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72-512: MULE provides facilities to handle text written in many languages (at least 42 character sets , 53 coding sets, 128 input methods, and 58 languages), and multilingual texts containing several languages in the same buffer. This goes beyond the simple facilities offered by Unicode to represent multilingual text. MULE also supports input methods, composing display using fonts in various encodings, changing character syntax and other editing facilities to correspond to local language usage, and more. MULE

144-402: A byte order mark or escape sequences ; compressing schemes try to minimize the number of bytes used per code unit (such as SCSU and BOCU ). Although UTF-32BE and UTF-32LE are simpler CESes, most systems working with Unicode use either UTF-8 , which is backward compatible with fixed-length ASCII and maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of octets, or UTF-16BE , which

216-404: A dit and the other a dah . Single paddle keys are also called single lever keys or sideswipers , the same name as the older side-to-side key design they greatly resemble. Double paddle keys are also called " iambic " keys or "squeeze" keys. Also like the old semi-automatic keys, the conventional assignment of the paddle directions (for a right-handed telegrapher) is that pressing a paddle with

288-437: A string of the letters "ab̲c𐐀"—that is, a string containing a Unicode combining character ( U+0332 ̲ COMBINING LOW LINE ) as well as a supplementary character ( U+10400 𐐀 DESERET CAPITAL LETTER LONG I ). This string has several Unicode representations which are logically equivalent, yet while each is suited to a diverse set of circumstances or range of requirements: Note in particular that 𐐀

360-546: A character encoding are known as code points and collectively comprise a code space, a code page , or character map . Early character codes associated with the optical or electrical telegraph could only represent a subset of the characters used in written languages , sometimes restricted to upper case letters , numerals and some punctuation only. The advent of digital computer systems allows more elaborate encodings codes (such as Unicode ) to support hundreds of written languages. The most popular character encoding on

432-410: A keyer iambicly at high speed outweigh any small benefits. Iambic keyers function in one of at least two major modes: Mode  A and mode  B . There is a third, rarely available mode  U . Mode  A is the original iambic mode, in which alternate dots and dashes are produced as long as both paddles are depressed. Mode  A is essentially "what you hear is what you get" : When

504-439: A matter of culture and training, but the users of each are tremendously partisan. Straight keys have been made in numerous variations for over 150 years and in numerous countries. They are the subject of an avid community of key collectors. The straight keys also had a shorting bar that closed the electrical circuit through the station when the operator was not actively sending messages. The shorting switch for an unused key

576-458: A message. An operator's style is known as their "fist" . Since every fist is unique, other telegraphers can usually identify the individual telegrapher transmitting a particular message. This had a huge significance during the first and second World Wars, since the on-board telegrapher's "fist" could be used to track individual ships and submarines, and for traffic analysis . However, with electronic keyers (either single- or double-paddle) this

648-531: A modern single-paddle key (see below); likewise, a modern single-lever key becomes an old-style sideswiper when its two contacts are wired together. A popular side-to-side key is the semi-automatic key or bug , sometimes known as a Vibroplex key , after an early manufacturer of mechanical, semi-automatic keys. The original bug s were fully mechanical, based on a kind of simple clockwork mechanism, and required no electronic keyer. A skilled operator can achieve sending speeds in excess of 40 words per minute with

720-420: A particular sequence of bits. Instead, characters would first be mapped to a universal intermediate representation in the form of abstract numbers called code points . Code points would then be represented in a variety of ways and with various default numbers of bits per character (code units) depending on context. To encode code points higher than the length of the code unit, such as above 256 for eight-bit units,

792-440: A process known as transcoding . Some of these are cited below. Cross-platform : Windows : The most used character encoding on the web is UTF-8 , used in 98.2% of surveyed web sites, as of May 2024. In application programs and operating system tasks, both UTF-8 and UTF-16 are popular options. Telegraph key A telegraph key , clacker , tapper or morse key is a specialized electrical switch used by

