171-653: Madayipara is a flat-topped hillock located in the Madayi , of Kannur district of Kerala state in the Southern India . It overlooks the town of Payangadi on the northern bank of Kuppam River. It is popular being the site of the Madayi Kavu (Thiruvar Kadu Bhagavathi Temple) of Goddess Kali , Shakthi , the Vadukunnu Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva . The Shiva temple of Madayipara was razed by followers of Tippu Sultan in
342-495: A Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam . A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 CE), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE), Abulfeda (1273–1331 CE), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 CE) mention
513-630: A unicameral legislature. The Kerala Legislative Assembly also known as Niyamasabha, consists of 140 members who are elected for five-year terms. The state elects 20 members to the Lok Sabha , the lower house of the Indian Parliament, and 9 members to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house. The Government of Kerala is a democratically elected body in India with the governor as its constitutional head and
684-534: A continuation of the Mysore Plateau , are known for natural Gold fields, along with the adjoining districts of Karnataka . Minerals including Ilmenite , Monazite , Thorium , and Titanium , are found in the coastal belt of Kerala. Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium -containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on
855-474: A detailed account of the species association is lacking. Grasses control erosion, and several species are well known for their rich fodder value. When the monsoon recedes, the local people start cutting grasses for use as fodder for their cattle. A small plot, containing a thick growth of Themeda and other species of grasses fetches about rupees three thousand per season for a landowner. The first fall of southwest monsoon during late May or early June stimulates
1026-472: A detailed account of the species association is lacking. Grasses control erosion, and several species are well known for their rich fodder value. When the monsoon recedes, the local people start cutting grasses for use as fodder for their cattle. A small plot, containing a thick growth of Themeda and other species of grasses fetches about rupees three thousand per season for a landowner. The first fall of southwest monsoon during late May or early June stimulates
1197-502: A developing period of art, literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism. A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils , became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century. The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE. For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis , with each province comprising
1368-480: A higher stage in the succession. So it can be safely stated that Arundinella grasses represent a higher stage in grassland development in the areas where they occur. Recent plant explorations revealed some more new species of grasses from the laterite hills of north Malabar (Sreekumar and Nair, 1991), 11 out of 37 endemic grasses of Kerala are reported from this kind of locality. Thus, these hillocks are isolated ecological niches of conservation importance. However,
1539-478: A higher stage in the succession. So it can be safely stated that Arundinella grasses represent a higher stage in grassland development in the areas where they occur. Recent plant explorations revealed some more new species of grasses from the laterite hills of north Malabar (Sreekumar and Nair, 1991), 11 out of 37 endemic grasses of Kerala are reported from this kind of locality. Thus, these hillocks are isolated ecological niches of conservation importance. However,
1710-586: A large number of animals such as bats, birds, butterflies, etc. The geographical and climatical features made Madayipara and the adjacent laterite hillock system in supporting a unique assemblage of species. It is the home of some unique and sparsely distributed endemic plants such as Nymphoides krishnakesara (Joseph and Sivarajan, 1990), Rotala malabarica (Pradeep et al., 1990), Justicia ekakusuma (Pradeep et al., 1991), Lepidagathis keralensis (Madhusoodanan and Singh, 1992) and Eriocaulon madayiparense , (Swapna et al., 2012). Nymphoides krishnakesara
1881-1004: A large number of animals such as bats, birds, butterflies, etc. The geographical and climatical features made Madayipara and the adjacent laterite hillock system in supporting a unique assemblage of species. It is the home of some unique and sparsely distributed endemic plants such as Nymphoides krishnakesara (Joseph and Sivarajan, 1990), Rotala malabarica (Pradeep et al., 1990), Justicia ekakusuma (Pradeep et al., 1991), Lepidagathis keralensis (Madhusoodanan and Singh, 1992), Eriocaulon madayiparense , (Swapna et al., 2012), Lindernia madayiparense (Narayanan et al., 2012), Eriocaoulon cheemenianum Biju et al. (2012), Coelachene madayensis Pramod & Pradeep (2012), Parasopubia hofmannii Pradeep & Pramod (2012), P. hoffmanii var. albiflora Pradeep & Pramod (2012), Eriocaulon gopalakrishnanum Rashmi & Krishnakumar (2013), Fimbristylis pokkudaniana Sunil et al. (2016) and Chrysopogon narayaniae Sunil et al. (2017). Nymphoides krishnakesara
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#17330855794462052-406: A large number of small animals and birds in addition to providing nectar to butterflies and other insects during their flowering season. The forest dwelling species of Stereospermum colais is one of the major wonders of this woody area, with its large white flowers blooming during November and December. A large tree of Careya arborea situated in the compound of the tourist bungalow also support
2223-402: A large number of small animals and birds in addition to providing nectar to butterflies and other insects during their flowering season. The forest dwelling species of Stereospermum colais is one of the major wonders of this woody area, with its large white flowers blooming during November and December. A large tree of Careya arborea situated in the compound of the tourist bungalow also support
2394-540: A lot in conserving this system. Adopting conservation practices such as bringing it under the protection of a community reserve only could save the Madayippara and its environs from degradation. The national highway passes through Taliparamba town. Goa and Mumbai can be accessed on the northern side and Cochin and Thiruvananthapuram can be accessed on the southern side. The road to the east of Iritty connects to Mysore and Bangalore . The nearest railway station
2565-464: A lot in conserving this system. Adopting conservation practices such as bringing it under the protection of a community reserve only could save the Madayippara and its environs from degradation. In addition to its high scenic beauty and ecological values, its historical significance and rich cultural heritage also make it an ideal site to be conserved for the future. The national highway passes through Taliparamba town. Goa and Mumbai can be accessed on
2736-501: A number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis . Mamankam festival , which was the largest native festival, was held at Tirunavaya near Kuttippuram , on the bank of river Bharathappuzha . Athavanad , the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal , who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya. Sulaiman al-Tajir ,
2907-802: A part of the Madras State post-independence. After the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 , the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging the Malabar district of Madras State (excluding Gudalur taluk of Nilgiris district , Lakshadweep Islands, Topslip , the Attappadi Forest east of Anakatti), the taluk of Kasaragod (now Kasaragod District ) in South Canara , and the erstwhile state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks of Kanyakumari district , and Shenkottai taluks). Kerala has
3078-477: A revenue loss of over ₹ 20 billion (US$ 240 million). Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100. The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board is a government owned financial institution in
3249-586: A strong service sector. In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 63% of the state's GSVA , compared to 28% by secondary sector , and 8% by primary sector . In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one. The state's service sector which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon hospitality industry , tourism , Ayurveda and medical services, pilgrimage, information technology , transportation , financial sector, and education . Major initiatives under
