 1630, Khan Jahan Lodi suffered a serious defeat and fled towards the Punjab , pursued by various Mughal forces. His companion Darya Rohilla Khan was slain; Khan Jahan Lodi escaped and continued to flee, but on 1 February 1631 he

976-672: The Makhzan . Some manuscripts had chapters and reference material added. During this period, many newer histories were sponsored by Afghan notables which drew on the Tarikh , such as the Khulasat al-ansab , Risala dar ansab-i-Afghanan , and Tawarikh-i-Afghani . The same century saw a Pashto -language translation of the Tarikh-i-Khan Jahani , which appeared as the first section of a history titled Tarikh-i-murassa by Afzal Khan Khattak . In

1037-577: The Makhzan-i-Afghani . The theory of the Afghans' origins from the Lost Tribes of Israel propounded by the Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani was a popular topic in orientalist thought during the 19th century. Khan Jahan Lodi Pir Khan (died 3 February 1631), known by the name Khan Jahan Lodi , was an ethnic Afghan who served as a noble of the Mughal Empire . Entering the Mughal service during

1098-448: The Tarikh details the lives of several Afghan Sufi shaikhs (saints). The Tarikh contains a biography of its patron Khan Jahan Lodi, which is a lengthy chapter containing five fasls (sections). This section describes Khan Jahan Lodi's ancestry, how his forebears migrated from Afghanistan to the Indian subcontinent during Lodi rule, his clan's struggles after the fall of Afghan rule in

1159-571: The Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani is dedicated to Afghan history. The Tarikh begins its history within the ethnogenesis of the Afghans, tracing the Afghan genealogy upto Yaqub the Jewish patriarch, and describes his eventual eastward migration to Afghanistan. It describes the subsequent life of Qais Abdur Rashid as the primogenitor of the Afghans, asserting that he was converted to Islam by the Prophet Muhammad and fought alongside him. The Tarikh continues

1220-593: The 1930s, a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration, and art with the establishment of a Pashto Society Pashto Anjuman in 1931 and the inauguration of the Kabul University in 1932 as well as the formation of the Pashto Academy (Pashto Tolana) in 1937. Muhammad Na'im Khan, the minister of education between 1938 and 1946, inaugurated the formal policy of promoting Pashto as Afghanistan's national language, leading to

1281-578: The 19th century, the Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani attained colonial importance as the British sought to learn about the Afghans. For example, the work served as a basis for the Hayat-i-Afghani compiled for the British administration, and a number of colonial scholars collected manuscripts of the Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani . In 1839, the German orientalist Bernhard Dorn published the most substantial English translation of

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1342-805: The 8th century, and they use the writings found in Pata Khazana . Pə́ṭa Xazāná ( پټه خزانه ) is a Pashto manuscript claimed to be written by Mohammad Hotak under the patronage of the Pashtun emperor Hussain Hotak in Kandahar ; containing an anthology of Pashto poets. However, its authenticity is disputed by scholars such as David Neil MacKenzie and Lucia Serena Loi. Nile Green comments in this regard: "In 1944, Habibi claimed to have discovered an eighteenth-century manuscript anthology containing much older biographies and verses of Pashto poets that stretched back as far as

1403-421: The Afghan view of the Mughal ruling system. Khan Jahan Lodi was not the only Afghan noble who was inducted into the imperial fold, but high appointments were rare. Historian Munis Faruqui notes that Khan Jahan Lodi's connections with Afghan networks in the empire were what prevented Afghan rebellion during the later years of Jahangir's rule. Jahangir died in 1627, leading to a war of succession among his sons

1464-534: The Deccan, accompanied by some of his followers. Pursued by Mughal forces, he survived a battle near Dholpur by the Chambal River , but several of his relatives and his retinue perished. With his two remaining sons, and the aid of Jhujhar Singh Bundela , he reached the court of Murtaza Nizam Shah II , who accepted him and made him commander of the Nizam Shahi armies. He was deputed to clear Mughal insurgency from

1525-519: The Mughal court, and was one of several works written as a response to the "competitive encounter" between different ethnic groups at the Mughal court. One work post-dating the Tarikh-Khan-Jahani , named the Mirat-i-Aftab-numa , recounts that Khan Jahan Lodi decided to commission the Tarikh when an Iranian envoy to the court called Afghans the descendants of the jinn (devils). The work

