In art, a Madonna ( Italian: [maˈdɔnna] ) is a representation of Mary , either alone or with her child Jesus . These images are central icons for both the Catholic and Orthodox churches. The word is from Italian ma donna 'my lady' (archaic). The Madonna and Child type is very prevalent in Christian iconography , divided into many traditional subtypes especially in Eastern Orthodox iconography , often known after the location of a notable icon of the type, such as the Theotokos of Vladimir , Agiosoritissa , Blachernitissa , etc., or descriptive of the depicted posture, as in Hodegetria , Eleusa , etc.
201-513: The term Madonna in the sense of "picture or statue of the Virgin Mary" enters English usage in the 17th century, primarily in reference to works of the Italian Renaissance . In an Eastern Orthodox context, such images are typically known as Theotokos . "Madonna" may be generally used of representations of Mary, with or without the infant Jesus, where she is the focus and central figure of
402-494: A bisomus . Another type of burial, typical of Roman catacombs, was the arcosolium , consisting of a curved niche, enclosed under a carved horizontal marble slab. Cubicula (burial rooms containing loculi all for one family) and cryptae (chapels decorated with frescoes) are also commonly found in catacomb passages. When space began to run out, other graves were also dug in the floor of the corridors—these graves are called formae . The Roman catacombs, of which there are forty in
603-564: A Gospel book , and images of the Virgin were slow to appear in large numbers in manuscript art until the book of hours was devised in the 13th century. The Madonna of humility by Domenico di Bartolo , 1433, is considered one of the most innovative devotional images from the early Renaissance . Very few early images of the Virgin Mary survive, though the depiction of the Madonna has roots in ancient pictorial and sculptural traditions that informed
804-726: A council in Florence in an attempt to unify the Eastern and Western Churches. This brought books and, especially after the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, an influx of scholars to the city. Ancient Greece began to be studied with renewed interest, especially the Neoplatonic school of thought, which was the subject of an academy established by the Medici. Florence remained a republic until 1532 (see Duchy of Florence ), traditionally marking
1005-495: A Western illuminated manuscript of the Madonna and Child comes from the Book of Kells of about 800 (there is a similar carved image on the lid of St Cuthbert's coffin of 698) and, though magnificently decorated in the style of Insular art , the drawing of the figures can only be described as rather crude compared to Byzantine work of the period. This was in fact an unusual inclusion in
1206-438: A bust of Saint Sebastian attributed to Bernini . From here one reaches a platform, under which is a sandstone cavity ad catacumbas which once may have been named "ad catacumbas", thus giving this and all other tombs of this type their name. Three mausolea of the second half of the 2nd century (but also in later use) open off the platform. The first one on the right, decorated on the outside with paintings of funereal banquets and
1407-567: A commentary on, and glimpse of the Indian social scene. Churches in India, such as Tamil Nadu's Sanctuary of Our Lady of Vailankanni which was deemed a basilica by the Roman Catholic Church in 1962, similarly housed idols of Mary clad in a traditional saree . "These remain examples of how in art and in faith traditions merge, so do symbols and images, giving birth to syncretic cultures that testify
1608-423: A connector for various Christian communities through the underlying concepts of socio-economic status shown within the art. Additionally, the art showed a story of how Christians in the first couple of centuries viewed the world and their idealistic view of how it should be. According to L. Michael White, the catacombs of Rome have a place in the romantic historiography of how early Christianity developed. This
1809-633: A despotic monarchy, between the ideals of the Greek and Roman Republics and those of the Roman Empire and Medieval kingdoms. For Baron, the most important figure in crafting this ideology was Leonardo Bruni . This time of crisis in Florence was the period when the most influential figures of the early Renaissance were coming of age, such as Ghiberti , Donatello , Masolino , and Brunelleschi . Inculcated with this republican ideology they later went on to advocate republican ideas that were to have an enormous impact on
2010-639: A flood of more intensely personal forms of piety. In the usual Gothic and Renaissance formulas the Virgin Mary sits with the Infant Jesus on her lap, or enfolded in her arms. In earlier representations the Virgin is enthroned, and the Child may be fully aware, raising his hand to offer blessing. In a 15th-century Italian variation, a baby John the Baptist looks on. The socalled Madonna della seggiola shows both of them:
2211-424: A form of devotion. Its expense registers in the use of thin sheets of real gold leaf in all parts of the panel that are not covered with paint, a visual analogue not only to the costly sheaths that medieval goldsmiths used to decorate altars, but also a means of surrounding the image of the Madonna with illumination from oil lamps and candles. Even more precious is the bright blue mantle colored with lapis lazuli ,
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#17330942660892412-418: A graffito with the initials of the Greek words for " Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour ". On the left is the mausoleum of Ascia, with an exterior wall painting of vine shoots rising from kantharoi up trompe-l'œil pillars. A room called the "Triglia" rises from the platform, roughly in the middle of the basilica and cut into from above by the present basilica. This covered room was used for funereal banquets;
2613-530: A hybrid of traditional and contemporary Latino subject matter representing the colonialist encounters between Europeans and Mesoamericans. In 2015 iconographer Mark Dukes created the icon Our Lady of Ferguson , depicting the Madonna and child, in relation to the Shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri . The first important encounter between Islam and the image of the Madonna is said to have happened during
2814-733: A major change in Italian poetry as the Dolce Stil Novo ( Sweet New Style , which emphasized Platonic rather than courtly love ) came into its own, pioneered by poets like Guittone d'Arezzo and Guido Guinizelli . Especially in poetry , major changes in Italian literature had been taking place decades before the Renaissance truly began. With the printing of books initiated in Venice by Aldus Manutius , an increasing number of works began to be published in
3015-435: A major influence for artists and authors, with the classics coming into their own as a second primary influence. In the early Italian Renaissance, much of the focus was on translating and studying classic works from Latin and Greek. Renaissance authors were not content to rest on the laurels of ancient authors, however. Many authors attempted to integrate the methods and styles of the ancient Greeks into their own works. Among
3216-471: A major source of inspiration and plots for many English authors in the Renaissance, including Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare . Aside from Christianity, classical antiquity , and scholarship, a fourth influence on Renaissance literature was politics. The political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli 's most famous works are Discourses on Livy , Florentine Histories and finally The Prince , which has become so well known in modern societies that
3417-723: A matter of protection, or as a commemoration of a reported miracle. In the 1920s, the Daughters of the American Revolution placed statues called the Madonna of the Trail from coast to coast, marking the path of the old National Road and the Santa Fe Trail . Throughout his life, the painter Ray Martìn Abeyta created works inspired by the Cusco School style of Madonna painting, creating
3618-472: A modestly scaled image of the Madonna as a half-length figure holding her son in a memorably intimate depiction, is to be found in the National Gallery of London. This is clearly made for the private devotion of a Christian wealthy enough to hire one of the most important Italian artists of his day. The privileged owner need not go to Church to say his prayers or plead for salvation; all he or she had to do
3819-541: A more powerful adversary, and with the decline of Genoese power during the 15th century Venice became pre-eminent on the seas. In response to threats from the landward side, from the early 15th century Venice developed an increased interest in controlling the terrafirma as the Venetian Renaissance opened. On land, decades of fighting saw Florence, Milan, and Venice emerge as the dominant players, and these three powers finally set aside their differences and agreed to
4020-515: A notable promoter of the cult of the Virgin, to whom the infant Christ reaches his hand. This type was long confined to Rome. The roughly half-dozen varied icons of the Virgin and Child in Rome from the 6th–8th century form the majority of the representations surviving from this period; "isolated images of the Madonna and Child ... are so common ... to the present day in Catholic and Orthodox tradition, that it
4221-476: A painting of Mary and Jesus , and a fresco of Abraham in order to keep them from being effaced. In the words of the historian Barnaby Rogerson , "Muhammad raised his hand to protect an icon of the Virgin and Child and a painting of Abraham, but otherwise his companions cleared the interior of its clutter of votive treasures, cult implements, statuettes and hanging charms." The Islamic scholar Martin Lings narrated
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#17330942660894422-568: A participant in sacred drama, her image inspires one of the most important fresco cycles in all of Italian painting: Giotto's narrative cycle in the Arena Chapel, next to the Scrovegni family's palace in Padua. This program dates to the first decade of the 14th century. Italian artists of the 15th century onward are indebted to traditions established in the 13th and 14th centuries in their representation of
4623-482: A partnership in which the artists' own interpretations of sacred art were encouraged and fostered." The Jesuits sourced small paintings, prints and sculptures from Europe for the Indian sculptors to use as reference, and the indigenous artists used their own traditions for fashioning such figures. One of the most brilliant example of this syncretic form is the figure called the Good Shepherd Rockery (also known as
4824-464: A popular picture, titled Birth Of Krishna, which was almost entirely based on popular prints of The Birth Of Jesus Christ, to the extent that the presence of three wise men of the East was also literally imitated in this work." Artists such as Jamini Roy also adopted this image, and Jesus and Mary would feature in the canvases of Tyeb Mehta , Krishnen Khanna , Madhvi Parekh and others in ways that provide
