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60-608: The Colbert Hills are named for Edwin H. Colbert, curator of vertebrate paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History, leader of the paleontology team with the Ohio State University Geological Expedition, 1969–70, which discovered Lystrosaurus fossils in these hills. The discovery is one of the truly significant fossil finds, with great implications on calculations concerning Gondwanaland . Download coordinates as: The Colbert Hills are to

120-512: A horny beak that was used for biting off pieces of vegetation. Lystrosaurus was a heavily built, herbivorous animal. The structure of its shoulders and hip joints suggests that Lystrosaurus moved with a semi-sprawling gait . The forelimbs were even more robust than the hindlimbs, and the animal is thought to have been a powerful digger that nested in burrows. Lystrosaurus survived the Permian-Triassic extinction , 252 million years ago. In

180-602: A lesser extent in parts of what are now India, China, Mongolia, European Russia, and Antarctica (which was not over the South Pole at the time). Most Lystrosaurus fossils have been found in the Balfour and Katberg Formations of the Karoo basin in South Africa ; these specimens offer the best prospects of identifying species because they are the most numerous and have been studied for

240-469: A prominent, wedge-shaped, ice-free spur between Walcott Névé and Bowden Névé , 3.5 nautical miles (6.5 km; 4.0 mi) north of Bauhs Nunatak. Named by the NZGSAE (1961–62) for the star Sirius which was used in fixing the baseline in the area. 84°17′S 159°38′E  /  84.283°S 159.633°E  / -84.283; 159.633 . A nunatak on the west side of Mac Alpine Hills, just west of

300-524: A series of United States missions to Antarctica , beginning with "Operation Deep Freeze I" in 1955–56, followed by "Operation Deep Freeze II", "Operation Deep Freeze III", and so on. (There was an initial operation before Admiral Richard Byrd proposed 'Deep Freeze'). Given the continuing and constant US presence in Antarctica since that date, "Operation Deep Freeze" has come to be used as a general term for US operations in that continent, and in particular for

360-410: A veteran of four previous Antarctic Expeditions, was appointed as officer in charge of the expedition. In 1955, Task Force 43, commanded by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek , was formed to provide logistical support for the expedition. Operation Deep Freeze I prepared a permanent research station and paved the way for more exhaustive research in later Deep Freeze operations. The expedition transpired over

420-508: A while, 95% of land vertebrates were Lystrosaurus . This is the only time that a single species or genus of land animal dominated the Earth to such a degree. A few other Permian therapsid genera also survived the mass extinction and appear in Triassic rocks—the therocephalians Tetracynodon , Moschorhinus , Ictidosuchoides and Promoschorhynchus —but do not appear to have been abundant in

480-614: A year. The actual transition to Air Guard control began in March 1996. By 1999, the United States Navy had transferred military support operations for Antarctica over to the United States Air Force and its contractor Raytheon Polar Services . Operation Deep Freeze was managed by the U.S. Air Force and Air National Guard members of Air National Guard Detachment 13 , a subordinate unit which administratively reported directly to

540-529: Is notable for dominating southern Pangaea for millions of years during the Early Triassic . At least one unidentified species of this genus survived the end-Permian mass extinction and, in the absence of predators and herbivorous competitors, went on to thrive and re-radiate into a number of species within the genus, becoming the most common group of terrestrial vertebrates during the Early Triassic; for

600-420: Is now Antarctica , India , China , Mongolia , European Russia and South Africa . Four to six species are currently recognized, although from the 1930s to 1970s the number of species was thought to be much higher. They ranged in size from that of a small dog to 8 feet (2.5 meters) long. As a dicynodont, Lystrosaurus had only two teeth (a pair of tusk -like canines ), and is thought to have had

660-654: The Air Staff , and the United States Navy. Among other issues, it was difficult at first for the Air Guard to convince the Air Staff to commit long term resources to an area of the world that had not been declared a warfighting region because of international treaties. The Air Guard had supported military operations in Greenland and the Arctic (including classified U.S. Navy operations) since