3420-559: Is Mahabali , an Asura and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the Devas , driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu , who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to netherworld to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the Onam festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala. The Matsya Purana , among
3591-462: Is Pazhayangadi on Mangalore- Palakkad line. Trains are available to almost all parts of India subject to advance booking over the internet. There are airports at Kannur , Mangalore and Calicut . All of them are international airports but direct flights are available only to Middle Eastern countries. Kerala Kerala ( English: / ˈ k ɛr ə l ə / / KERR -ə-lə ; Malayalam: [keːɾɐɭɐm] ),
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#17330855794463762-628: Is a Census Town and Grama panchayat in Kannur district of Kerala state, India. As of 2011 Census , Madayi had a population of 35,888 which constitutes 16,168 (45.1%) males and 19,720 (54.9%) females. Madayi census town spreads over an area of 17.08 km (6.59 sq mi) with 6,687 families residing in it. The male female sex ratio was 1,220 higher than state average of 1,084. 13.6% of total population were children under 6 years. Madayi had overall literacy of 94.1% higher than state average of 94%. The male literacy stands at 96.6% and female literacy
3933-458: Is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act , by combining Malayalam -speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin , Malabar , South Canara , and Travancore . Spread over 38,863 km (15,005 sq mi), Kerala is the 21st largest Indian state by area . It is bordered by Karnataka to
4104-676: Is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth. In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar , making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent , which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. The municipalities of Kozhikode , Palakkad , Fort Kochi , Kannur , and Thalassery , were founded on 1 November 1866 of
4275-530: Is a matter of dispute. The suggested locations are Ponnani , Tanur , Beypore - Chaliyam - Kadalundi - Vallikkunnu , and Koyilandy . Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE. Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to
4446-443: Is a small water lilly appear during the wet phase in the small pools and ponds on the plateau. Rotala malabarica is a semi-aquatic plant seen largely in the temporary pools. Justicia ekakusuma (Pradeep et al., 1991), aptly named because of its nature of flower, is rare and seen in the rocky edges of the plateau. Lepidagathis keralensis (Madhusoodanan and Singh, 1992) described for the first time from this locality and flowers during
4617-448: Is a small water lily appear during the wet phase in the small pools and ponds on the plateau. Rotala malabarica is a semi-aquatic plant seen largely in the temporary pools. Justicia ekakusuma (Pradeep et al., 1991), aptly named because of its nature of flower, is rare and seen in the rocky edges of the plateau. Lepidagathis keralensis (Madhusoodanan and Singh, 1992) described for the first time from this locality and flowers during
4788-617: Is appointed by the president of India for a five-year term. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister by the governor, and the council of ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister. The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by
4959-702: Is derived from the Old Tamil word for 'lake'. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope' or chera alam 'land of the Cheras'. One folk etymology derives Kerala from the Malayalam word kera 'coconut tree' and alam 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts', which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees. The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala as Cherapadha
5130-537: Is first recorded as Keralaputo ('son of Chera [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka (274–237 BCE), one of his edicts pertaining to welfare. At that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil: Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and
5301-551: Is forested. Four of the world's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands — Lake Sasthamkotta , Ashtamudi Lake , Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands , and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and 1828 km of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve . Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century, much of the remaining forest cover
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5472-764: Is now protected from clearfelling . Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests , which are common in the Western Ghats. The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in Nilambur . Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of mammals (1 endemic), 500 species of birds , 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of amphibians (36 endemic). These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinisation , and resource extraction. In
5643-502: Is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity . In 2019–20, the economy of Kerala was the 8th-largest in India with ₹ 8.55 trillion (US$ 100 billion) in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of ₹ 222,000 (US$ 2,700). In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 65% to state's GSVA , while the primary sector contributed only 8%. The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to
5814-570: Is seen in the southwestern part of the Plateau. The tree is locally called Kallarayal (Malayalam meaning - Peepal Tree of rocks). Other fig species such as Ficus benghalensis , Ficus religiosa , Ficus racemosa , Ficus tinctoria , Ficus exasperata and Ficus hispida also support large number of frugivorous birds and bats during their fruiting season. The small groves of Ixora coccinea , Ziziphus oenoplia , Ziziphus rugosa and thick clumps of Calycopteris flouribunda give refuge to
5985-488: Is seen in the southwestern part of the Plateau. The tree is locally called Kallarayal (Malayalam meaning - Peepal Tree of rocks). Other fig species such as Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Ficus racemosa, Ficus tinctoria, Ficus exasperata and Ficus hispida also support large number of frugivorous birds and bats during their fruiting season. The small groves of Ixora coccinea, Ziziphus oenoplia, Ziziphus rugosa and thick clumps of Calycopteris flouribunda give refuge to
6156-547: Is situated on the eastern slope of the hill. Another monument of importance is the " Jew's pond " which indicates the presence in the area of Jews between 605 BCE and 490 CE. The British rulers had also built a traveler's bungalow in 1793 on the eastern side of the Madayipara, endowed with a rich scenic beauty of landscapes. The Madayipara is well known for its rich diversity of plants. The aquatic and semi-aquatic plants form extensive carpets of blue, pink, white and yellow during
6327-424: Is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs , Babylonians , Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period. Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices . The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen , Oman , and
6498-498: Is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India . The state topped in the country to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals according to the annual report of NITI Aayog published in 2019. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly Malayalam and sometimes English . Hinduism
6669-449: Is the largest urban agglomeration. According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, Thiruvananthapuram , Kozhikode , Kochi , Kollam , Thrissur are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities. The state is governed by a parliamentary system of representative democracy . Kerala has
6840-638: Is the late Vedic text Aitareya Aranyaka . Kerala is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , the two Hindu epics. The Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar , synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. The Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Kerala as Celobotra . Kerala
7011-442: Is very high over these years. It includes wastes such as from the vehicles, dumping of all sorts of wastes from house hold garbage to plastic and industrial debris, etc. The visitors also contribute their share by dumping plastic, cans of drinks, bottles, etc. The lack of awareness is the major reason for the pathetic condition of this type of unique ecosystem, which supports many endemic species. The local administrative bodies could do