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864-461: A single glyph . The former simplifies the text handling system, but the latter allows any letter/diacritic combination to be used in text. Ligatures pose similar problems. Exactly how to handle glyph variants is a choice that must be made when constructing a particular character encoding. Some writing systems, such as Arabic and Hebrew, need to accommodate things like graphemes that are joined in different ways in different contexts, but represent

936-546: A single character per code unit. However, due to the emergence of more sophisticated character encodings, the distinction between these terms has become important. "Code page" is a historical name for a coded character set. Originally, a code page referred to a specific page number in the IBM standard character set manual, which would define a particular character encoding. Other vendors, including Microsoft , SAP , and Oracle Corporation , also published their own sets of code pages;

1008-430: A single-paddle or non-iambic keyer, the hand motion would require alternating four times for C ( dah - dit - dah - dit   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄  ). The efficiency of iambic keying has recently been discussed in terms of movements per character and timings for high speed CW, with the author concluding that the timing difficulties of correctly operating

1080-432: A stream of octets (bytes). The purpose of this decomposition is to establish a universal set of characters that can be encoded in a variety of ways. To describe this model precisely, Unicode uses its own set of terminology to describe its process: An abstract character repertoire (ACR) is the full set of abstract characters that a system supports. Unicode has an open repertoire, meaning that new characters will be added to

1152-542: A trained operator to transmit text messages in Morse code in a telegraphy system. Keys are used in all forms of electrical telegraph systems, including landline (also called wire) telegraphy and radio (also called wireless) telegraphy . An operator uses the telegraph key to send electrical pulses (or in the case of modern CW , unmodulated radio waves) of two different lengths: short pulses, called dots or dits , and longer pulses, called dashes or dahs . These pulses encode

1224-505: A well-defined and extensible encoding system, has replaced most earlier character encodings, but the path of code development to the present is fairly well known. The Baudot code, a five- bit encoding, was created by Émile Baudot in 1870, patented in 1874, modified by Donald Murray in 1901, and standardized by CCITT as International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) in 1930. The name baudot has been erroneously applied to ITA2 and its many variants. ITA2 suffered from many shortcomings and

1296-411: A ‘ bug ’. The benefit of the clockwork mechanism is that it reduces the motion required from the telegrapher's hand, which provides greater speed of sending, and it produces uniformly timed dits (dots, or short pulses) and maintains constant rhythm; consistent timing and rhythm are crucial for decoding the signal on the other end of the telegraph line. The single paddle is held between the knuckle and

1368-473: Is backward compatible with fixed-length UCS-2BE and maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of 16-bit words. See comparison of Unicode encodings for a detailed discussion. Finally, there may be a higher-level protocol which supplies additional information to select the particular variant of a Unicode character, particularly where there are regional variants that have been 'unified' in Unicode as

1440-442: Is defined by a CEF. A character encoding scheme (CES) is the mapping of code units to a sequence of octets to facilitate storage on an octet-based file system or transmission over an octet-based network. Simple character encoding schemes include UTF-8 , UTF-16BE , UTF-32BE , UTF-16LE , and UTF-32LE ; compound character encoding schemes, such as UTF-16 , UTF-32 and ISO/IEC 2022 , switch between several simple schemes by using

1512-444: Is defined by the encoding. Thus, the number of code units required to represent a code point depends on the encoding: Exactly what constitutes a character varies between character encodings. For example, for letters with diacritics , there are two distinct approaches that can be taken to encode them: they can be encoded either as a single unified character (known as a precomposed character), or as separate characters that combine into

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1584-401: Is no ability to make both contacts simultaneously by squeezing the paddles together for iambic mode. When a single-paddle key is used with an electronic keyer, continuous dits are created by holding the dit -side paddle (   ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄  ...); likewise, continuous dahs are created by holding