5025-523: A regular basis by the Roman Empire, and in the second place because the larger rooms or chambers within the catacombs were not used for regular worship , the Eucharist or assembly by Christians. White says that those catacombs' larger rooms, which had some benches along their walls and were appropriate to hold eucharistic assemblies, were in fact used by Christians to "hol[d] meals for the dead". He states such "funerary meals" were practised among most families of
5226-583: A response to overcrowding and shortage of land. The most extensive and perhaps the best known is the Christian Catacomb of Callixtus located near the Park of the Caffarella , but there are other sites, both Christian and not, scattered around the city, some of which are now engulfed by modern urban sprawl . The Christian catacombs are extremely important for the history of Early Christian art , as they contain
5427-701: A similar Europe-wide impact, as practised by Brunelleschi , Leon Battista Alberti , Andrea Palladio , and Bramante . Their works include the Florence Cathedral , St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, and the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini , as well as several private residences. The musical era of the Italian Renaissance featured composers such as Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina , the Roman School and later
5628-491: A staple of the daily diet. It also had a variety of significance for Christians, for whom it was not only a common food, as for other Romans, but featured as a symbol in Christian iconography and was consumed at meals held to commemorate the dead. Roman law forbade burial places within city limits and so all burial places, including the catacombs, were located outside the walls of the city. The first large-scale catacombs in
5829-512: A stone imported from Afghanistan. This is the case of one of the most famous, innovative and monumental works that Duccio executed for the Laudesi at Santa Maria Novella in Florence. Often the scale of the work indicates a great deal about its original function. Often referred to as the Rucellia Madonna (c. 1285), the panel painting towers over the spectator, offering a visual focus for members of
6030-463: A systematized foreign exchange market , insurance , and government debt . Florence became the centre of this financial industry and the gold florin became the main currency of international trade. The new mercantile governing class, who gained their position through financial skill, adapted to their purposes the feudal aristocratic model that had dominated Europe in the Middle Ages. A feature of
6231-895: A tradition first recorded in the 8th century, and still strong in the Eastern Church, the iconography of images of Mary goes back to a portrait drawn from life by Luke the Evangelist , with a number of icons (such as the Panagia Portaitissa ) claimed to either represent this original icon or to be a direct copy of it. In the Western tradition, depictions of the Madonna were greatly diversified by Renaissance masters such as Duccio , Leonardo da Vinci , Michelangelo , Raphael , Giovanni Bellini , Caravaggio , and Rubens (and further by certain modernists such as Salvador Dalí and Henry Moore ), while Eastern Orthodox iconography adheres more closely to
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6432-462: A trend towards refeudalization in the later Renaissance as the urban elites turned themselves into landed aristocrats. The situation differed in the cities. These were dominated by a commercial elite; as exclusive as the aristocracy of any Medieval kingdom. This group became the main patrons of and audience for Renaissance culture. Below them, there was a large class of artisans and guild members who lived comfortable lives and had significant power in
6633-582: A wide array of Renaissance works of literature, which marks the end of the illuminated manuscript together with Giulio Clovio , who is considered the greatest illuminator of the Italian High Renaissance, and arguably the last very notable artist in the long tradition of the illuminated manuscript, before some modern revivals. Under the suppression of the Catholic Church and the ravages of war, humanism became "akin to heresy". Equally important
6834-663: A widespread backlash over the secularism and indulgence of the Renaissance. His brief rule saw many works of art destroyed in the " Bonfire of the Vanities " in the centre of Florence. With the Medici returned to power, now as Grand Dukes of Tuscany , the counter-movement in the church continued. In 1542 the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition was formed and a few years later the Index Librorum Prohibitorum banned
7035-473: A youthful mother of her newborn child, she wears a deeply saturated blue mantle over a red garment. This mantle typically covers her head, where sometimes, one might see a linen, or later, transparent silk veil. She holds the Christ Child, or Baby Jesus, who shares her halo as well as her regal bearing. Often her gaze is directed out at the viewer, serving as an intercessor, or conduit for prayers that flow from
7236-615: Is also not shown in Nativity scenes at this date, though she is included in the Adoration of the Magi . By the next century the iconic depiction of the Virgin enthroned carrying the infant Christ was established, as in the example from the only group of icons surviving from this period, at Saint Catherine's Monastery in Egypt . This type of depiction, with subtly changing differences of emphasis, has remained
7437-408: Is because it has often been said those catacombs were good hiding places, and that when Christians were persecuted by the Roman Empire , they would go there to hold their worship. However, White believes Christians did not use the catacombs of Rome to secretly hold their worship during times of persecutions. He says that they did not do so, in the first place because Christians were not persecuted on
7638-408: Is depicted expressing compassion, grief and love, usually in highly charged, emotional works of art even though the most famous, early work by Michelangelo stifles signs of mourning. The tenderness an ordinary mother might feel towards her beloved child is captured, evoking the moment when she first held her infant son Christ . The spectator, after all, is meant to sympathize, to share in the despair of
7839-516: Is difficult to recover a sense of the novelty of such images in the early Middle Ages, at least in western Europe". At this period the iconography of the Nativity was taking the form, centred on Mary , that it has retained up to the present day in Eastern Orthodoxy , and on which Western depictions remained based until the High Middle Ages . Other narrative scenes for Byzantine cycles on
8040-514: Is entrusted on a day-to-day basis to local clergy or religious orders who have an activity on or adjacent to the site. The supervision of the Catacombs of St. Callixtus by the Salesian Fathers is well known. In the last years, with the growth of the internet, updated information is often available online, with an indication of a current street address, opening hours, fees, availability of guides in
8241-488: Is less usual, but not unheard of, to refer to it as the "Madonna of Vladimir". There are several distinct types of representation of the Madonna. The earliest representation of the Madonna and Child may be the wall painting in the Catacomb of Priscilla , Rome, in which the seated Madonna suckles the Child, who turns his head to gaze at the spectator. The earliest consistent representations of Mother and Child were developed in
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8442-515: Is to me a cluster of henna blossoms" in the NIV ), "immaculate" Madonnas in pure, perfect white without child or accessories, and Madonnas with roses symbolizing her life determined by the mysteries of faith. In Italy, the roadside Madonna is a common sight both on the side of buildings and along roads in small enclosures. These are expected to bring spiritual relief to people who pass them. Some Madonnas statues are placed around Italian towns and villages as
8643-400: Is where the martyrs Sebastian and Eutychius were buried. Via a staircase down, one finds the arcades where varied cubicula (including the cubiculum of Giona's fine four stage cycle of paintings, dating to the end of the 4th century). One then arrives at the restored crypt of S. Sebastiano, with a table altar on the site of the ancient one (some remains of the original's base still survive) and
8844-569: The Life of the Virgin were being evolved, relying on apocyphal sources to fill in her life before the Annunciation to Mary . By this time the political and economic collapse of the Western Roman Empire meant that the Western, Latin, church was unable to compete in the development of such sophisticated iconography , and relied heavily on Byzantine developments. The earliest surviving image in
9045-408: The commedia dell'arte . Italian Renaissance art exercised a dominant influence on subsequent European painting and sculpture for centuries afterwards, with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci , Michelangelo , Raphael , Donatello , Giotto , Masaccio , Fra Angelico , Piero della Francesca , Domenico Ghirlandaio , Perugino , Botticelli , and Titian . Italian Renaissance architecture had
9246-503: The Bardi and Peruzzi banks would open the way for the Medici to rise to prominence in Florence. Roberto Sabatino Lopez argues that the economic collapse was a crucial cause of the Renaissance. According to this view, in a more prosperous era, businessmen would have quickly reinvested their earnings in order to make more money in a climate favourable to investment. However, in the leaner years of
9447-542: The Gonzaga , and Urbino under Federico da Montefeltro . In Naples , the Renaissance was ushered in under the patronage of Alfonso I , who conquered Naples in 1443 and encouraged artists like Francesco Laurana and Antonello da Messina and writers like the poet Jacopo Sannazaro and the humanist scholar Angelo Poliziano . In 1417 the Papacy returned to Rome, but that once-imperial city remained poor and largely in ruins through
9648-716: The Islamic Golden Age (normally in translation), but Greek literary, oratorical and historical works (such as Homer , the Greek dramatists, Demosthenes and Thucydides ) were not studied in either the Latin or medieval Muslim worlds ; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine scholars. Some argue that the Timurid Renaissance in Samarkand was linked with the Ottoman Empire , whose conquests led to
9849-789: The Levant , and the Fourth Crusade had done much to destroy the Byzantine Empire as a commercial rival to the Venetians and the Genoese . The main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onward to the ports of Genoa , Pisa , and Venice . Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, and silks were imported to Italy and then resold throughout Europe. Moreover,