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7182-443: Is very high over these years. It includes wastes such as from the vehicles, dumping of all sorts of wastes from household garbage to plastic and industrial debris, etc. The visitors also contribute their share by dumping plastic, cans of drinks, bottles, etc. The lack of awareness is the major reason for the pathetic condition of this type of unique ecosystem, which supports many endemic species. The local administrative bodies could do
7353-561: Is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats . Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22', Kerala experiences humid tropical rainforest climate with some cyclones. The state has a coast of 590 km (370 mi) and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 kilometres (7 and 75 mi). Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions:
7524-539: The Eragrostis uniloides , Ischaemum indicum , Heteropogon contortus , Pennisetum polystachyon , Cynodon dactylon and species belonging to the genera Arundinella , Dimeria , Panicum , Themeda , etc. Species of Arundinella form the commonest grasses during the months of October and November. The pinkish inflorescence of these grasses makes the area appear as if burnt mixed here and there with green shades. According to Agarwal (1961), Arundinella form
7695-518: The 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India , the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 District Panchayats , 152 Block panchayats , 941 Grama Panchayats , 87 Municipalities , six Municipal Corporations and one Township . Mahé , a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry , though 647 kilometres (402 mi) away from it,
7866-492: The Achankovil River ; 128 kilometres (80 mi). The average length of the rivers is 64 kilometres (40 mi). Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain. As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in delta , they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution. The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state
8037-585: The Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut , tea , coffee , cashew and spices are important. The state is situated between Arabian Sea to
8208-667: The Bombay Presidency (which had also included other regions in the western coast of India) of British India in the years 1792 and 1799, respectively. By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under suzerainty . Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja , who had popular support in Thalassery - Wayanad region. After India
8379-478: The British Indian Empire , making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of Thiruvananthapuram came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of Sree Chithira Thirunal , Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala. The first Municipal Corporation founded after
8550-558: The Chief Secretary assists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a minister, who is assisted by an Additional Chief Secretary or a Principal Secretary , who is usually an officer of Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary serve as the administrative head of
8721-471: The Dravidian word Mala ('hill'). Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE ) is the first known writer to call this country Malabar . Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works. The Arab writers had called this place Malibar , Manibar , Mulibar , and Munibar . Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills . According to William Logan ,
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#17330855794468892-506: The Eragrostis uniloides, Ischaemum indicum, Heteropogon contortus, Pennisetum polystachyon, Cynodon dactylon and species belonging to the genera Arundinella, Dimeria, Panicum, Themeda , etc. Species of Arundinella form the commonest grasses during the months of October and November. The pinkish inflorescence of these grasses makes the area appear as if burnt mixed here and there with green shades. According to Agarwal (1961), Arundinella form
9063-675: The High and Late Middle Ages . However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European Age of Discovery . After Vasco Da Gama 's arrival in Kappad , Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular. Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Malabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled
9234-505: The Idukki district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 m (8,842 ft). The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among UNESCO World Heritage Sites . The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains. The Athirappilly Falls , which is situated on
9405-564: The Idukki district , which lie on the eastern highland made by Western Ghats . They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni ( hermit or sage ) and ara (dolmen). Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves , in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE. Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic , Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala. The studies point to
9576-660: The Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts. The High Court, located in Kochi, has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional pro tempore justices as of 2021 . The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep . In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by
9747-582: The Leader of the Opposition . According to the Constitution of India , Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy ; universal suffrage is granted to residents. After independence, the state was managed as a social democratic welfare economy . The "Kerala phenomenon" or " Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from
9918-891: The Persian Gulf , must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries . They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East . The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians. It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera king Uthiyan Cheralathan ruled most of modern Kerala from his capital in Kuttanad , and controlled
10089-556: The Travancore Royal Family , and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region. In the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all the kingdoms up to Cochin through military conquests, resulting in
10260-879: The United Democratic Front (UDF), led by the Indian National Congress ; and the Left Democratic Front (LDF), led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). As of 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election , the LDF is the ruling coalition; Pinarayi Vijayan of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while V. D. Satheesan of the Indian National Congress is
10431-412: The laterite rocks. Following the retreat of southwest monsoon, during September, most of the early appearing plants give way to others such as Celosia argentea , Sesamum orientale and grasses such as Arundinella spp. , Dimeria spp. , Ischaemum indicum , Panicum spp. , etc. which dominate subsequently. The abundance of grasses can be noticed during this period. The wet phase lasts up to
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#173308557944610602-564: The spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, and paved the way for European colonisation of India. At the time of Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, there were two major princely states in Kerala: Travancore and Cochin . They united to form the state of Thiru-Kochi in 1949. The Malabar region , in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of the Madras province of British India , which later became
10773-421: The 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into 30 small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of Zamorin of Kozhikode in the north, Kollam in the far-south, Kochi in the south, and Kannur in
10944-559: The 15th century caused two major religions, Buddhism and Jainism , to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of Jainism . The social system became fractured with divisions on caste lines. Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas . However, in
11115-420: The 18th century. However, now it has been rebuilt. The area is also known for the Malik Ibn Dinar mosque , which is believed to have been originally built by Malik Ibn Dinar , a Muslim preacher. The remnants of a fort built is also present here, and the part is known as Kottakunnu. Madayipara is located in the Madayi village, at latitude 12°2’ N and longitude 75°16’E, about 21 km north of Kannur town,
11286-410: The 1950s. Kerala's economy depends significantly on emigrants working in foreign countries , mainly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf , and the remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP. The state witnessed significant emigration during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$ 11.3 billion, which