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720-821: The Damodar Valley and the Kamthi Formation of the Pranhita-Godavari Basin in India . Seven Lystrosaurus species have been described from the Early Triassic Jiucaiyuan , Guodikeng and Wutonggou formations of the Bogda Mountains in Xinjiang , China , although it is possible that only two ( L. youngi and L. hedini ) are valid; unusually, no Chinese Lystrosaurus specimens are known below

780-430: The Early Triassic , they were by far the most common terrestrial vertebrates, accounting for as many as 95% of the total individuals in some fossil beds. Researchers have offered various hypotheses for why Lystrosaurus survived the extinction event and thrived in the early Triassic. Dr. Elias Root Beadle, a Philadelphia missionary and avid fossil collector, discovered the first Lystrosaurus skull. Beadle wrote to

840-658: The Moscow Basin in Russia. It was probably closely related to the African Lystrosaurus curvatus , which is regarded as one of the least specialized species and has been found in very Late Permian and very Early Triassic sediments. L. murrayi , in addition to two undescribed species presently assigned to L. curvatus and L. declivis , is known from the Early Triassic Panchet Formation of

900-528: The United Kingdom , France , Japan , Norway , Chile , Argentina , and the U.S.S.R. agreed to go to the South Pole, the least explored area on Earth. Their goal was to advance world knowledge of Antarctic hydrography and weather systems , glacial movements , and marine life . The U.S. Navy was charged with supporting the U.S. scientists for their portion of the IGY studies. Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd ,

960-578: The icebreaker USS Atka made a scouting expedition for future landing sites and bays. The impetus behind Operation Deep Freeze I was the International Geophysical Year 1957–58. IGY as it was known was a collaborative effort among forty nations to carry out earth science studies from the North Pole to the South Pole and at points in between. The United States along with New Zealand ,

1020-450: The tusk -like upper canines . Dicynodonts are generally thought to have had horny beaks like those of turtles, for shearing off pieces of vegetation, which were then ground on a horny secondary palate when the mouth was shut. The jaw joint was weak and moved backwards and forwards with a shearing action, instead of the more common sideways or up and down movements. It is thought that the jaw muscles were attached unusually far forward on

1080-518: The 109th would be largely out of business because its primary mission had ended. The unit had been informally keeping tabs on Navy LC-130 operations supporting the National Science Foundation in Antarctica. Because of its aging aircraft fleet and extensive depot maintenance period, the United States Navy asked if the 109th could provide limited emergency search and rescue (SAR) capability for two years to support Operation Deep Freeze, which

1140-548: The Air Guard accepted. At that time, it had no thought of taking over the mission. The 109th believed it to be an exercise in futility for its aircraft to deploy to the Antarctic to merely wait for emergency SAR missions, so it asked if the Navy could help carry cargo to the South Pole . The Navy resisted at first because its procedures and cargo configurations differed from those of the Air Guard, but eventually it agreed. The main mission of

1200-773: The Air National Guard Readiness Center (ANGRC) at Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland , and operationally reported to United States Pacific Command (USPACOM) in Honolulu, Hawaii . Upon its deactivation in 2005, the detachment consisted of a full-time officer (Commander) and four full-time non-commissioned officers (Logistics, Communications, Security Forces, and Information Management) which remained in New Zealand year-round. Operational command now belongs to Commander, Thirteenth Air Force as part of USPACOM. In 2005, through

1260-506: The Antarctic continent are overseen by the United States Antarctic Program as well as the National Science Foundation. Military support missions flown from Christchurch International Airport are conducted during the Antarctic summer (late September to early March) each year by The 109th Airlift Wing Scotia New York. The Ski equipped LC-130 Hercules is the backbone of Operation Deep Freeze. LC-130 Hercules aircraft provide