10050-518: The Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century were important in sparking the new linguistic studies of the Renaissance, in newly created academies in Florence and Venice. Humanist scholars searched monastic libraries for ancient manuscripts and recovered Tacitus and other Latin authors. The rediscovery of Vitruvius meant that the architectural principles of Antiquity could be observed once more, and Renaissance artists were encouraged, in
10251-500: The Peace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries. This peace would hold for the next forty years, and Venice's unquestioned hegemony over the sea also led to unprecedented peace for much of the rest of the 15th century. At the beginning of the 15th century, adventurers and traders such as Niccolò Da Conti (1395–1469) travelled as far as Southeast Asia and back, bringing fresh knowledge on
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#173309426608910452-523: The Prophet Muhammad 's conquest of Mecca . At the culmination of his mission, in 629 CE, Muhammad conquered Mecca with a Muslim army, with his first action being the "cleansing" or "purifying" of the Kaaba , wherein he removed all the pre-Islamic pagan images and idols from inside the temple. According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi , Muhammad did, however, protectively put his hand over
10653-457: The Protestant Reformation , which started c. 1517 . The Italian Renaissance has a reputation for its achievements in painting , architecture , sculpture , literature , music , philosophy , science , technology , and exploration . Italy became the recognized European leader in all these areas by the late 15th century, during the era of the Peace of Lodi (1454–1494) agreed between Italian states. The Italian Renaissance peaked in
10854-429: The School of Fontainebleau that infused the style of the Italian Renaissance in France. From Fontainebleau, the new styles, transformed by Mannerism, brought the Renaissance to the Low Countries and thence throughout Northern Europe. This spread north was also representative of a larger trend. No longer was the Mediterranean Europe's most important trade route. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, and from that date
11055-444: The Venetian School , and the birth of opera through figures like Claudio Monteverdi in Florence. In philosophy , thinkers such as Galileo, Machiavelli, Giordano Bruno and Pico della Mirandola emphasized naturalism and humanism , thus rejecting dogma and scholasticism . By the Late Middle Ages ( c. 1300 onward ), Latium , the former heartland of the Roman Empire , and southern Italy were generally poorer than
11256-441: The early Christian church . Responsibility for the Christian catacombs lies with the Holy See , which has set up active official organizations for this purpose: the Pontifical Commission of Sacred Archaeology (Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra) directs excavations and restoration works, while the study of the catacombs is directed in particular by the Pontifical Academy of Archaeology . The administration of some sites
11457-410: The plague began to decline in the early 15th century, Europe's devastated population once again began to grow. The new demand for products and services also helped create a growing class of bankers , merchants, and skilled artisans . The horrors of the Black Death and the seeming inability of the Church to provide relief would contribute to a decline of church influence. Additionally, the collapse of
11658-409: The "Little Vatican". Built into the hill beside San Lorenzo fuori le Mura , these catacombs are said to have been the final resting place of St. Lawrence . The church was built by Pope Sixtus III and later remodeled into the present nave. Sixtus also redecorated the shrine in the catacomb and was buried there. Established underneath the San Pacrazio basilica which was built by Pope Symmachus on
11859-470: The "Platonica", construction at the rear of the basilica that was long believed to have been the temporary resting place for Peter and Paul, but was in fact (as proved by excavation) a tomb for the martyr Quirinus , bishop of Sescia in Pannonia , whose remains were brought here in the 5th century. To the right of the "Platonica" is the chapel of Honorius III , adapted as the vestibule of the mausoleum, with interesting 13th-century paintings of Peter and Paul,
12060-415: The 13th century, the martyr's relics were transferred to Basilica of Saint Praxedes . Built for the conservation and veneration of the remains of Saint Agnes of Rome . Agnes' bones are now conserved in the church of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura in Rome, built over the catacomb . Her skull is preserved in a side chapel in the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone in Rome's Piazza Navona . On the via Salaria ,
12261-507: The 14th century, the city of Venice had become an emporium for lands as far as Cyprus ; it boasted a naval fleet of over 5000 ships thanks to its arsenal, a vast complex of shipyards that was the first European facility to mass-produce commercial and military vessels. Genoa also had become a maritime power. Thus, while northern Italy was not richer in resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development, stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper. In particular, Florence became one of
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#173309426608912462-437: The 14th century, the wealthy found few promising investment opportunities for their earnings and instead chose to spend more on culture and art. Unlike Roman texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Italy. Ancient Greek works on science, maths and philosophy had been studied since the High Middle Ages in Western Europe and in
12663-610: The 17th century, such as the conclusion of the European wars of religion in 1648, as marking the end of the Renaissance. Accounts of proto- Renaissance literature usually begin with the three great Italian writers of the 14th century: Dante Alighieri ( Divine Comedy ), Petrarch ( Canzoniere ), and Boccaccio ( Decameron ). Famous vernacular poets of the Renaissance include the epic authors Luigi Pulci ( Morgante ), Matteo Maria Boiardo ( Orlando Innamorato ), Ludovico Ariosto ( Orlando Furioso ), and Torquato Tasso ( Jerusalem Delivered ). 15th-century writers such as
12864-404: The 1950s. There are more than fifty catacombs in the underground of Rome in which about 150 km of tunnels run. Though most famous for Christian burials, either in separate catacombs or mixed together, Jews and also adherents of a variety of pagan Roman religions were buried in catacombs, beginning in the 2nd century AD, occasioned by the ancient Roman ban on burials within a city, and also as
13065-399: The 5th century, as Marian devotion rose to great importance after the Council of Ephesus formally affirmed her status as " Mother of God or Theotokos ("God-bearer") in 431. The Theotokos iconography as it developed in the 6th to 8th century rose to great importance in the high medieval period (12th to 14th centuries) both in the Eastern Orthodox and in the Latin spheres. According to
13266-511: The Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled. The next year, however, saw a pro-Medici Signoria elected and Cosimo returned. The Medici became the town's leading family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries. Florence organized the trade routes for commodities between England and the Netherlands, France, and Italy. By the middle of the century, the city had become the banking capital of Europe and thereby obtained vast riches. In 1439, Byzantine Emperor John VIII Palaiologos attended
13467-421: The Arabs and then the Normans . Sicily had prospered for 150 years during the Emirate of Sicily and later for two centuries during the Norman Kingdom and the Hohenstaufen Kingdom , but had declined by the Late Middle Ages. In contrast, Northern and Central Italy had become far more prosperous, and it has been calculated that the region was among the richest in Europe. The Crusades had built trade links to
13668-403: The Benedictine nuns of Priscilla. Sited along the Appian way, these catacombs were built after 150 AD, with some private Christian hypogea and a funereal area directly dependent on the Catholic Church . It takes its name from the deacon Saint Callixtus , appointed by Pope Zephyrinus to administer this cemetery. On Callixtus' accession as pope, he enlarged the complex, that quite soon became
13869-449: The Campana Road, these catacombs are said to have been the resting place, perhaps temporarily, of Simplicius, Faustinus and Beatrix , Christian Martyrs who died in Rome during the Diocletian persecution (302 or 303). These are found along the Via Appia and were built at the end of the 2nd century. They consist of a vast underground burial area, at first in pagan then in Christian use, housing various tombs of Christian martyrs . In
14070-440: The Catacombs of via Anapo are datable to the end of the 3rd or the beginning of the 4th century and contain diverse frescoes of biblical subjects. There are six known Jewish catacombs in Rome, two of which are open to the public: Vigna Randanini and Villa Torlonia . The Jewish catacombs were discovered in 1918, and archaeological excavations continued for twelve years. The structure has two entrances, one on via Syracuse and
14271-434: The Christ child on Madonna's lap signifies and is reverberated in the image of Krishna-Yashoda or Devaki, is perhaps what marks the culture of love", and justifies the various interpretations of this symbol in art and poetry found across the subcontinent. There are a large number of articles on individual works of various sorts in Category:Virgin Mary in art and its sub-category. See also the incomplete List of depictions of
14472-413: The Christian, to her, and only then, to her son. However, late medieval Italian artists also followed the trends of Byzantine icon painting, developing their own methods of depicting the Madonna. Sometimes, the Madonna's complex bond with her tiny child takes the form of a close, intimate moment of tenderness steeped in sorrow where she only has eyes for him. While the focus of this entry currently stresses
14673-600: The Crucifixion, saints, the Massacre of the Innocents , Madonna and Child , and other subjects. On the left is an apsidal mausoleum with an altar built against the apse: on the left wall, a surviving graffito reading "domus Petri" either hints at Peter having been buried here or testifies to the belief at the time the graffito was written that Peter was buried here. The catacombs of San Valentino were dedicated to Saint Valentine . In
14874-477: The Eastern Empire, where despite an iconoclastic strain in culture that rejected physical representations as " idols ", respect for venerated images was expressed in the repetition of a narrow range of highly conventionalized types, the repeated images familiar as icons ( Greek "image"). On a visit to Constantinople in 536, Pope Agapetus was accused of being opposed to the veneration of the theotokos and to
15075-588: The Good Shepherd Mount or Bom Pastor) which "displays the coming together of cultures in both its iconography and its features, encapsulating how Goan sculptors created images of the divine that are Catholic, European, and South Asian". The child form of Christ in this figure, with round face and smooth skin were perhaps drawn from sculptures of baby Krishna. Whereas, in Bengal, the Chore Bagan Art Studio,