11457-417: The Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos . The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis , was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period . The port at Tyndis which was on the northern side of Muziris , as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere around Kozhikode . Its exact location
11628-505: The French in 1785. In 1757, to resist the invasion of the Zamorin of Kozhikode , the Palakkad Raja sought the help of the Hyder Ali of Mysore . In 1766, Hyder Ali defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode – an East India Company ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode into his state. The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala ( Malabar region ) including Kolathunadu , Kottayam , Kadathanadu , Kozhikode , Tanur , Valluvanad , and Palakkad were unified under
11799-442: The Israelis [Hebrew Jews] at Eden. In the 4th century, the Knanaya or Southist Christians also migrated from Persia and lived alongside the early Syriac Christian community known as the Saint Thomas Christians who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. A second Chera Kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram (present-day Kodungallur ),
11970-403: The Lakshadweep Sea at Azhikkal. The available geo-morphological and historical data suggest that, till 1450 A.D. this river was drained into the sea, flowing west from Payangadi instead of turning south. On the northwest of Madayipara lie the wetlands of Chemballikkundu and Kunhimangalam formed by the Ramapuram River, Peruvamba River and Kawayi backwaters. On the west, at the seacoast, is situated
12141-494: The Madayippara (Pramod et al. 2017), more than 60 are Peninsular Indian endemics; of which 24 are narrow endemics of Kerala , confined to the laterite hillocks. Sevan species are Indian endemics and 28 species are known from confined to Peninsular Indian and Sri Lanka and 13 species to Indian region and Sri Lanka. The presence of endemic species belonging to various threat categories such as Hopea ponga, Capparis rheedei, Eriocaulon cuspidatum and Neanotis rheedei are also indicate
12312-475: The Madayippara, 60 are Peninsular Indian endemics; of which 15 are narrow endemics of Kerala , confined to the laterite hillocks. Sevan species are Indian endemics and 28 species are known from confined to Peninsular Indian and Sri Lanka and 13 species to Indian region and Sri Lanka. The presence of endemic species belonging to various threat categories such as Hopea ponga , Capparis rheedei , Eriocaulon cuspidatum and Neanotis rheedei are also indicate
12483-635: The Muslim communities in Kerala. Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia . The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates . The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in
12654-529: The Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon. The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula , because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch". The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats, making Kerala
12825-487: The Western Ghats' rain shadow . 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers, and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad ; hence also known Pal ghat , where the Palakkad Gap breaks. The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 metres (4,900 feet ) above sea level , while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 metres (8,200 feet). Anamudi in
12996-701: The Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam Fort . An insurrection at the Port of Quilon between the Arabs and the Portuguese led to the end of the Portuguese era in Quilon . The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom , near Kannur , who were the vassals of the Kolathiri , ruled over the Lakshadweep islands. The Bekal Fort near Kasaragod , which is also largest fort in the state,
13167-543: The background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as The Niagara of India . It is located in the Chalakudy River and is the largest waterfall in the state. Wayanad is the sole Plateau in Kerala. The eastern regions in the districts of Wayanad , Malappuram ( Chaliyar valley at Nilambur ), and Palakkad ( Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and
13338-569: The backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about 200 km (77 sq mi) in area. Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala. Kerala's 44 rivers include the Periyar ; 244 kilometres (152 mi), Bharathapuzha ; 209 kilometres (130 mi), Pamba ; 176 kilometres (109 mi), Chaliyar ; 169 kilometres (105 mi), Kadalundipuzha ; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Chalakudipuzha ; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Valapattanam ; 129 kilometres (80 mi) and
13509-520: The battle of Purakkad in 1755. In 1761, the British captured Mahé , and the settlement was handed over to the ruler of Kadathanadu . The British restored Mahé to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris. In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of Mahé . In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and Mahé was handed over to
13680-424: The black surfaces of the rocks. The scrub jungles form the protective cover of the slopes of the hills. The thick grove adjacent to the clay mining site is one of the major vegetation patches of this hillock. The evergreen forest species such as Hydnocarpus pentandra , Holigrna arnottiana , Cinnamomum sp . are seen in this area. Ficus arnottiana one of the characteristic fig tree of this kind of ecosystem
13851-412: The black surfaces of the rocks. The scrub jungles form the protective cover of the slopes of the hills. The thick grove adjacent to the clay mining site is one of the major vegetation patches of this hillock. The evergreen forest species such as Hydnocarpus pentandra, Holigrna arnottiana, Cinnamomum sp. are seen in this area. Ficus arnottiana one of the characteristic fig tree of this kind of ecosystem
14022-586: The central government. The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a 3-tier system for local governance. This system includes Gram Panchayat, Block Panchayat, and District Panchayat. The Acts define clear powers for these institutions. For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act follows a single-tier system, equivalent to Gram Panchayat.These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization. Currently,
14193-556: The coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr. Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries , and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters . Kuttanad , also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala , has the lowest altitude in India , and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level. The country's longest lake Vembanad , dominates
14364-802: The coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands. Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats . Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century. As of 2004 , over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 flowering plant species; 1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala, 900 are medicinal , and 159 are threatened . Its 9,400 km of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km ), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km and 100 km , respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate ( shola ) forests (highest elevations—100 km ). Altogether, 24% of Kerala
14535-474: The conservation significance of the area. Another interesting plant of this locality is the rare lycophyte, Isoetes coromandelina found near the temporary pools of Madayipara during the wet phase. It was once widely distributed in the wetlands and paddy fields of Kerala, but becoming rare due to changes in the habitats. Ophioglossum species such as O. costatum , O. nudicale and O. gramineum are also distributed sparsely and make their appearance during
14706-464: The conservation significance of the area. Another interesting plant of this locality is the rare lycophyte, Isoetes coromandelina found near the temporary pools of Madayipara during the wet phase. It was once widely distributed in the wetlands and paddy fields of Kerala, but becoming rare due to changes in the habitats. Ophioglossum species such as O. costatum, O. nudicale and O. gramineum are also distributed sparsely and make their appearance during
14877-615: The department they are assigned to. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary etc. assisting the Minister and the Additional Chief Secretary / Principal Secretary Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called District collector for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats , for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The judiciary consists of