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1320-603: The Antarctic summer of November 1955 to April 1956, and was filmed by the U.S. Navy and Walt Disney Studios . For having designed the emblem of Task Force 43, Walt Disney became an honorary member of the expedition. Task Force 43 consisted of the following ships: The ships of the task force were supplemented by a specially trained Navy Construction Battalion , formed at the Naval Construction Battalion Center at Davisville, Rhode Island and several aircraft. On October 31, 1956, at 8:34 p.m. local time,

1380-498: The International Geophysical Year. It was commissioned on January 1, 1957. The original station ("Old Byrd") lasted about four years before it began to collapse under the snow. Construction of a second underground station in a nearby location began in 1960, and it was used until 1972. The station was then converted into a summer-only field camp until it was abandoned in 2004–05. The mission's second base, Byrd Station ,

1440-586: The Karoo from an area in which Late Permian sediments have not been found. L. curvatus is found in a relatively narrow band of sediments from shortly before and after the extinction, and can be used as an approximate marker for the boundary between the Permian and Triassic periods. A skull identified as L. curvatus has been found in late Permian sediments from Zambia . For many years it had been thought that there were no Permian specimens of L. curvatus in

1500-474: The Karoo, which led to suggestions that L. curvatus immigrated from Zambia into the Karoo. However, a re-examination of Permian specimens in the Karoo has identified some as L. curvatus , and there is no need to assume immigration. L. murrayi and L. declivis are found only in Triassic sediments. Lystrosaurus georgi fossils have been found in the Earliest Triassic sediments of

1560-741: The Navy's command in Antarctica was US Naval Support Force Antarctica, (NSFA) Terminal Operations. In early 1996, the United States National Guard announced that the 109th Airlift Wing at Schenectady County Airport in Scotia, New York was slated to assume that entire mission from the United States Navy in 1999. The Antarctic operation would be fully funded by the National Science Foundation. The 109th expected to add approximately 235 full-time personnel to support that operation. The decision to switch from Naval leadership to National Guard

1620-643: The Permian-Triassic boundary in this region. L. curvatus , L. murrayi , and L. maccaigi are known from the Fremouw Formation in the Transantarctic Mountains of Antarctica . Lystrosaurus was a dicynodont therapsid , between 0.6 to 2.5 m (2 to 8 ft) long with an average of about 0.9 m (3 ft) depending upon the species. Unlike other therapsids, dicynodonts had very short snouts and no teeth except for

1680-518: The Triassic; complete ecological recovery took 30 million years, spanning the Early and Middle Triassic . Several attempts have been made to explain why Lystrosaurus survived the Permian–Triassic extinction event , the "mother of all mass extinctions", and why it dominated Early Triassic fauna to such an unprecedented extent: Operation Deep Freeze Operation Deep Freeze is codename for

1740-460: The U.S. Navy and Air National Guard C-130s was to airlift fuel and supplies to the National Science Foundation's South Pole Station so that its personnel could survive the isolation of the long Antarctic winter, which lasted from February to October. An Air National Guard working group had been formed to study the idea in 1990. The following year, a dialog began among the Air National Guard,

1800-691: The east of the Antarctic Plateau and south of Law Glacier , which separates them from the Queen Elizabeth Range . The Walcott Névé is to the south, and the Queen Alexandra Range to the east. Features include Coalsack Bluff, Bauhs Nunatak and Mount Sirius. Nearby features to the west include Jacobs Nunatak, Morse Nunataks, MacAlpine Hills and Mount Achernar. 84°14′S 162°25′E  /  84.233°S 162.417°E  / -84.233; 162.417 . A small rock bluff standing at

1860-698: The eminent paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh , but received no reply. Marsh's rival, Edward Drinker Cope , was very interested in seeing the find, and described and named Lystrosaurus in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society in 1870. Its name is derived from the Ancient Greek words listron , "shovel", and sauros , "lizard". Marsh belatedly purchased the skull in May ;1871, although his interest in an already-described specimen