1656-430: Is preferred, usually in the larger context of locales. IBM's Character Data Representation Architecture (CDRA) designates entities with coded character set identifiers ( CCSIDs ), each of which is variously called a "charset", "character set", "code page", or "CHARMAP". The code unit size is equivalent to the bit measurement for the particular encoding: A code point is represented by a sequence of code units. The mapping

1728-492: Is represented with either one 32-bit value (UTF-32), two 16-bit values (UTF-16), or four 8-bit values (UTF-8). Although each of those forms uses the same total number of bits (32) to represent the glyph, it is not obvious how the actual numeric byte values are related. As a result of having many character encoding methods in use (and the need for backward compatibility with archived data), many computer programs have been developed to translate data between character encoding schemes,

1800-427: Is required for iambic sending, which also requires an iambic keyer. But any single- or dual-paddle key can be used non-iambicly, without squeezing, and there were electronic keyers made which did not have iambic functions. Iambic keying or squeeze keying reduces the key strokes or hand movements necessary to make some characters, e.g. the letter C, which can be sent by merely squeezing the two paddles together. With

1872-428: Is usually done for contributions to GNU packages. This free and open-source software article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Character set Character encoding is the process of assigning numbers to graphical characters , especially the written characters of human language, allowing them to be stored, transmitted, and transformed using computers. The numerical values that make up

1944-597: The World Wide Web is UTF-8 , which is used in 98.2% of surveyed web sites, as of May 2024. In application programs and operating system tasks, both UTF-8 and UTF-16 are popular options. The history of character codes illustrates the evolving need for machine-mediated character-based symbolic information over a distance, using once-novel electrical means. The earliest codes were based upon manual and hand-written encoding and cyphering systems, such as Bacon's cipher , Braille , international maritime signal flags , and

2016-438: The dah paddle (   ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄  ...). A single-paddle key can non -iambicly operate any electronic keyer, whether or not it even offers iambic functions, and regardless of whether the keyer iambically operates in mode  A , B , or U . Simple telegraph-like keys were long used to control

2088-414: The dah side connects first. An additional advantage of electronic keyers over semiautomatic keys is that code speed is easily changed with electronic keyers, just by turning a knob. With a semiautomatic key, the location of the pendulum weight and the pendulum spring tension and contact must all be repositioned and rebalanced to change the dit speed. Keys having two separate levers, one for dits and

2160-437: The dit lever makes first contact, then the string begins with a dit (   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄  ). Insofar as iambic keying is a function of the electronic keyer, it is not correct, technically, to refer to a dual paddle key itself as "iambic", although this is commonly done in marketing. A dual paddle key

2232-482: The 1980s faced the dilemma that, on the one hand, it seemed necessary to add more bits to accommodate additional characters, but on the other hand, for the users of the relatively small character set of the Latin alphabet (who still constituted the majority of computer users), those additional bits were a colossal waste of then-scarce and expensive computing resources (as they would always be zeroed out for such users). In 1985,

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2304-532: The 4-digit encoding of Chinese characters for a Chinese telegraph code ( Hans Schjellerup , 1869). With the adoption of electrical and electro-mechanical techniques these earliest codes were adapted to the new capabilities and limitations of the early machines. The earliest well-known electrically transmitted character code, Morse code , introduced in the 1840s, used a system of four "symbols" (short signal, long signal, short space, long space) to generate codes of variable length. Though some commercial use of Morse code

2376-509: The Unicode standard is U+0000 to U+10FFFF, inclusive, divided in 17 planes , identified by the numbers 0 to 16. Characters in the range U+0000 to U+FFFF are in plane 0, called the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP). This plane contains the most commonly-used characters. Characters in the range U+10000 to U+10FFFF in the other planes are called supplementary characters . The following table shows examples of code point values: Consider