15276-607: The High Middle Ages in Northern Italy was the rise of the urban communes which had broken from the control by bishops and local counts. In much of the region, the landed nobility was poorer than the urban patriarchs in the High Medieval money economy whose inflationary rise left land-holding aristocrats impoverished. The increase in trade during the early Renaissance enhanced these characteristics. The decline of feudalism and
15477-419: The Italian Renaissance affected only a small part of the population. Italy was the most urbanized region of Europe, but three-quarters of the people were still rural peasants. For this section of the population, life remained essentially unchanged from the Middle Ages. Classic feudalism had never been prominent in Northern Italy, and most peasants worked on private farms or as sharecroppers . Some scholars see
15678-399: The Italian Renaissance. Examples of individuals who rose from humble beginnings can be instanced, but Burke notes two major studies in this area that have found that the data do not clearly demonstrate an increase in social mobility . Most historians feel that early in the Renaissance social mobility was quite high, but that it faded over the course of the 15th century. Inequality in society
15879-451: The Italian language in addition to the flood of Latin and Greek texts that constituted the mainstream of the Italian Renaissance. The source for these works expanded beyond works of theology and towards the pre-Christian eras of Imperial Rome and Ancient Greece. This is not to say that no religious works were published in this period: Dante Alighieri 's The Divine Comedy reflects a distinctly medieval world view. Christianity remained
16080-607: The Kansaripara Art Studio and the Calcutta Art Studio, produced homegrown prints around the second half of the nineteenth century. These artists, were influenced by the various depictions of Christ in the European prints which had infiltrated the market of the time. And perhaps the closest connection they could draw was between the child Christ and Krishna. Jyotindra Jain comments: "... the Chore Bagan Art Studio published
16281-544: The Laudesi confraternity to gather before it as they sang praises to the image. Duccio made an even grander image of the Madonna enthroned for the high altar of the cathedral of Siena, his home town. Known as the Maesta (1308–1311), the image represents the pair as the center of a densely populated court in the central part of a complexly carpentered work that lifts the court upon a predella (pedestal of altarpiece) of narrative scenes and standing figures of prophets and saints. In turn,
16482-561: The Madonna is far more rich and complicated. Byzantine art played a long, critical role in Western Europe, especially when Byzantine territories included parts of Eastern Europe, Greece and much of Italy itself. Byzantine manuscripts, ivories, gold, silver and luxurious textiles were distributed throughout the West. In Byzantium, Mary's usual title was the Theotokos or Mother of God, rather than
16683-476: The Madonna. While the 15th and 16th centuries were a time when Italian painters expanded their repertoire to include historical events, independent portraits and mythological subject matter, Christianity retained a strong hold on their careers. Most works of art from this era are sacred. While the range of religious subject matter included subjects from the Old Testament and images of saints whose cults date after
16884-635: The Middle Ages, such as through the sale of indulgences. It also did not pay taxes, making the Church's wealth even more than some kings. In the 13th century, much of Europe experienced strong economic growth. The trade routes of the Italian states linked with those of established Mediterranean ports and eventually the Hanseatic League of the Baltic and northern regions of Europe to create a network economy in Europe for
17085-610: The North. Rome was a city of ancient ruins, and the Papal States were loosely administered, and vulnerable to external interference, particularly by France, and later Spain. The Papacy was affronted when the Avignon Papacy was created in southern France as a consequence of pressure from King Philip the Fair of France. In the south, Sicily had for some time been under foreign domination, by
17286-760: The Renaissance, the period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness. The reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. At the same time, philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion. Catacombs of Rome The Catacombs of Rome ( Italian : Catacombe di Roma ) are ancient catacombs , underground burial places in and around Rome , of which there are at least forty, some rediscovered since 1578, others even as late as
17487-482: The Renaissance. Northern Italy and upper Central Italy were divided into a number of warring city-states , the most powerful being Milan , Florence, Pisa , Siena , Genoa , Ferrara , Mantua , Verona and Venice . High Medieval Northern Italy was further divided by the long-running battle for supremacy between the forces of the Papacy and of the Holy Roman Empire : each city aligned itself with one faction or
17688-548: The Tomb of the Capitals, and less complex tumuli . In contrast, the original Roman custom had been cremation of the human body, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, urn, or ash-chest, often deposited in a columbarium or dovecote . Rome faced two problems in the 2nd century CE: overpopulation and a lack of land. The city was growing, and many of the buildings were four or five stories tall. Since burials were not allowed inside
17889-524: The Vatican. Pope Sixtus IV continued Nicholas' work, most famously ordering the construction of the Sistine Chapel . The popes also became increasingly secular rulers as the Papal States were forged into a centralized power by a series of "warrior popes". The nature of the Renaissance also changed in the late 15th century. The Renaissance ideal was fully adopted by the ruling classes and the aristocracy. In
18090-469: The Virgin Mary and it was believed that salvation was delivered to the faithful at the moment of God's incarnation . That theological concept takes pictorial form in the image of Mary holding her infant son. However, what is most relevant to the Byzantine heritage of the Madonna is twofold. First, the earliest surviving independent images of the Virgin Mary are found in Rome, the center of Christianity in
18291-421: The Virgin and Child . The term "Madonna" is often applied to representations of Mary that were not created by Italians. A small selection of examples include: Italian Renaissance Timeline The Italian Renaissance ( Italian : Rinascimento [rinaʃʃiˈmento] ) was a period in Italian history between the 14th and 16th centuries . The period is known for the initial development of
18492-486: The Virgin embraces the infant Jesus, near John the Baptist. Late Gothic sculptures of the Virgin and Child may show a standing virgin with the child in her arms. Iconography varies between public images and private images supplied on a smaller scale and meant for personal devotion in the chamber: the Virgin suckling the Child (such as the Madonna Litta ) is an image largely confined to private devotional icons. There
18693-564: The aim to dominate the spice trade and spread their Christian faith, and these small, portable ivory statues would embellish the church altars and Goan homes, and were also transported abroad serving to fulfil their later project. These figurines were carved by the Indian artists under the guidance of the Jesuits". Art historian Gauvin Alexander Bailey notes that the Jesuit art commissions "were . . .
18894-551: The architectural elements of the space would offer support for decoration. Another excellent place for artistic programs were the arcosolia . The complex system of tunnels that would later be known as the catacombs were first excavated by the Etruscan people that lived in the region predating the Romans. These tunnels were first excavated in the process of mining for various rock resources such as limestone and sandstone. These quarries became
19095-595: The atmosphere of humanist optimism, to excel in the achievements of the Ancients, like Apelles , of whom they read. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century AD, the Catholic Church filled the subsequent vacuum. In the Middle Ages, the Church was considered to be conveying the will of God, and it regulated the standard of behaviour in life. A lack of literacy required most people to rely on
19296-574: The basis for later excavation, first by the Romans for rock resources and then by the Christians and Jews for burial sites and mass graves. After the Edict of Milan in 313, many Roman Christians flocked to the catacombs in order to find relics from the martyrs, and would pillage through the remains. Due to this, vandalism became rampant in the catacombs. In 380, Christianity became a state religion . At first, many still desired to be buried in chambers alongside
19497-534: The borders of its land, and ultimately, plundering its churches, palaces and monasteries of many of its treasures. Later in the Middle Ages , the Cretan school was the main source of icons for the West, and the artists there could adapt their style to Western iconography when required. While theft is one way that Byzantine images made their way West to Italy, the relationship between Byzantine icons and Italian images of
19698-481: The broader Renaissance culture that spread across Western Europe and marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity . Proponents of a "long Renaissance" argue that it started around the year 1300 and lasted until about 1600. In some fields, a Proto-Renaissance , beginning around 1250, is typically accepted. The French word renaissance (corresponding to rinascimento in Italian) means "rebirth", and defines
19899-505: The catacombs to completely fall into disrepair. In the intervening centuries they remained forgotten until they were accidentally rediscovered in 1578, after which Antonio Bosio spent decades exploring and researching them for his Roma Sotterranea (1632). Archeologist Giovanni Battista de Rossi (1822–1894) published the first extensive professional studies about catacombs. In 1956 and 1959 Italian authorities found more catacombs near Rome. The catacombs have become an important monument of
20100-401: The catacombs would be less expensive. Despite widespread popular modern ideas, these tunnels were probably not used for regular worship at first, but simply for burial. However, extending pre-existing Roman customs, memorial services, and celebrations of the anniversaries of Christian martyrs took place there. There are sixty known subterranean burial chambers in Rome. They were built outside
20301-404: The catacombs, presumably looking for valuables. By the 10th century, catacombs were practically abandoned, and holy relics were transferred to above-ground basilicas . Osbourne disputes this characterization, suggesting that the catacombs fell into disrepair following the move out of Rome for the Avignon Papacy and it was only because of the lack of sufficient religious practice in Rome that led