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1920-463: The first aircraft ever to touch down at the South Pole skied to a halt atop the Antarctic ice sheet at 90 degrees South latitude. The U.S. Navy R4D, was piloted by Lieutenant Commander (LCDR) Conrad C. "Gus" Shinn USN and included officer Frederick Ferrara. Immediately after the plane halted--with engines running to avoid a freeze-up (a practice still followed to this day)--U.S. Navy Adm. George J. Dufek., commander of Operation Deep Freeze, stepped out onto

1980-630: The first aircraft to land at the South Pole, it was also the first time that Americans had ever set foot on the South Pole. The aircraft was named Que Sera, Sera after a popular song and is now on display at the Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida . This marked the beginning of the establishment of the first permanent base, by airlift, at the South Pole (today known as the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station ) to support

2040-531: The first flight over the South Pole. From 1934 to 1935, the second Byrd Expedition explored much further inland and also "wintered over". The third Byrd Expedition in 1940 charted the Ross Sea . Byrd was instrumental in the Navy's Operation Highjump after World War II from 1946 to 1947, which charted most of the Antarctic coastline. In 1948, Commander Finn Ronne led an expedition that photographed over 450,000 square miles (1.1 million km ) by air. Then in 1954–55,

2100-550: The fossils previously labeled as L. platyceps and L. oviceps as members of L. curvatus . L. maccaigi is the largest and apparently most specialized species, while L. curvatus was the least specialized. A Lystrosaurus -like fossil, Kwazulusaurus shakai , has also been found in South Africa. Although not assigned to the same genus , K. shakai is very similar to L. curvatus . Some paleontologists have therefore proposed that K. shakai

2160-684: The head of Sylwester Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for Willis S. Jacobs, USARP geomagnetist and seismologist at South Pole Station, 1959. 84°16′S 160°50′E  /  84.267°S 160.833°E  / -84.267; 160.833 . Isolated rock nunataks standing 4.5 nautical miles (8.3 km; 5.2 mi) south of Mount Achernar, between Lewis Cliff and MacAlpine Hills. Named by US-ACAN for Oliver C. Morse III, USARP ionospheric scientist at South Pole Station, 1960. 84°13′S 160°30′E  /  84.217°S 160.500°E  / -84.217; 160.500 . A chain of mainly ice-free, bluff-type hills extending from Mount Achernar southwest along

2220-455: The ice, along with pilot Douglas Cordiner, to plant the stars and stripes at the Pole. They were the first to stand there since Briton Robert Falcon Scott did more than 40 years before. Norwegian Roald Amundsen had beaten Scott in his race to the Pole. Amundsen's party survived the 800-mile return trip, Scott's did not. This flight was one part of the expeditions mounted for the IGY. This was not only

2280-677: The logistical movement of cargo to remote operating locations on the continent. These aircraft are augmented by the United States Coast Guard icebreaker USCGC Polar Star , the Air Force Materiel Command , and the Military Sealift Command . The United States Air Force 13th Air Expeditionary Group deploys to Christchurch, New Zealand during the operational season. A documentary on the early missions, Ice Eagles: An Account of American Aviation in Antarctica ,

2340-499: The longest time. As so often with fossils, there is debate in the paleontological community as to exactly how many species have been found in the Karoo basin. Studies from the 1930s to 1970s suggested a large number (23 in one case). However, by the 1980s and 1990s, only 6 species were recognized in the Karoo : L. curvatus , L. platyceps , L. oviceps , L. maccaigi , L. murrayi , and L. declivis . A study in 2011 reduced that number to four, treating

2400-464: The mid-1970s with the ski-equipped C-130s of the 109th Airlift Wing . It convinced Headquarters, United States Air Force that it was not in the nation's best interest to abandon the capability to achieve quick and reliable air access to both polar regions. In March 1993, the U.S. Navy hosted a two-day workshop with representatives of the National Science Foundation, Air National Guard, and other interested parties to explore logistics support options for