15048-551: The development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic Age, through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages. Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation; historians suggest a possible relationship with Indus Valley civilisation during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age . Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it
15219-521: The district headquarters of Kannur district in Kerala. As noted by William Logan (1887) in the Malabar Manual ; the river Kuppam "bending slightly and passing under the guns of an old ruined fort of the Kolathiris" on the southeastern edge of Madayipara, suddenly turns due south at Payangadi and takes a course parallel to the sea to meet the larger Valapattanam river at Matakkara, finally discharging into
15390-419: The dormant phase by shedding their fruits/seeds or in the form of rhizomes. The dry phase is characterized by the presence of highly adapted, xerophytic plants such as Lepidagathis , Chamaesyce , etc. They may remain fresh to some extent of the summer season, and may dry up leaving the perennial rootstock. The laterite hillock system has been facing serious danger of degradation over the years. Most part of
15561-413: The dormant phase by shedding their fruits/seeds or in the form of rhizomes. The dry phase is characterized by the presence of highly adapted, xerophytic plants such as Lepidagathis, Chamaesyce , etc. They may remain fresh to some extent of the summer season, and may dry up leaving the perennial rootstock. The laterite hillock system has been facing serious danger of degradation over the years. Most part of
15732-418: The dry phase. It is observed that the number of Justicia ekakusuma has been declining drastically over the years, while other newly described species remain uniformly distributed. Eriocaulon madayiparense grows in temporary pools or wet areas during the wet phase. Chamaesyce katrajensis (which now includes Euphorbia katrajensis var. kasaragodensis ), is an endemic species originally described from
15903-416: The dry phase. It is observed that the number of Justicia ekakusuma has been declining drastically over the years, while other newly described species remain uniformly distributed. Eriocaulon madayiparense , grows in temporary pools or wet areas during the wet phase. Chamaesyce katrajensis (which now includes Euphorbia katrajensis var. kasaragodensis ), is an endemic species originally described from
16074-405: The due weightage it deserves. Majority of the general public is least bothered about its unique and rich biodiversity. The Madayippara and its environs survived over these years, by supporting its rich cultural and ecological features. However, it is a matter of great concerns that, whether it could continue in preserving its feature, without getting urgent conservation measures. The rate of pollution
16245-405: The due weightage it deserves. Majority of the general public is least bothered about its unique and rich biodiversity. The Madayippara and its environs survived over these years, by supporting its rich cultural and ecological features. However, it is a matter of great concerns that, whether it could continue in preserving its feature, without getting urgent conservation measures. The rate of pollution
16416-594: The earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504) . However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut . The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. When Francisco de Almeida
16587-517: The earliest glimpses of life in the city. Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho ( Zheng He ) states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. Abdur Razzak (1442–43), Niccolò de' Conti (1445), Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74), Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), and Duarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of
16758-511: The eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains. Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain. A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport. The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of
16929-416: The end of November. Stronger winds during the month of January and the direct incidence of sunlight enhance the drying up process of the flora of Madayipara. The majority of the herbaceous plants dry up except for some grass species and the thorny Lepidagathis keralaensis , which may remain spread all over the rocky regions of the hill. The silver coloured, Polycarpaea corymbosa can also be seen against
17100-412: The end of November. Stronger winds during the month of January and the direct incidence of sunlight enhance the drying up process of the flora of Madayipara. The majority of the herbaceous plants dry up except for some grass species and the thorny Lepidagathis keralaensis , which may remain spread all over the rocky regions of the hill. The silver coloured, Polycarpaea corymbosa can also be seen against
17271-436: The far north. The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi , and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles. The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of Eranad , which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day Malappuram district . The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of
17442-408: The fauna frequenting the area are associated with, and also to stress upon the importance of the uniqueness of the flora supported by such laterite hill systems, often ignored by many. The midland hillocks of northern Kerala have its own characteristic floral composition supporting scrub jungles and cashew plantations on the hill slopes and grasslands and associated aquatic and semi-aquatic plants on
17613-628: The first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon. The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India. In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only. Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in);
17784-458: The forests, sonokeling , Dalbergia latifolia , anjili , mullumurikku , Erythrina , and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo , wild black pepper, wild cardamom , the calamus rattan palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides . Indian elephant , Bengal tiger , Indian leopard , Nilgiri tahr , common palm civet , and grizzled giant squirrels are also found in
17955-1176: The forests. Reptiles include the king cobra , viper , python , and mugger crocodile . Kerala's birds include the Malabar trogon , the great hornbill , Kerala laughingthrush , darter and southern hill myna . In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as Kadu , Red Line Torpedo Barb and choottachi ; orange chromide — Etroplus maculatus are found. Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; Stygarctus keralensis . The state's 14 districts are distributed among six regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (north-central Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore (south-central Kerala), Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into 27 revenue subdivisions and 77 taluks , which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,674 revenue villages. Since
18126-960: The germination of seeds and the growth of annual plants. The first groups of plants seen are Neanotis spp. , Eriocaulon spp . and grasses, followed by insectivorous plants such as Utricularia spp . and Drosera indica that dominate the land. The deep blue flowers of Utricularia and white flower heads of Eriocaulon and Rhamphicarpa literally paint the whole plateau in shades of blue, violet and white, amidst herbaceous plants such as Sopubia trifida , Lindernia , Polygala elongata , Justicia japonica , Leucas sp. and several others. The shallow depressions filled with water accommodate plants such as Blyxa , Nymphoides krishnakesara , Marsilea minuta , Cryptocoryne spiralis , Rotala malampuzhensis , Rotala malabarica and lsoetes coromandelina . The sparsely distributed south Indian endemic Chamaesyce katrajensis (syn. Euphorbia katrajensis ) can also be observed during this phase on
18297-964: The germination of seeds and the growth of annual plants. The first groups of plants seen are Neanotis spp. , Eriocaulon spp . and grasses, followed by insectivorous plants such as Utricularia spp. and Drosera indica that dominate the land. The deep blue flowers of Utricularia and white flower heads of Eriocaulon and Rhamphicarpa literally paint the whole plateau in shades of blue, violet and white, amidst herbaceous plants such as Sopubia trifida , Lindernia , Polygala elongata , Justicia japonica , Leucas sp. and several others. The shallow depressions filled with water accommodate plants such as Blyxa , Nymphoides krishnakesara , Marsilea minuta , Cryptocoryne spiralis , Rotala malampuzhensis , Rotala malabarica and lsoetes coromandelina . The sparsely distributed south Indian endemic Chamaesyce katrajensis (syn. Euphorbia katrajensis ) can also be observed during this phase on