1586-517: The Pashto Movement and eventually allowed its use in peripheral domains only after the Pakhtun elite had been co-opted by the ruling elite...Thus, even though there is still an active desire among some Pakhtun activists to use Pashto in the domains of power, it is more of a symbol of Pakhtun identity than one of nationalism." Robert Nicols states: "In the end, national language policy, especially in

1647-662: The Pathan community in the city of Kolkata , often nicknamed the Kabuliwala ("people of Kabul "). Pashtun diaspora communities in other countries around the world speak Pashto, especially the sizable communities in the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia . Pashto is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan, along with Dari Persian . Since the early 18th century, the monarchs of Afghanistan have been ethnic Pashtuns (except for Habibullāh Kalakāni in 1929). Persian,

1708-653: The Society's annual meeting in 1927. In 1955, Pashtun intellectuals including Abdul Qadir formed the Pashto Academy Peshawar on the model of Pashto Tolana formed in Afghanistan. In 1974, the Department of Pashto was established in the University of Balochistan for the promotion of Pashto. In Pakistan, Pashto is the first language around of 15% of its population (per the 1998 census). However, Urdu and English are

1769-451: The backdrop to weakening Pashtun power following Mughal rule: Khushal Khan Khattak used Pashto poetry to rally for Pashtun unity and Pir Bayazid as an expedient means to spread his message to the Pashtun masses. For instance Khushal Khattak laments in : "The Afghans (Pashtuns) are far superior to the Mughals at the sword, Were but the Afghans, in intellect, a little discreet. If

1830-646: The commission and publication of Pashto textbooks. The Pashto Tolana was later incorporated into the Academy of Sciences Afghanistan in line with Soviet model following the Saur Revolution in 1978. Although officially supporting the use of Pashto, the Afghan elite regarded Persian as a "sophisticated language and a symbol of cultured upbringing". King Zahir Shah (reigning 1933–1973) thus followed suit after his father Nadir Khan had decreed in 1933 that officials were to study and utilize both Persian and Pashto. In 1936

1891-410: The different tribes would but support each other, Kings would have to bow down in prostration before them" Pashto is a subject–object–verb (SOV) language with split ergativity . In Pashto, this means that the verb agrees with the subject in transitive and intransitive sentences in non-past, non-completed clauses, but when a completed action is reported in any of the past tenses, the verb agrees with

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1952-443: The eighth century. It was an extraordinary claim, implying as it did that the history of Pashto literature reached back further in time than Persian, thus supplanting the hold of Persian over the medieval Afghan past. Although it was later convincingly discredited through formal linguistic analysis, Habibi's publication of the text under the title Pata Khazana ('Hidden Treasure') would (in Afghanistan at least) establish his reputation as

2013-405: The era. Sections on the history of different Afghan ruling dynasties mostly drew from previous written sources, while the information on Afghan tribal lineages largely drew from oral histories that circulated among the Afghan diaspora in the early 17th century. The Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani is an example of the Mughal court's Persianizing effect on different tribal leaders who had been assimilated into

2074-447: The field of education in the NWFP, had constructed a type of three tiered language hierarchy. Pashto lagged far behind Urdu and English in prestige or development in almost every domain of political or economic power..." Although Pashto used as a medium of instruction in schools for Pashtun students results in better understanding and comprehension for students when compared to using Urdu, still

2135-456: The final years of Jahangir, he colluded with the Nizam Shahi ruler and handed over the Balaghat region of the Deccan, receiving 3,00,000 huns in exchange. Khan Jahan Lodi's successful career during Jahangir's rule was unprecedented for an Afghan, and controversial among the Mughal elite. He was the highest ranking Afghan, and one of the highest ranking nobles of the empire; he had managed to reach

2196-399: The government of Pakistan has only introduced Pashto at the primary levels in state-run schools. Taimur Khan remarks: "the dominant Urdu language squeezes and denies any space for Pashto language in the official and formal capacity. In this contact zone, Pashto language exists but in a subordinate and unofficial capacity". Some linguists have argued that Pashto is descended from Avestan or

2257-451: The history of the Afghans upto the 17th century, and includes details on the Afghan dynasties of Delhi, namely the Lodis and Suris. The content presented in the historical portion focuses as much as it does on the glory days of Afghan political power, as it does on the tribal roots of the Afghan people and the early days of Afghan settlement in the Indian subcontinent. The khatimah (conclusion) of

2318-440: The idea of Afghan forces clustering under his name. He did advise Jahangir to immediately send an army to recover Qandahar, but this did not come to fruition. He was deputed to guard Agra during the rebellion of prince Khurram. Around 1624, he replaced the noble Mahabat Khan as guardian of the prince Parvez at Burhanpur . In 1626, he was once again appointed as governor of the Deccan. Taking advantage of political chaos in