20502-428: The chamber was sealed with a slab bearing the name, age and the day of death. The fresco decorations provide the main surviving evidence for Early Christian art , and initially show typically Roman styles used for decorating homes—with secular iconography adapted to a religious function. The catacomb of Saint Agnes is a small church. Some families were able to construct cubicula which would house various loculi and
20703-464: The church of Santi Marcellino e Pietro ad Duas Lauros . Their name refers to the Christian martyrs Marcellinus and Peter who, according to tradition, were buried here, near the body of St. Tiburtius . Close to the Catacombs of San Callisto are the large and impressive Catacombs of Domitilla (named after Saint Domitilla ), spread over 17 kilometres (11 miles) of caves. In the beginning of 2009, at
20904-461: The city of Rome. Therefore, he explains, Christians, in their everyday life, regularly went down into the catacombs of Rome, not to hold assemblies or the Eucharist, but "to hold memorial meals with dead members of their families, just like their pagan neighbors". V. Rutgers considers that "[r]esearchers have long debunked the myth that Christians used the catacombs as hiding places in times of persecution", because when those persecutions took place,
21105-411: The city walls, and early Christians did not agree with the pagan practice of cremating their dead, communal underground cemeteries provided a practical alternative. From about the 2nd century AD, inhumation (burial of unburnt human remains) became customary, either in graves or, for those who could afford them, in sarcophagi , often elaborately carved. By the 4th century, burial had overtaken cremation as
21306-506: The city's cathedral. The failed assassination led to a war with the Papacy and was used as justification to further centralize power in Lorenzo's hands. Renaissance ideals first spread from Florence to the neighbouring states of Tuscany such as Siena and Lucca . The Tuscan culture soon became the model for all the states of Northern Italy, and the Tuscan dialect came to predominate throughout
21507-456: The city-states of Italy, these laws were repealed or rewritten. The 14th century saw a series of catastrophes that caused the European economy to go into recession. The Medieval Warm Period was ending as the transition to the Little Ice Age began. This climate change saw agricultural output decline significantly, leading to repeated famines , exacerbated by the rapid population growth of
21708-540: The city. In 1469 the reins of power passed to Cosimo's 21-year-old grandson Lorenzo , who would become known as "Lorenzo the Magnificent." Lorenzo was the first of the family to be educated from an early age in the humanist tradition and is best known as one of the Renaissance's most important patrons of the arts. Lorenzo reformed Florence's ruling council from 100 members to 70, formalizing the Medici rule. The republican institutions continued, but they lost all power. Lorenzo
21909-420: The classic humanist education being propounded by scholars like Pico della Mirandola was the hunting down of lost or forgotten manuscripts that were known only by reputation. These endeavours were greatly aided by the wealth of Italian patricians, merchant-princes and despots, who would spend substantial sums building libraries . Discovering the past had become fashionable and it was a passionate affair pervading
22110-531: The codification of the Bible, the Madonna remained a dominant subject in the iconography of the Renaissance. Some of the most eminent 16th-century Italian painters to turn to this subject were Leonardo da Vinci , Michelangelo , Raphael , Giorgione , Giovanni Bellini and Titian . They developed on the foundations of 15th-century Marian images by Fra Angelico , Fra Filippo Lippi , Mantegna and Piero della Francesca in particular, among countless others. The subject
22311-454: The connection between physical beauty and inner virtues. In Renaissance Italy, virtue and beauty were often linked together to praise men. One role of Petrarch is as the founder of a new method of scholarship, Renaissance humanism . Petrarch encouraged the study of the Latin classics and carried his copy of Homer about, at a loss to find someone to teach him to read Greek. An essential step in
22512-782: The course of the 15th century, the most powerful city-states annexed their smaller neighbours. Florence took Pisa in 1406, Venice captured Padua and Verona , while the Duchy of Milan annexed a number of nearby areas including Pavia and Parma . The first part of the Renaissance saw almost constant warfare on land and sea as the city-states vied for preeminence. On land, these wars were primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as condottieri , bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, but especially Germany and Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. The mercenaries were not willing to risk their lives unduly, and war became one largely of sieges and manoeuvring, occasioning few pitched battles. It
22713-519: The dates of the cluster of these earlier images, however, they seem to be primarily works of the 7th and 8th centuries. It was not until the revival of monumental panel painting in Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries, that the image of the Madonna gains prominence outside of Rome, especially throughout Tuscany . While members of the mendicant orders of the Franciscan and Dominican Orders are some of
22914-422: The depiction of the Madonna in panel painting, her image also appears in mural decoration, whether mosaics or fresco painting on the exteriors and interior of sacred buildings. She is found high above the apse, or east end of the church where the liturgy is celebrated in the West. She is also found in sculpted form, whether small ivories for private devotion, or large sculptural reliefs and free-standing sculpture. As
23115-441: The different languages, size of groups permitted, and public transport. Like other historical sites in Italy, the catacombs are often not accessible at certain times of the day or on certain days of the week and may require online pre-booking. There are currently only 5 Catacombs open to the public; San Sebastiano, San Callisto, Priscilla, Domitilla and Sant'Agnese. Roman catacombs are made up of underground passages ( ambulacra ), in
23316-434: The earlier era. The Hundred Years' War between England and France disrupted trade throughout northwest Europe, most notably when, in 1345, King Edward III of England repudiated his debts, contributing to the collapse of the two largest Florentine banks, those of the Bardi and Peruzzi . In the east, war was also disrupting trade routes, as the Ottoman Empire began to expand throughout the region. Most devastating, though,
23517-692: The earliest Christian communities throughout Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle East. Important to Italian tradition are Byzantine icons , especially those created in Constantinople (Istanbul), the capital of the longest, enduring medieval civilization whose icons participated in civic life and were celebrated for their miraculous properties. Byzantium (324–1453) saw itself as the true Rome , if Greek -speaking, Christian empire with colonies of Italians living among its citizens, participating in Crusades at
23718-453: The early Renaissance artists were seen as craftsmen with little prestige or recognition. By the later Renaissance, the top figures wielded great influence and could charge great fees. A flourishing trade in Renaissance art developed. While in the early Renaissance many of the leading artists were of lower- or middle-class origins, increasingly they became aristocrats. As a cultural movement,
23919-457: The end of the High Renaissance in Florence, but the instruments of republican government were firmly under the control of the Medici and their allies, save during the intervals after 1494 and 1527. Cosimo and Lorenzo de' Medici rarely held official posts but were the unquestioned leaders. Cosimo was highly popular among the citizenry, mainly for bringing an era of stability and prosperity to
24120-593: The event thus in his biography of the Prophet : "Christians sometimes came to do honour to the Sanctuary of Abraham, and they were made welcome like all the rest. Moreover one Christian had been allowed and even encouraged to paint an icon of the Virgin Mary and the child Christ on an inside wall of the Ka'bah, where it sharply contrasted with all the other paintings. But Quraysh were more or less insensitive to this contrast: for them it
24321-648: The ever prospering merchant class. In 1298, one of the leading banking families of Europe, the Bonsignoris , were bankrupted and so the city of Siena lost her status as the banking centre of Europe to Florence. The main challengers of the Albizzi family were the Medicis, first under Giovanni de' Medici , and later under his son Cosimo de' Medici . The Medici controlled the Medici bank —then Europe's largest bank—and an array of other enterprises in Florence and elsewhere. In 1433,
24522-444: The exact locations of the catacombs of Rome were widely known. Frank K. Flinn considers that during the period of Christian persecutions and shortly after it, Christians held "memorial rites and Eucharist" near the graves of the more famous Christian martyrs. He adds that "[c]ontrary to novel and movie lore," the catacombs of Rome "were not used as hiding places for Christians." Author J. Osbourne says that "nothing could be further from
24723-406: The fact that Jewish people did not visit the dead in the Catacombs. Parts of the Old Testament and the symbol of a candlestick with seven branches have been spotted on the walls of Jewish Catacombs. Due to high levels of humidity and temperature, bone preservation has been negatively affected in the catacombs. Scientists are unable to identify the sex of the dead due to the lack of preservation in
24924-429: The first stirrings of Renaissance art were to be seen, notably in the realism of Giotto . Paradoxically, some of these disasters would help establish the Renaissance. The Black Death wiped out a third of Europe's population. The resulting labour shortage increased wages and the reduced population was therefore much wealthier, better fed, and, significantly, had more surplus money to spend on luxury goods. As incidences of
25125-477: The first time since the 4th century. The city-states of Italy expanded greatly during this period and grew in power to become de facto fully independent of the Holy Roman Empire ; apart from the Kingdom of Naples , outside powers kept their armies out of Italy. During this period, the modern commercial infrastructure developed, with double-entry book-keeping , joint stock companies , an international banking system,
25326-416: The first to commission panels representing this subject matter, such works quickly became popular in monasteries, parish churches, and homes. Some images of the Madonna were paid for by lay organizations called confraternities, who met to sing praises of the Virgin in chapels found within the newly reconstructed, spacious churches that were sometimes dedicated to her. Paying for such a work might also be seen as