18468-547: The hill slopes and grasslands and associated aquatic and semi-aquatic plants on the hilltops. Even though these hills are exposed directly to the sunlight and wind, they harbour rich species diversity. Recent plant explorations revealed more additions to the known plant species of the area some of which turned out to be new to science, and endemic to the locality. The vegetation of the hillocks may be classified mainly into grasslands and scrub jungles. The grasslands can again be categorised into wet phase and dry phase grasslands based on
18639-466: The hilltops. Even though these hills are exposed directly to the sunlight and wind, they harbour rich species diversity. Recent plant explorations revealed more additions to the known plant species of the area some of which turned out to be new to science, and endemic to the locality. The vegetation of the hillocks may be classified mainly into grasslands and scrub jungles. The grasslands can again be categorised into wet phase and dry phase grasslands based on
18810-400: The independence of India as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at Kozhikode in the year 1962. There are six Municipal corporations in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram , Kozhikode , Kochi , Kollam , Thrissur , and Kannur . The Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named Kochi UA
18981-541: The industrial sector include Cochin Shipyard , shipbuilding, oil refinery, software industry, coastal mineral industries, food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon cash crops . Kerala produces a significant amount of national output of the cash crops such as coconut , tea , coffee , pepper , natural rubber , cardamom , and cashew in India. The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since
19152-569: The king of Vijayanagara Empire. Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion. As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala. He built a fort at Ponnani in 1498. The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Arabian Sea stayed with the Arabs during
19323-510: The known plant species of the area some of which turned out to be new to science, and endemic to the locality. The vegetation of the hillocks may be classified mainly into grasslands and scrub jungles. The grasslands can again be categorised into wet phase and dry phase grasslands based on the seasons. Altogether 512 plant species have been recorded from Madayipara. Grasslands of Kerala have been classified into two types i.e., Low elevation grasslands and high elevation grasslands. The grasslands on
19494-443: The known plant species of the area some of which turned out to be new to science, and endemic to the locality. The vegetation of the hillocks may be classified mainly into grasslands and scrub jungles. The grasslands can again be categorised into wet phase and dry phase grasslands based on the seasons. Grasslands of Kerala have been classified into two types i.e., Low elevation grasslands and high elevation grasslands. The grasslands on
19665-491: The lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parashurama , the sixth avatar of Vishnu (hence, Kerala is also called Parashurama Kshetram 'The Land of Parashurama' in Hindu mythology). Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari . The land which rose from sea
19836-542: The laterite hills of north Malabar are classified under low elevation dry grasslands, characterised by remarkable diversity. This type of natural grassland is the characteristic feature of the laterite hills of Kozhikode , Kannur , Kasaragod districts and the lower parts of Wayanad district. These grasslands are highly seasonal and interspersed with other herbaceous plants and scrub jungles. A total 55 species of grasses are recorded from Madayipara hills, many more remaining to be fully identified. The common grass species are
20007-545: The laterite hills of north Malabar are classified under low elevation dry grasslands, characterised by remarkable diversity. This type of natural grassland is the characteristic feature of the laterite hills of Kozhikode , Kannur , Kasaragod districts and the lower parts of Wayanad district. These grasslands are highly seasonal and interspersed with other herbaceous plants and scrub jungles. More than 50 species of grasses were recorded from Madayipara hills, many more remaining to be fully identified. The common grass species are
20178-409: The laterite rocks. Following the retreat of south west monsoon, during September, most of the early appearing plants give way to others such as Celosia argentea , Sesamum orientale and grasses such as Arundinella spp ., Dimeria spp ., Ischaemum indicum , Panicum spp. , etc. which dominate subsequently. The abundance of grasses can be noticed during this period. The wet phase lasts up to
20349-406: The leadership of Kozhikode admirals known as Kunjali Marakkars , which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organising the first naval defence of the Indian coast. Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan , who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature , was born at Tirur ( Vettathunadu ) during Portuguese period. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by
20520-573: The legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians. The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal). According to the legend, Rayar , the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the Ghats , invaded Kerala during
20691-620: The lowest positive population growth rate in India, 3.44%; the highest Human Development Index (HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highest literacy rate, 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India; the highest life expectancy, 77.3 years; and the highest sex ratio , 1,084 women per 1,000 men. Kerala is the least impoverished state in India according to NITI Aayog 's Sustainable Development Goals dashboard and Reserve Bank of India 's Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy . Kerala
20862-469: The major trading centres in the Indian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world could be seen. The king Deva Raya II (1424–1446) of the Vijayanagara Empire conquered the entirety of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century. He defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of Kollam around 1443. Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to
21033-426: The midland hillocks had been converted to plantations, building sites, minimizing sites, etc. The indiscriminate mining for laterite and soil demolishing the hillocks had been severely threatened the very existence of the biota, culture and also the water availability in most of the areas. The Madayippara and its adjacent hillocks are also not an exception. The mining for the ‘china clay’ has been causing severe damage to
21204-426: The midland hillocks had been converted to plantations, building sites, minimizing sites, etc. The indiscriminate mining for laterite and soil demolishing the hillocks had been severely threatened the very existence of the biota, culture and also the water availability in most of the areas. The Madayippara and its adjacent hillocks are also not an exception. The mining for the ‘china clay’ has been causing severe damage to
21375-469: The monsoon season. It is typical of the Laterite foothills of the Western Ghats . The area is notable for the presence of some of the rarest plants of the world such as Nymphoides krishankesara , Rotala malabarica , Lindernia madayiparense , Eriocaulon madayparense , etc. The midland hillocks of northern Kerala have its own characteristic floral composition supporting scrub jungles and cashew plantations on
21546-503: The mountains of the eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of orographic precipitation : the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level. The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C. Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in
21717-407: The north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the 2011 census , Kerala is the 13th-largest Indian state by population . It is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram . Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The Chera dynasty
21888-411: The northern side and Cochin and Thiruvananthapuram can be accessed on the southern side. The road to the east of Iritty connects to Mysore and Bangalore . The nearest railway station is Pazhayangadi on Mangalore- Palakkad line. Trains are available to almost all parts of India subject to advance booking over the internet. Nearest airport is Kannur . Madayi Madayi (a.k.a. Madai).