2460-461: The mission. When fully transitioned to the Air National Guard, the 109th Airlift Wing would have ten LC-130s in its inventory. These would include upgrades of four LC-130 aircraft in-service with the unit plus three new aircraft and three that would be transferred from the U.S. Navy. Air National Guard estimates of the savings to be realized by consolidating the operation in the hands of the 109th Airlift Wing ranged from US $ 5 million to US$ 15 million

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2520-525: The north side of Walcott Névé, about 3.5 nautical miles (6.5 km; 4.0 mi) south-southeast of Mount Sirius. Named by the United States Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Luvern R. Bauhs, United States ArmyRP ionospheric scientist at South Pole Station, 1959. 84°08′S 163°15′E  /  84.133°S 163.250°E  / -84.133; 163.250 . A peak, 2,300 metres (7,500 ft) high, surmounting

2580-518: The northern limits of Walcott Neve, 6 nautical miles (11 km; 6.9 mi) west-southwest of Bauhs Nunatak. So named by the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition (NZGSAE) (1961–62) because of the coal seams found running through the bluff. 84°12′S 163°24′E  /  84.200°S 163.400°E  / -84.200; 163.400 . A prominent nunatak, 2,225 metres (7,300 ft) high, at

2640-666: The office of the Secretary of Defense, the commander of U.S. Pacific Command was designated to support the Joint Task Force Support Forces Antarctica, Operation Deep Freeze. CDRUSPACOM delegated this joint operation to the Commander, Pacific Air Forces , who then delegated primary responsibility for execution of the JTF SFA operation to the Commander, 13th Air Force . United States civilian and scientific operations on

2700-631: The operation. A draft concept of operations had been prepared by the Air Directorate of the National Guard Bureau in 1993. In February 1996, a commitment was made to transfer the Operation Deep Freeze mission and all LC-130H aircraft operating within the U.S. Department of Defense to the Air National Guard. In September 1996, senior officers from the 109th Airlift Wing briefed the National Guard Bureau on their concept of operations and

2760-562: The regular missions to resupply US Antarctic bases, coordinated by the United States military . Task Force 199 was involved. The U.S. Navy already had a record of earlier exploration in Antarctica. As early as 1839, Captain Charles Wilkes led the first U.S. Naval expedition into Antarctic waters. In 1929, Admiral Richard E. Byrd established a naval base at Little America I, led an expedition to explore further inland, and conducted

2820-574: The sacral vertebrae are fused to each other and to the pelvis . A buttress above each acetabulum (hip socket) is thought to have prevented dislocation of the femur (thigh bone) while Lystrosaurus was walking with a semi-sprawling gait. The forelimbs of Lystrosaurus were massive, and Lystrosaurus is thought to have been a powerful burrower. Mummified specimens recovered from the Karoo Basin and described in 2022 revealed that Lystrosaurus had dimpled, leathery, and hairless skin. Lystrosaurus

2880-415: The skull and took up a lot of space on the top and back of the skull. As a result, the eyes were set high and well forward on the skull, and the face was short. Features of the skeleton indicate that Lystrosaurus moved with a semi-sprawling gait . The lower rear corner of the scapula (shoulder blade) was strongly ossified (built of strong bone), which suggests that movement of the scapula contributed to

2940-418: The south side of Law Glacier, to Sylwester Glacier . Named by US-ACAN for Ens. Kenneth D. MacAlpine, United States Navy Reserve. A member of United States Navy Squadron VX-6, MacAlpine was injured in an airplane crash at McMurdo Sound, October 1956. 84°12′S 160°56′E  /  84.200°S 160.933°E  / -84.200; 160.933 . A peak forming the northeast end of Mac Alpine Hills, on

3000-474: The south side of Law Glacier. Named by the NZGSAE (1961–62) after the star Achemar used in fixing the survey baseline. 84°17′S 161°05′E  /  84.283°S 161.083°E  / -84.283; 161.083 . An irregular cliff, about 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) long, extending south from Mount Achernar along the west side of Walcott Névé. Named by US-ACAN for Richard E. Lewis, Aviation Electronics Technician, United States Navy, who