25527-499: The first years of the Renaissance. The great transformation began under Pope Nicholas V , who became pontiff in 1447. He launched a dramatic rebuilding effort that would eventually see much of the city renewed. The humanist scholar Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini became Pope Pius II in 1458. As the papacy fell under the control of wealthy families, such as the Medici and the Borgias , the spirit of Renaissance art and philosophy came to dominate
25728-547: The four original floors, the first is almost completely gone). On the left-hand end of the right-hand wall of the nave of the primitive basilica, rebuilt in 1933 on ancient remains, arches to end the middle of the nave of the actual church, built in the 13th century, are visible, along with the outside of the apse of the Chapel of the Relics; whole and fragmentary collected sarcophagi (mostly of 4th-century date) were found in excavations. This
25929-411: The great majority of examples from before about 400 AD, in fresco and sculpture , as well as gold glass medallions (these, like most bodies, have been removed). The Jewish catacombs are similarly important for the study of Jewish culture at this early period. The word catacombs comes from the Latin root word catatumbas meaning either "among the tombs" or, according to other translations from
26130-620: The heart of a Mediterranean empire and in control of the trade routes with the east since its participation in the Crusades and following the journeys of Marco Polo between 1271 and 1295. Thus Italy renewed contact with the remains of ancient Greek culture , which provided humanist scholars with new texts. Finally the Renaissance had a significant effect on the Papal States and on Rome , largely rebuilt by humanist and Renaissance popes , such as Julius II and Leo X , who frequently became involved in Italian politics , in arbitrating disputes between competing colonial powers and in opposing
26331-579: The idol of Krishna-Devaki, the Portuguese had not decimated the temple, for it had reminded them of Virgin Mary-Jesus. "An impressive idol of Devaki, carrying the infant lord on her waist, stands at the inner sanctum of the temple. The image is unusual because while there exists a plethora of temples in the country dedicated to Krishna, there is no image of Devaki". Historian Anant Dhume, in his book 'The Cultural History of Goa from 10,000 BC to 1352 AD', compares
26532-508: The idol with the image of Madonna and the Christ child because of the similarities. In the book, Dhume elaborates: "However, the idol of Devkikrishna originally of Chodan Island, Tiswadi taluka transferred at the time of molestation by the Christian missionaries to Mashela (Marcela in Portuguese) hamlet of Orgaon village, Ponda taluka, is interesting ... History says that Vasco da Gama in his old age
26733-560: The image, possibly flanked or surrounded by angels or saints. Other types of Marian imagery that have a narrative context, depicting scenes from the Life of the Virgin , e.g. the Annunciation to Mary , are not typically called "Madonna". The earliest depictions of Mary date to Early Christian art of the (2nd to 3rd centuries, found in the Catacombs of Rome . These are in a narrative context. The classical "Madonna" or "Theotokos" imagery develops from
26934-420: The importance of the Renaissance in human history. These historians tend to think in terms of " Early Modern Europe " instead. Roger Osborne argues that "The Renaissance is a difficult concept for historians because the history of Europe quite suddenly turns into a history of Italian painting, sculpture and architecture." The end of the Italian Renaissance is as imprecisely marked as its starting point. For many,
27135-485: The increased importance of the cult of the virgin and the prominence of art in service to Marian devotion during the late medieval period. During the 13th century, especially, with the increasing influence of chivalry and aristocratic culture on poetry, song and the visual arts, the Madonna is represented as the queen of Heaven, often enthroned, such as the Ognissanti Madonna . Madonna was meant more to remind people of
27336-619: The inherited traditional types. Liturgy depicting Mary as powerful intercessor (such as the Akathist ) was brought from Greek into Latin tradition in the 8th century. The Greek title of Δεσποινα ( Despoina ) was adopted as Latin Domina "Lady". The medieval Italian Ma Donna pronounced [maˈdɔnna] ("My Lady") reflects Mea Domina , while Nostra Domina (δεσποινίς ἡμῶν) was adopted in French, as Nostre Dame "Our Lady". These names signal both
27537-641: The inland city-states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po Valley. From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs , land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in mining and agriculture. By
27738-445: The level of the second floor or higher, and often on the corner of a house, such sculptures were found in great numbers in many cities; Mainz , for instance, was supposed to have had more than 200 of them before World War II . The variety in such statues is as great as in other Madonna images; one finds Madonnas holding grapes (in reference to the Song of Songs 1:14, translated as "My lover
27939-581: The mainstay of depictions of Mary to the present day. The image at Mount Sinai succeeds in combining two aspects of Mary described in the Magnificat , her humility and her exaltation above other humans, and has the Hand of God above, up to which the archangels look. An early icon of the Virgin as queen is in the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome, datable to 705–707 by the kneeling figure of Pope John VII ,
28140-465: The martyrs. However, the practice of catacomb burial declined slowly, and the dead were increasingly buried in church cemeteries. In the 6th century, catacombs were used only for martyrs' memorial services, though some paintings were added as late as the 7th century, for example, a Saint Stephen in the Catacomb of Commodilla. Apparently, Ostrogoths , Vandals and Lombards that sacked Rome also violated
28341-545: The medieval West. One is a valued possession of Santa Maria in Trastevere , one of the many Roman churches dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Another, a splintered, repainted ghost of its former self, is venerated at the Pantheon , that great architectural wonder of the Ancient Roman Empire , that was rededicated to Mary as an expression of the Church's triumph. Both evoke Byzantine tradition in terms of their medium, that is,
28542-587: The merchants almost complete control of the governments of the Italian city-states, again enhancing trade. One of the most important effects of this political control was security. Those who grew extremely wealthy in a feudal state ran the constant risk of running afoul of the monarchy and having their lands confiscated, as famously occurred to Jacques Cœur in France. The northern states also kept many medieval laws that severely hampered commerce, such as those against usury , and prohibitions on trading with non-Christians. In
28743-606: The mid-16th century as domestic disputes and foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars (1494–1559). However, the ideas and ideals of the Italian Renaissance spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance from the late 15th century. Italian explorers from the maritime republics served under the auspices of European monarchs, ushering in the Age of Discovery . The most famous voyage
28944-411: The migration of Greek scholars to Italy. One of the greatest achievements of Italian Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity. Another popular explanation for the Italian Renaissance is the thesis, first advanced by historian Hans Baron , that states that the primary impetus of the early Renaissance
29145-461: The miracle of the calling out of Cerasa's demons, on the inside contains paintings (including a ceiling painting of a Gorgon's head) and inhumation burials and has a surviving inscription reading "Marcus Clodius Hermes", the name of its owner. The second, called by some "tomb of the Innocentiores" (a burial club which owned it), has a refined stucco ceiling, Latin inscriptions in Greek characters, and
29346-452: The most emulated Romans are Cicero , Horace , Sallust , and Virgil . Among the Greeks, Aristotle , Homer , and Plato were now being read in the original for the first time since the 4th century, though Greek compositions were few. The literature and poetry of the Renaissance were largely influenced by the developing science and philosophy. The humanist Francesco Petrarch , a key figure in
29547-418: The mother who holds the body of her crucified son. In some European countries, such as Germany, Italy and Poland sculptures of the Madonna are found on the outside of city houses and buildings, or along the roads in small enclosures. In Germany, such a statue placed on the outside of a building is called a Hausmadonna . Some date back to the Middle Ages, while some are still being made today. Usually found on
29748-481: The official one for the Roman Church. The arcades, where more than fifty martyrs and sixteen popes were buried, form part of a cemetery complex that occupies fifteen hectares. The Catacombs of San Callisto are around 90 acres large, 12 miles long and contain four levels, extending to a depth of more than 20 meters underground. Because of the large number of popes buried inside the catacombs, it has on occasion been called
29949-460: The oldest parts of the complex may be found the " cubiculum of the coronation", with a rare depiction for that period of Christ being crowned with thorns, and a 4th-century painting of Susanna and the old men in the allegorical guise of a lamb and wolves. The Catacomb of Priscilla, situated at the Via Salaria across from the Villa Ada , probably derives its name from the name of the landowner on whose land they were built. They are looked after by
30150-417: The original Late Latin , "next to the quarry". The later translation stems from the first excavations done to create the catacombs system, which was conducted outside of Rome near the quarry. The Etruscan civilization dominated a territory including the area which now includes Rome from perhaps 900 to 100 BC. Like many other European peoples, it had buried its dead in excavated underground chambers, such as
30351-500: The other inside Villa Torlonia . The catacombs extend for more than 13,000 square metres (140,000 sq ft), and date back to the period between the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and possibly remained in use until the 5th century. There are almost a century of epitaphs, but these do not show any examples of a particular belief, beyond some rare frescoes showing the classic Jewish religious symbols. Jewish Catacombs are distinguished from their Christian counterparts by various signs as well as
30552-426: The other paintings, except that of Abraham, were effaced." In Indian art there are striking similarities found in between the images of Madonna and Christ Child, and Yashoda or Devaki and Krishna , as both the Hindu and the Christian figures of the "eternal child" are shown cuddled warmly on the laps of their mother. There also exists a temple in Goa , the Shree Devakikrishna Temple at Marcel, where seeing