22059-600: The oldest of the 18 Puranas , uses the Malaya Mountains as the setting for the story of Matsya , the first incarnation of Vishnu, and Manu , the first man and the king of the region. Poovar is often identified with biblical Ophir region, known for its wealth. The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the Cheraman Perumals (literally the Chera kings ) of Kerala. The validity of
22230-499: The permission to "die, and kill, and seize"). A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanassery , thus supporting the hypothesis. Pre-historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area of
22401-477: The port of Muziris , but its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas , which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi ) in Quilon . Tyndis was a major centre of trade, next only to Muziris , between the Cheras and the Roman Empire . The lesser known Ays and Mushikas kingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively. Pliny
22572-425: The promontory of Ezhimala . The altitude of the Madayipara ranges from a minimum of 40 m to a maximum of 47m above sea level. The southeastern edge of the hill is slightly elevated compared to the remaining areas. As the name suggests, the top of this hillock is a laterite plain more than 365 ha in area. The ancient temple named Vadukunda Shiva temple is located on the western side of the plateau. A few yards away from
22743-423: The rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala. The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala ( Malabar District ), along with Fort Kochi , Tangasseri , and Anchuthengu in southern Kerala, came under direct British rule until India became independent . Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in
22914-547: The rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like Udaya Varman Kolathiri , Manichchan , and Vikkiran of Eranad ). The Cheraman Perumal was assured by the Eradis (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the Rayar . The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually evacuated his fort (and it
23085-564: The rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger Kingdom of Mysore . His son and successor, Tipu Sultan , launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company , resulting in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars . Tipu ultimately ceded the Malabar District and South Kanara to the company in the 1790s as a result of the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the subsequent Treaty of Seringapatam ; both were annexed to
23256-552: The seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon . They established a trading centre at Tangasseri in Quilon during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there. The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur , who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut , sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode. As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur ( Vettathunadu ) became one of
23427-473: The seasons. Altogether 512 plant species have been recorded from Madayipara. The midland hillocks of northern Kerala have its own characteristic floral composition supporting scrub jungles and cashew plantations on the hill slopes and grasslands and associated aquatic and semi-aquatic plants on the hilltops. Even though these hills are exposed directly to the sunlight and wind, they harbour rich species diversity. Recent plant explorations revealed more additions to
23598-474: The seasons. More than 500 plant species have been recorded from Madayipara. The midland hillocks of northern Kerala have its own characteristic floral composition supporting scrub jungles and cashew plantations on the hill slopes and grasslands and associated aquatic and semi-aquatic plants on the hilltops. Even though these hills are exposed directly to the sunlight and wind, they harbour rich species diversity. Recent plant explorations revealed more additions to
23769-602: The shares from Union tax pool) amounted to ₹ 674 billion (US$ 8.1 billion) in 2020–21; up from ₹ 557 billion (US$ 6.7 billion) in 2019–20. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached ₹ 146 billion (US$ 1.7 billion) in 2020–2021. However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services. A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in
23940-419: The similar habitats of Katraja hills of Maharashtra . The beautiful small yellowish to pinkish flowers of this species is seen during the wet phase. This plant is poorly distributed, and individuals of the species can be seen on the elevated portions of rocks. Only very few individuals of this species are found in Madayipara. Curuma oligantha is another characteristic plant seen in the laterite habitats during
24111-410: The similar habitats of Katraja hills of Maharashtra . The small yellowish to pinkish flowers of this species is seen during the wet phase. This plant is poorly distributed and individuals of the species can be seen on the elevated portions of rocks. Only very few individuals of this species are found in Madayipara. Curuma oligantha is another characteristic plant seen in the laterite habitats during
24282-482: The state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments. Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 by Transparency International , is considered the least corrupt state in India. The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India. Kerala hosts two major political alliances:
24453-481: The state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states. On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village. Unemployment in 2007
24624-407: The state of Kerala under the States Reorganisation Act . A Communist -led government under E. M. S. Namboodiripad resulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957 . It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments anywhere. His government implemented land and educational reforms which in turn, reduced income inequality in the state. The state
24795-504: The state to mobilise funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state. In November 2015, the Ministry of Urban Development selected seven cities of Kerala for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). A package of ₹ 2.5 million (US$ 30,000)
24966-435: The system. It was strongly limited due to the positive intervention by the general public to some extent. However, such operations are going on in other areas. There was a proposal to mine the entire hillock of Madayippara for the lignite deposits. However, it was not yet executed due to the heavy protest from the general public. The ecological and cultural values of the laterite hillocks of the northern Kerala have not been got
25137-433: The system. It was strongly limited due to the positive intervention by the general public to some extent. However, such operations are going on in other areas. There was a proposal to mine the entire hillock of Madayippara for the lignite deposits. However, it was not yet executed due to the heavy protest from the general public. The ecological and cultural values of the laterite hillocks of the northern Kerala have not been got
25308-553: The temple festival is being celebrated on the vast expanse of the hill near the Vadukunda pond and the Kottakunnu especially during the ten-day-long festival of ‘ Pooram ’ in the month of March. There are remnants of a fort believed to have been occupied by the dynasty of Kolathiris and later by Tippu Sultan . The Madayipalli , one of the oldest mosques in India and believed to have been built in A.D. 1124 by Malik lbn Dinar of Arabia ,
25479-466: The temple is a perennial freshwater pond, of about 1.5 acres is a major attraction. On the northeastern slope of the hill, is situated the Thiruvarkad Bhagavathi temple (Madayikavu) and its sacred grove, drawing thousands of devotees every year. It is a temple of the mother Goddess Kali and belongs to the royal family of Chirakkal. The entire plateau once belonged to this temple, and even now