2379-487: The imperial fold, reflected by the choice of tarikh (Persian chronicling) as the medium for this early history of the Pashtuns over their native language of Pashto . Previous written histories sponsored by Mughal rulers served as the text's immediate models. The Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani was completed around 1613. Shortly after its initial conception, it was abridged into a version termed the Makhzan-i-Afghani ( lit.   ' Afghan Treasury ' ). The major portion of

2440-472: The latter threatened to leave Daniyal's service in the Deccan multiple times. He did not follow through, due to his connections in the Deccan and multiple gifts from Daniyal. This was part of a larger effort on Salim's part to recruit Afghans to his cause, on account of their hostility to Akbar's rule; Salim's interest in Pir Khan convinced other Afghans to join his cause. Following Daniyal's death, Pir Khan entered

2501-595: The literary language of the royal court, was more widely used in government institutions, while the Pashtun tribes spoke Pashto as their native tongue . King Amanullah Khan began promoting Pashto during his reign (1926–1929) as a marker of ethnic identity and as a symbol of "official nationalism" leading Afghanistan to independence after the defeat of the British Empire in the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919. In

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2562-413: The native elements of the lexicon are related to other Eastern Iranian languages . As noted by Josef Elfenbein, "Loanwords have been traced in Pashto as far back as the third century B.C., and include words from Greek and probably Old Persian". For instance, Georg Morgenstierne notes the Pashto word مېچن [mečә́n] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 4) ( help ) i.e.

2623-465: The possessed in the genitive construction, and adjectives come before the nouns they modify. Unlike most other Indo-Iranian languages, Pashto uses all three types of adpositions —prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions. *The retroflex rhotic or lateral, tends to be a lateral flap [ 𝼈 ] at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regular flap [ ɽ ] or approximant [ ɻ ] elsewhere. In Pashto, most of

2684-417: The princes. During this time, the prince Khurram approached Khan Jahan Lodi at Malwa seeking his support, but Khan Jahan Lodi declined and did not participate in the war. This was perceived as an insult given that Khan Jahan Lodi had no competing allegiance with any other prince. Khurram emerged victorious in the succession and was made emperor Shah Jahan, following which he continued to view Khan Jahan Lodi as

2745-475: The region ( Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and prince Daniyal ). During the rule of Mughal emperor Akbar, Pir Khan participated in the final stages of the conquest of Bengal , fighting under the command of Raja Man Singh . He later became a favourite of prince Daniyal. In the period 1599–1604, prince Salim (later emperor Jahangir) staged a rebellion against Akbar from Allahabad . During this time he attempted to court Pir Khan's employment, and between 1600 and 1603

2806-420: The reign of Mughal emperor Akbar , he enjoyed a meteoric rise under emperor Jahangir , becoming one of the empire's highest ranking nobles. Khan Jahan Lodi was the leading example of Afghan recruitment during Jahangir's reign, as Jahangir attempted to conciliate this group that was hitherto hostile to Mughal rule. Khan Jahan Lodi fell out of imperial favour with the accession of Shah Jahan and rebelled against

2867-578: The reign of Akbar. According to his biography in the Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani , he was descended from a clan in the region of Roh , and his ancestors migrated into the Indian subcontinent during the rule of Sikandar Lodi . They subsequently served in the offices and military of different Indian rulers, facing difficulties from the fall of the Lodi dynasty . On the other hand, the emperor Jahangir in his memoir Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri identifies Khan Jahan Lodi as

2928-411: The ruler, resulting in his capture and execution in the early 1630s. His rebellion was a major event of Shah Jahan's early rule. During his lifetime, Khan Jahan Lodi sponsored the Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani , a written ethno-history of the Afghans which was highly influential on subsequent works about the topic. Khan Jahan Lodi, originally named Pir Khan, was the son of Daulat Khan Lodi, a minor noble during

2989-535: The saints as belonging to the Sarbani , Batni , or Ghurghusht tribes, rather than Sufi orders such as Chishtiyya , Naqshbandiyya , or Qadiriyya . The Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani became highly influential during the Mughal Empire's eclipse in the 18th century, as several Indo-Afghan successor states emerged and questions of genealogy became important. Manuscript copies were made of both the Tarikh and its abridged version,