30753-453: The other, yet was divided internally between the two warring parties, Guelfs and Ghibellines . Warfare between the states was common, and invasion from outside Italy was confined to intermittent sorties of Holy Roman Emperors . Renaissance politics developed from this background. Since the 13th century, as armies became primarily composed of mercenaries , prosperous city-states could field considerable forces, despite their low populations. In
30954-409: The period as one of cultural revival and renewed interest in classical antiquity after the centuries during what Renaissance humanists labelled as the "Dark Ages" . The Italian Renaissance historian Giorgio Vasari used the term rinascita ("rebirth") in his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects in 1550, but the concept became widespread only in the 19th century, after
31155-416: The period include Machiavelli himself, his friend and critic Francesco Guicciardini and Giovanni Botero ( The Reason of State ). The Aldine Press , founded in 1494 by the printer Aldo Manuzio , active in Venice, developed Italic type and pocket editions that one could carry in one's pocket; it became the first to publish printed editions of books in Ancient Greek. Venice also became the birthplace of
31356-419: The place where the body of the young martyr Saint Pancras , or Pancratius, had been buried. In the 17th century, it was given to the Discalced Carmelites , who completely remodeled it. The catacombs house fragments of sculpture and pagan and early Christian inscriptions. One of the smallest Christian cemeteries, this has always been one of the most accessible catacombs and is thus one of the least preserved (of
31557-441: The plastered walls have hundreds of graffiti by the devotees at these banquets, carved in the second half of the 3rd to the beginnings of the 4th century, with appeals to the apostle's Peter and Paul. From the "Trigilia" one passed into an ancient ambulatory, which turns around into an apse: here is a collection of epitaphs and a model of all the mausolei, of the "Triglia" and of the Constantinian basilica. From here one descends into
31758-514: The poet Poliziano and the Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino made extensive translations from both Latin and Greek. In the early 16th century, Baldassare Castiglione laid out his vision of the ideal gentleman and lady in The Book of the Courtier , while Niccolò Machiavelli rejected the ideal with an eye on la verità effettuale della cosa ('the effectual truth of things') in The Prince , composed, in humanistic style, chiefly of parallel ancient and modern examples of virtù . Historians of
31959-401: The population's diet consisted of freshwater fish. Sample D9-W-XVI-8, considered to be a two-year-old child, shows that children in Ancient Rome were breastfed and this child, in particular, had not yet been weaned off its mother. This results from the fact that the δ15N values had not begun to decline. Fish had intertwined secular and religious aspects in Roman society. For one thing, it was
32160-414: The portrayal of her image in churches. Eastern examples show the Madonna enthroned, even wearing the closed Byzantine pearl-encrusted crown with pendants, with the Christ Child on her lap. In the West, hieratic Byzantine models were closely followed in the Early Middle Ages, but with the increased importance of the cult of the Virgin in the 12th and 13th centuries a wide variety of types developed to satisfy
32361-524: The priest's explanation of the Bible and laws. In the eleventh century, the Church persecuted many groups including pagans, Jews, and lepers in order to eliminate irregularities in society and strengthen its power. In response to the laity's challenge to Church authority, bishops played an important role, as they gradually lost control of secular authority, and to regain the power of discourse, they adopted extreme control methods, such as persecuting infidels. The Church also collected wealth from believers in
32562-459: The primary route of goods from the Orient was through the Atlantic ports of Lisbon, Seville, Nantes, Bristol, and London. The thirteenth-century Italian literary revolution helped set the stage for the Renaissance. Before the Renaissance, the Italian language was not the literary language in Italy. It was only in the 13th century that Italian authors began writing in their native language rather than Latin , French , or Provençal . The 1250s saw
32763-440: The ravages of communal hate, man-made differences and orthodox interpretations". Nirendranath Chakraborty , one of the finest modern poets of Bengal wrote, taking forward this imagery of the mother and the child, wrote a famous poem entitled "Kolkatar Jishu" (The Jesus of Calcutta). The everlasting tenderness of the mother-child figure, of motherhood and the unconditional bond of love and warmth that this relationship holds, "that
32964-519: The region, especially in literature. In 1447 Francesco Sforza came to power in Milan and rapidly transformed that still medieval city into a major centre of art and learning that drew Leone Battista Alberti . Venice , one of the wealthiest cities due to its control of the Adriatic Sea, also became a centre for Renaissance culture, especially Venetian Renaissance architecture . Smaller courts brought Renaissance patronage to lesser cities, which developed their characteristic arts: Ferrara , Mantua under
33165-472: The renewed sense of scholarship, was also an accomplished poet, publishing several important works of poetry. He wrote poetry in Latin , notably the Punic War epic Africa , but is today remembered for his works in the Italian vernacular , especially the Canzoniere , a collection of love sonnets dedicated to his unrequited love Laura. He was the foremost writer of Petrarchan sonnets , and translations of his work into English by Thomas Wyatt established
33366-438: The republican governments. This was in sharp contrast to the rest of Europe where artisans were firmly in the lower class. Literate and educated, this group participated in the Renaissance culture. The largest section of the urban population was the urban poor of semi-skilled workers and the unemployed. Like the peasants, the Renaissance had little effect on them. Historians debate how easy it was to move between these groups during
33567-462: The request of the Vatican, the Divine Word Missionaries , a Roman Catholic Society of priests and Brothers, assumed responsibility as an administrator of St. Domitilla Catacombs. These catacombs, on the Via Ostiensis , contain one of the earliest images of a bearded Christ. They originally held the relics of Saints Felix and Adauctus . Excavations on the Commodilla were conducted by Franciscan archaeologist Bellarmino Bagatti (1933–34). Located on
33768-401: The rise of cities influenced each other; for example, the demand for luxury goods led to an increase in trade, which led to greater numbers of tradesmen becoming wealthy, who, in turn, demanded more luxury goods. This atmosphere of assumed luxury of the time created a need for the creation of visual symbols of wealth, an important way to show a family's affluence and taste. This change also gave
33969-510: The rise to power in Florence of the austere monk Girolamo Savonarola in 1494–1498 marks the end of the city's flourishing; for others, the triumphant return of the Medici family to power in 1512 marks the beginning of the late phase in the Renaissance arts called Mannerism . Other accounts trace the end of the Italian Renaissance to the French invasions of the early 16th century and the subsequent conflict between France and Spanish rulers for control of Italian territory. Savonarola rode to power on
34170-431: The role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art and architecture. While the Italian Renaissance was fading, the Northern Renaissance adopted many of its ideals and transformed its styles. A number of Italy's greatest artists chose to emigrate. The most notable example was Leonardo da Vinci , who left for France in 1516, but teams of lesser artists invited to transform the Château de Fontainebleau created
34371-440: The sonnet form in that country, where it was employed by William Shakespeare and countless other poets. Petrarch's disciple, Giovanni Boccaccio , became a major author in his own right. His major work was the Decameron , a collection of 100 stories told by ten storytellers who have fled to the outskirts of Florence to escape the black plague over ten nights. The Decameron in particular and Boccaccio's work, in general, were
34572-447: The state of the world, presaging further European voyages of exploration in the years to come. Until the late 14th century, prior to the Medici, Florence's leading family were the House of Albizzi . In 1293 the Ordinances of Justice were enacted which effectively became the constitution of the Republic of Florence throughout the Italian Renaissance. The city's numerous luxurious palazzi were becoming surrounded by townhouses , built by
34773-444: The suburbs or former suburbs, were built along the consular roads out of Rome, such as the Via Appia , the Via Ostiensis , the Via Labicana , the Via Tiburtina and the Via Nomentana . With the exception of the Via Ostiensis (Italian: Via Ostiense ), these ancient Latin terms are also the current Italian names for these roads. These catacombs are situated on the ancient Via Labicana , today Via Casilina in Rome , Italy , near
34974-442: The surface in an area of more than 2.4 square kilometres (590 acres). Narrow steps that descend as many as four stories join the levels. Passages are about 2.5 by 1 metre (8.2 ft × 3.3 ft). Burial niches ( loculi ) were carved into walls. They are 40–60 centimetres (16–24 in) high and 120–150 centimetres (47–59 in) long. Bodies were placed in chambers in stone sarcophagi in their clothes and bound in linen. Then
35175-408: The technique and materials of the paintings, in that they were originally painted in tempera (egg yolk and ground pigments) on wooden panels. In this respect, they share the Ancient Roman heritage of Byzantine icons. Second, they share iconography , or subject matter. Each image stresses the maternal role that Mary plays, representing her in relationship to her infant son. It is difficult to gauge
35376-474: The theological concept which is placing such a high value on purity or virginity. This is also represented by the color of her clothing. The color blue symbolized purity, virginity, and royalty. Ultramarine was usually reserved for only the most important commissions, such as the blue robes of the Virgin Mary in Gérard David's Virgin and Child with Female Saints . While the Italian term Madonna paralleled English Our Lady in late medieval Marian devotion, it
35577-407: The town. One of his most important accomplishments was negotiating the Peace of Lodi with Francesco Sforza ending the decades of war with Milan and bringing stability to much of Northern Italy. Cosimo was also an important patron of the arts, directly and indirectly, by the influential example he set. Cosimo was succeeded by his sickly son Piero de' Medici , who died after five years in charge of