3060-460: The status of their preparations to implement Operation Deep Freeze. Under the transition plan which they had developed, the Air National Guard would continue to augment the United States Navy during the October 1996 – March 1997 operating season for the United States Antarctic Program . At the end of the October 1997 – March 1998 season, the Air National Guard would assume command of the program. During

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3120-435: The stride length of the forelimbs and reduced the sideways flexing of the body. The five sacral vertebrae were massive but not fused to each other and to the pelvis , making the back more rigid and reducing sideways flexing while the animal was walking. Therapsids with fewer than five sacral vertebrae are thought to have had sprawling limbs, like those of modern lizards. In dinosaurs and mammals , which have erect limbs,

3180-606: The third year of the transition program (October 1998 to March 1999), the U.S. Navy would augment the ANG before the latter took over the entire program the following year. There would be seven LC-130s in theater. They would stage from Christchurch International Airport in Christchurch , New Zealand, to McMurdo Station , Antarctica. Traditional Guardsmen, technicians, and the cadre of Active Guard Reservists specifically brought on board to support Operation Deep Freeze would all be involved in

3240-761: The year of the fifth mission, codenames began to be based on the year (e.g., "Operation Deep Freeze 60"). The Coast Guard sometimes participated; among others, the USCGC Northwind , the USCGC Polar Sea and the USCGC Glacier occasionally supported the mission. The Navy's Antarctic Development Squadron Six had been flying scientific and military missions to Greenland and the arctic compound's Williams Field since 1975. The 109th operated ski-equipped LC-130s had been flying National Science Foundation support missions to Antarctica since 1988. The official name for

3300-512: Was a (former) research station in West Antarctica established by the US Navy for Operation Deep Freeze II during the International Geophysical Year. The United States Antarctic Program airfield, built to service Operation Deep Freeze (first mission) was later named Williams Field or Willy Field. The Operation Deep Freeze activities were succeeded by "Operation Deep Freeze II", and so on. In 1960,

3360-447: Was injured during United States Navy Operation Deep Freeze II, 1956–57. Lystrosaurus Lystrosaurus ( / ˌ l ɪ s t r oʊ ˈ s ɔːr ə s / ; 'shovel lizard'; proper Greek is λίστρον lístron ‘tool for leveling or smoothing, shovel, spade, hoe’) is an extinct genus of herbivorous dicynodont therapsids from the late Permian and Early Triassic epochs (around 248 million years ago). It lived in what

3420-584: Was one of a cost-saving measure due to post cold war budget cuts. The possibility of the Air National Guard assuming operational control of the mission had first emerged in 1988. The 109th Airlift Wing had been notified that, almost overnight, one of the Distant Early Warning Line (DEW) radar sites that it supported in Greenland was going to be shut down. The other sites would soon follow, and

3480-424: Was possibly an ancestor of or closely related to the ancestors of L. curvatus , while L. maccaigi arose from a different lineage. L. maccaigi is found only in sediments from the Permian period, and apparently did not survive the Permian–Triassic extinction event . Its specialized features and sudden appearance in the fossil record without an obvious ancestor may indicate that it immigrated into

3540-416: Was scheduled to be released in 2016. Lockheed Martin is currently the prime contractor for the National Science Foundation's United States Antarctic Program. The contract award was announced via a NSF press release on 28 December 2011 after a bid solicitation process of almost four years. Support operations began on 1 April 2012. The original contract synopsis indicated that the government was contemplating

3600-672: Was unclear; he may have wanted to carefully scrutinize Cope's description and illustration. The discovery of Lystrosaurus fossils at Coalsack Bluff in the Transantarctic Mountains by Edwin H. Colbert and his team in 1969–1970 helped support the hypothesis of plate tectonics and strengthen the theory, since Lystrosaurus had already been found in the lower Triassic of southern Africa as well as in India and China. Lystrosaurus fossils have been found in many Late Permian and Early Triassic terrestrial bone beds , most abundantly in Africa, and to

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