3050-500: The service of Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. Salim ascended the throne as emperor Jahangir in 1605, following which Pir Khan was summoned to the court. Presenting himself to the emperor at Lahore in April 1607, he was soon after awarded the title "Salabat Khan" ( lit.   ' The Steadfast Khan ' ) and had his rank raised to 3000 zat and 1500 sowar . A year later, he had his rank further raised to 5000 zat and 5000 sowar , and awarded

3111-489: The subcontinent, and the induction of Khan Jahan Lodi's father into Mughal service. A key theme of the Tarikh is its emphasis of tribe as the main marker of Afghan identity; this is the organising principle in the Tarikh's formulation of genealogy. For example, the Tarikh was set apart from the literary norms of its time in presenting the entries on Afghan Sufi shaikhs by tribal lineage rather than Sufi lineage . It classified all

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3172-444: The subject if it is intransitive, but with the object if it is transitive. Verbs are inflected for present, simple past, past progressive, present perfect, and past perfect tenses. There is also an inflection for the subjunctive mood . Nouns and adjectives are inflected for two genders (masculine and feminine), two numbers (singular and plural), and four cases (direct, oblique, ablative, and vocative). The possessor precedes

3233-423: The title 'Khan-i-Jahan' ( lit.   ' Khan of the world ' ). The Tarikh-i-Khan-Jahani attributes these imperial favours to the increasing closeness between Khan Jahan Lodi and the emperor. He was even allowed audience with the emperor in the gusalkhana (bath), an honour granted to only a few trusted nobles. From 1609, Khan Jahan Lodi served as governor of the Deccan, an important position. In 1611, he

3294-534: The tribes inhabiting the lands west of the Indus River were part of Ariana . This was around the time when the area inhabited by the Pashtuns was governed by the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom . From the 3rd century CE onward, they are mostly referred to by the name Afghan ( Abgan ). Abdul Hai Habibi believed that the earliest modern Pashto work dates back to Amir Kror Suri of the early Ghurid period in

3355-478: The two official languages of Afghanistan alongside Dari , and it is the second-largest provincial language of Pakistan , spoken mainly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the northern districts of Balochistan . Likewise, it is the primary language of the Pashtun diaspora around the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is at least 40 million, although some estimates place it as high as 60 million. Pashto

3416-411: The two official languages of Pakistan. Pashto has no official status at the federal level. On a provincial level, Pashto is the regional language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and north Balochistan . Yet, the primary medium of education in government schools in Pakistan is Urdu. The lack of importance given to Pashto and its neglect has caused growing resentment amongst Pashtuns. It is noted that Pashto

3477-633: The world. Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in India , Tajikistan , and northeastern Iran (primarily in South Khorasan Province to the east of Qaen , near the Afghan border). In India most ethnic Pashtun (Pathan) peoples speak the geographically native Hindi-Urdu language rather than Pashto, but there are small numbers of Pashto speakers, such as the Sheen Khalai in Rajasthan , and

3538-574: Was cornered and killed by a Rajput officer named Madho Singh in Sihanda, a place in central India. After his death, his head was cut off from his body and sent to Burhanpur, where it was received by Shah Jahan during a boat ride on the Tapti River . Richard Eaton has characterised Khan Jahan Lodi's rebellion as one of the most serious from a noble in Mughal history, albeit successfully quelled. Khan Jahan Lodi had an elder brother named Muhammad Khan, and

3599-509: Was deputed to lead an army against the Nizam Shahi city of Daulatabad , but failed to capture it. In 1620, his influence increased when he was appointed governor of Multan . During his tenure, Qandahar was captured by the Safavids in 1622. After the fall of Qandahar, a number of Afghan tribesmen approached Khan Jahan Lodi and offered their support in leading a retaliation against the Safavids. Khan Jahan Lodi refused, fearing imperial backlash at

3660-565: Was officially renamed to Dari . The lyrics of the national anthem of Afghanistan are in Pashto. In British India , prior to the creation of Pakistan by the British government, the 1920s saw the blossoming of Pashto language in the then NWFP : Abdul Ghafar Khan in 1921 established the Anjuman-e- Islah al-Afaghina (Society for the Reformation of Afghans) to promote Pashto as an extension of Pashtun culture; around 80,000 people attended

3721-399: Was principally written by Nimat Allah al-Harawi , a waqia-navis (newswriter) of Iranian descent in the Mughal Empire, but may have been based on substantial material previously formulated by Haybat Khan Kakar, an Afghan from Samana who served as an attendant of Khan Jahan Lodi. The Tarikh also involved the input of several assistants and informants, similar to other written histories of

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