25650-454: The term Kerala . From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala as Male . The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the Topography written by Cosmas Indicopleustes . This mentions a pepper emporium called Male , which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name Male is thought to come from
25821-511: The wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the Malayalam speaking region during the Middle Ages . At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam ( Quilon ) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam ( Koyilandy ) in the north. Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited the city of Kozhikode six times, gives
25992-555: The west and Western Ghats mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for 595 kilometres (370 mi), and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by National Geographic Traveler , Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with coconut-lined sandy beaches , backwaters , hill stations , Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The word Kerala
26163-408: The wet phase. The wet phase of the Laterite hillocks is the more active in terms of the appearance of plant and animals (Jafer Palot and Radhakrishnan, 2005). An analysis of the biological spectrum revels the fact that, majority of the herbaceous members appears along with the first showers, flourish during the monsoon season, complete their life cycle towards the end of the rainy season and enter into
26334-408: The wet phase. The wet phase of the Laterite hillocks is the more active in terms of the appearance of plant and animals (Jafer Palot and Radhakrishnan, 2005). An analysis of the biological spectrum revels the fact that, majority of the herbaceous members appears along with the first showers, flourish during the monsoon season, complete their life cycle towards the end of the rainy season and enter into
26505-433: The wet phase. It now includes plants described by Ansari et al. (1982) as Curcuma cannanorensis var. cannanorensis and var. lutea . It is also known from parts of Southern India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar . It also appears immediately after the first shower of the monsoon. Besides, the abundance of insectivorous plants such as Drosera indica and Utricularia spp. are worth mentioning. Out of 513 species known from
26676-427: The wet phase. It now includes plants described by Ansari et al. (1982) as Curcuma cannanorensis var. cannanorensis and var. lutea . It is also known from parts of Southern India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar . It also appears immediately after the first shower of the monsoon. Besides, the abundance of insectivorous plants such as Drosera indica and Utricularia spp. are worth mentioning. Out of 670 species known from
26847-533: The word Malabar comes from a combination of the Dravidian word Mala (hill) and the Persian / Arabic word Barr (country/continent). According to the Sangam classic Purananuru , the Chera king Senkuttuvan conquered the lands between Kanyakumari and the Himalayas . Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it. According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work Keralolpathi ,
27018-546: Was partitioned in 1947 into India and Pakistan , Travancore and Kochi , part of the Union of India were merged on 1 July 1949 to form Travancore-Cochin . On 1 November 1956, the taluk of Kasargod in the South Kanara district of Madras, the Malabar district of Madras (excluding the islands of Lakshadweep ), and Travancore-Cochin, without four southern taluks and Sengottai taluk (which joined Tamil Nadu), merged to form
27189-425: Was 92.1%. As of 2011 Indian census , Madayi census town had population of 35,888, of which 22,585 (62.9%) are Muslims, 11,552 (32.2%) are Hindus, 1,657 (4.6%) are Christians and 0.3% others. This place was under the rule of Chirakkal Rajas during late medieval period. An account on the flora of Madayipara is given here to provide a picture of the kind of vegetation found on the laterite hill system with which
27360-451: Was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami , and in 2018 received the worst flooding in nearly a century. In 2024, Kerala experienced its worst landslides in history. With around 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon . Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to
27531-493: Was alternatively called Malabar in the foreign trade circles . Earlier, the term Malabar had also been used to denote Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala. The people of Malabar were known as Malabars . Until the arrival of the East India Company , the term Malabar was used as a general name for Kerala, along with
27702-512: Was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at Fort Kochi ( Fort Emmanuel ) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast. However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in South Malabar ; especially from naval attacks under
27873-620: Was built in 1650 by Shivappa Nayaka of Keladi . The Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company , who during the conflicts between the Kozhikode and the Kochi , gained control of the trade. The arrival of British on Malabar Coast can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain William Keeling arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships. It
28044-483: Was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad. The Grand Kerala Shopping Festival (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes. Lulu International Mall at Thiruvananthapuram
28215-464: Was established by Kulasekhara Varman , which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings , who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire. Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed
28386-434: Was estimated at 9.4%; chronic issues are underemployment , low employability of youth, and a low female labour participation rate of only 13.5%, as was the practice of Nokku kooli , "wages for looking on". By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively. The state's budget of 2020–2021 was ₹ 1.15 lakh crore (US$ 14 billion). The state government's tax revenues (excluding
28557-608: Was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parashurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki , who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar theorised, that Senguttuvan may have been inspired by the Parashurama legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers. Another much earlier Puranic character associated with Kerala
28728-417: Was in these ships that Sir Thomas Roe went to visit Jahangir , the fourth Mughal emperor , as British envoy . In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar , making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent , which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of
28899-613: Was nearly 16% of the US$ 71 ;billion remittances to the country. In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over ₹ 1 lakh crore (US$ 12 billion), amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about ₹ 7 lakh crore (US$ 84 billion). Malappuram district has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state. A study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board , suggested that
29070-521: Was seized by the Perumal's troops). Then the last Cheraman Perumal divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him. The Eradis of Nediyiruppu , who later came to be known as the Zamorins of Kozhikode , who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal 's sword (with
29241-553: Was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. The Ay kingdom in the deep south and the Ezhimala kingdom in the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of the Common Era (CE). The region had been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE . The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works of Pliny as well as the Periplus around 100 CE . In the 15th century,
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