35778-518: The truth" than the idea that Christians inhabited the Catacombs during the period of persecution. Christian art in the catacombs is split into three categories: iconographic, stylistic and technical. From the first to the sixth century, the art in Roman Christian catacombs progressively went into phases as well: an early phase, an Old Testament phase and a New Testament phase. Excavators ( fossors ) built vast systems of galleries and passages on top of each other. They lie 7–19 metres (23–62 ft) below
35979-526: The upper reaches of society. I go , said Cyriac of Ancona , I go to awake the dead . As the Greek works were acquired, manuscripts found, libraries and museums formed, the age of the printing press was dawning. The works of Antiquity were translated from Greek and Latin into the contemporary modern languages throughout Europe, finding a receptive middle-class audience, which might be, like Shakespeare, "with little Latin and less Greek". While concern for philosophy , art, and literature all increased greatly in
36180-454: The usual practice, and the construction of tombs had grown greater and spread throughout the empire. Jews and Christians preferred burial due to the idea of preserving the dead body for the resurrection. Considerable tracts of the ancient roads leading out of Rome and other Roman cities, like the Via Appia to this day, had monumental tombs running alongside them. These would inevitably cost a fortune to construct, whereas clearly in digging out of
36381-406: The various coalitions led by Florence that sought in vain to halt the advance. This culminated in the 1402 siege of Florence when it looked as though the city was doomed to fall, before Giangaleazzo suddenly died and his empire collapsed. Baron's thesis suggests that during these long wars, the leading figures of Florence rallied the people by presenting the war as one between the free republic and
36582-470: The vicinity of Rome were dug from the 2nd century onwards. They were carved in "tufa" ( tuff ), a type of volcanic rock which is relatively soft to dig into but subsequently hardens. Christian catacombs existed as a burial ground for early Christians accompanied by inscriptions and early wall art. Although catacombs were of Jewish origin in the first century, by the end of the sixth century there were over sixty Christian catacombs. These catacombs served as
36783-436: The walls along main Roman roads , like the Via Appia , the Via Ostiense , the Via Labicana , the Via Tiburtina and the Via Nomentana . Names of the catacombs—like St. Calixtus and St. Sebastian, which is alongside Via Appia—refer to martyrs that may have been buried there. However, about 80% of the excavations used for Christian burials date to after the time of the persecutions. Through research, it has been found that
36984-505: The walls of which horizontal niches ( loculi ) were dug. These loculi, generally laid out in sequences ( pilae ) one above the other from floor or waist level, could each contain one or more bodies. When placed inside of loculi, bodies were usually covered in a shroud and often covered in lime, which helped to cover the smell of the decaying process. In order to make more money, fossors would often sell occupied loculi to other people. A loculus large enough to contain two bodies were referred to as
37185-577: The wealthiest of the cities of Northern Italy, mainly due to its woollen textile production, developed under the supervision of its dominant trade guild , the Arte della Lana . Wool was imported from Northern Europe (and in the 16th century from Spain) and together with dyes from the east were used to make high-quality textiles. The Italian trade routes that covered the Mediterranean and beyond were also major conduits of culture and knowledge. The recovery of lost Greek classics brought to Italy by refugee Byzantine scholars who migrated during and following
37386-500: The word Machiavellian has come to refer to the cunning and ruthless actions advocated by the book. Along with many other Renaissance works, The Prince remains a relevant and influential work of literature today. Many Italian Renaissance humanists also praised and affirmed the beauty of the body in poetry and literature. In Baldassare Rasinus's panegyric for Francesco Sforza, Rasinus considered that beautiful people usually have virtue. In northern Italy, humanists had discussions about
37587-463: The work of scholars such as Jules Michelet and Jacob Burckhardt . The Renaissance began in Tuscany in Central Italy and centred in the city of Florence . The Florentine Republic , one of the several city-states of the peninsula , rose to economic and political prominence by providing credit for European monarchs and by laying down the groundwork for developments in capitalism and in banking . Renaissance culture later spread to Venice ,
37788-416: Was a great expansion of the cult of Mary after the Council of Ephesus in 431, when her status as Theotokos ("God-bearer") was confirmed; this had been a subject of some controversy until then, though mainly for reasons to do with arguments over the nature of Christ . In mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, dating from 432 to 440, just after the council, she is not yet shown with a halo , and she
37989-428: Was also in the interest of mercenaries on both sides to prolong any conflict, to continue their employment. Mercenaries were also a constant threat to their employers; if not paid, they often turned on their patron. If it became obvious that a state was entirely dependent on mercenaries, the temptation was great for the mercenaries to take over the running of it themselves—this occurred on a number of occasions. Neutrality
38190-455: Was appointed Vice-Roy of all colonies of the Far East as a gesture of honour. One day, he visited Chodan Island. When he saw this idol through the main doorway, he immediately saluted the image and went on his knees, considering it the image of Mother Mary, with baby Jesus ..." During the Portuguese reign in Goa starting from the 16th Century, the Indo-Portuguese ivory statuettes made, reflected such similarities. "The Portuguese had settled with
38391-581: Was equally popular in Early Netherlandish painting and that of the rest of Northern Europe. The subject retaining the greatest power on all of these men remained the maternal bond, even though other subjects, especially the Annunciation , and later the Immaculate Conception , led to a greater number of paintings that represented Mary alone, without her son. As a commemorative image, the Pietà became an important subject, newly freed from its former role in narrative cycles, in part, an outgrowth of popular devotional statues in Northern Europe. Traditionally, Mary
38592-483: Was imported as an art historical term into English usage in the 1640s, designating specifically the Marian art of the Italian Renaissance . In this sense, "a Madonna", or "a Madonna with Child" is used of specific works of art, historically mostly of Italian works. A "Madonna" may alternatively be called "Virgin" or "Our Lady", but "Madonna" is not typically applied to eastern works; e.g. the Theotokos of Vladimir may in English be called "Our Lady of Vladimir", while it
38793-404: Was less successful than his illustrious forebears in business, and the Medici commercial empire was slowly eroded. Lorenzo continued the alliance with Milan, but relations with the papacy soured, and in 1478, Papal agents allied with the Pazzi family in an attempt to assassinate Lorenzo. Although the Pazzi conspiracy failed, Lorenzo's young brother, Giuliano , was killed at Easter Sunday mass in
38994-414: Was maintained with France, which found itself surrounded by enemies when Spain disputed Charles VIII 's claim to the Kingdom of Naples . Peace with France ended when Charles VIII invaded Italy to take Naples. At sea, Italian city-states sent many fleets out to do battle. The main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict, the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be
39195-416: Was open the shutters of the tabernacle in an act of private revelation. Duccio and his contemporaries inherited early pictorial conventions that were maintained, in part, to tie their own works to the authority of tradition. Despite all of the innovations of painters of the Madonna during the 13th and 14th centuries, Mary can usually be recognized by virtue of her attire. Customarily when she is represented as
39396-412: Was simply a question of increasing the multitude of idols by another two; and it was partly their tolerance that made them so impenetrable.... Apart from the icon of the Virgin Mary and the child Jesus, and a painting of an old man, said to be Abraham , the walls inside had been covered with pictures of pagan deities . Placing his hand protectively over the icon, the Prophet told Uthman to see that all
39597-519: Was that of Christopher Columbus (who sailed for Spain) and laid the foundation for European dominance of the Americas. Other explorers include Giovanni da Verrazzano (for France), Amerigo Vespucci (for Spain), and John Cabot (for England). Italian scientists such as Falloppio , Tartaglia , Galileo and Torricelli played key roles in the Scientific Revolution , and foreigners such as Copernicus and Vesalius worked in Italian universities. Historiographers have proposed various events and dates of
39798-456: Was the Black Death that decimated the populations of the densely populated cities of Northern Italy and returned at intervals thereafter. Florence, for instance, which had a pre-plague population of 45,000 decreased over the next 47 years by 25–50%. Widespread disorder followed, including a revolt of Florentine textile workers, the ciompi , in 1378. It was during this period of instability that authors such as Dante and Petrarch lived, and
39999-402: Was the end of stability with a series of foreign invasions of Italy known as the Italian Wars that would continue for several decades. These began with the 1494 invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy and ended the independence of many of the city-states. Most damaging was the 6 May 1527, Spanish and German troops' sacking Rome that for two decades all but ended
40200-447: Was the long-running series of wars between Florence and Milan. By the late 14th century, Milan had become a centralized monarchy under the control of the Visconti family. Giangaleazzo Visconti , who ruled the city from 1378 to 1402, was renowned both for his cruelty and for his abilities, and set about building an empire in Northern Italy. He launched a long series of wars, with Milan steadily conquering neighbouring states and defeating
40401-522: Was very high. An upper-class figure would control hundreds of times more income than a servant or labourer. Some historians see this unequal distribution of wealth as important to the Renaissance, as art patronage relies on the very wealthy. The Renaissance was not a period of great social or economic change, only of cultural and ideological development. It only touched a small fraction of the population, and in modern times this has led many historians, such as any that follow historical materialism , to reduce
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