2448-464: The average personal computer user's hard disk drive could store only about 10 megabytes, and it cost approximately US$ 250 on the wholesale market (and much higher if purchased separately at retail), so it was very important at the time to make every bit count. The compromise solution that was eventually found and developed into Unicode was to break the assumption (dating back to telegraph codes) that each character should always directly correspond to

2520-651: The basic up-and-down telegraph key, telegraphers have been experimenting with alternate key designs from the beginning of telegraphy. Many are made to move side-to-side instead of up-and-down. Some of the designs, such as sideswipers (or bushwhackers ) and semi-automatic keys operate mechanically. Beginning in the mid-20th century electronic devices called "keyers" have been developed, which are operated by special keys of various designs generally categorized as single-paddle keys (also called sideswipers ), and double-paddle keys (or "iambic" or "squeeze" keys). The keyer may be either an independent device that attaches to

2592-506: The center makes contact, the same as pressing a single-lever key to one side. For double-paddle keys wired to an "iambic" keyer, squeezing both paddles together makes a double-contact, which causes the keyer to send alternating dits and dahs (or dahs and dits , depending on which lever makes first contact). Most electronic keyers include dot and dash memory functions, so the operator does not need to use perfect spacing between dits and dahs or vice versa. With dit or dah memory,

2664-482: The desired mode. A third electronic keyer mode useful with a dual paddle is the "Ultimatic" mode (mode  U ), so-called for the brand name of the electronic keyer that introduced it. In the Ultimatic keying mode, the keyer will switch to the opposite element if the second lever is pressed before the first is released (that is, squeezed). A single-lever paddle key has separate contacts for dits and dahs , but there

2736-593: The earlier single-paddle keys, as opposed to how the original "straight-keys'" arms move up-and-down. Whether the sequence begins with a dit or a dah is determined by which lever makes contact first: If the dah lever is closed first, then the first element will be a dah , so the string of elements will be similar to a sequence of trochees in poetry, and the method could as logically be called "trochaic keying" (   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄  ). If

2808-425: The early days of telegraphy, a number of professional telegraphers developed a repetitive stress injury known as glass arm or telegraphers’ paralysis . "Glass arm" may be reduced or eliminated by increasing the side play of the straight key, by loosening the adjustable trunnion screws. Such problems can be avoided either by using good manual technique, or by only using side-to-side key types. In addition to

2880-400: The electrical contacts, so their left-handed keying is a mirror image of standard right-handed keying. Single paddle keys are essentially the same as the original sideswiper keys, with the left and right electrical contacts wired separately. Double-paddle keys have one arm for each of the two contacts, each arm held away from the common center by a spring; pressing either of the paddles towards

2952-536: The era had their own character codes, often six-bit, but usually had the ability to read tapes produced on IBM equipment. These BCD encodings were the precursors of IBM's Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (usually abbreviated as EBCDIC), an eight-bit encoding scheme developed in 1963 for the IBM System/360 that featured a larger character set, including lower case letters. In trying to develop universally interchangeable character encodings, researchers in

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3024-412: The flow of electricity in laboratory tests of electrical circuits. Often, these were simple " strap " keys, in which a bend in the key lever provided the key's spring action. Telegraph-like keys were once used in the study of operant conditioning with pigeons . Starting in the 1940s, initiated by B. F. Skinner at Harvard University , the keys were mounted vertically behind a small circular hole about

3096-482: The height of a pigeon's beak in the front wall of an operant conditioning chamber . Electromechanical recording equipment detected the closing of the switch whenever the pigeon pecked the key. Depending on the psychological questions being investigated, keypecks might have resulted in the presentation of food or other stimuli. With straight keys, side-swipers, and, to an extent, bugs, each and every telegrapher has their own unique style or rhythm pattern when transmitting

3168-473: The inclusion of MULE in version 21 of GNU Emacs. MULE was written by the researchers Satoru Tomura, Ken'ichi Handa, Mikiko Nishikimi, and Naoto Takahashi, of the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), which is a part of Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI), of the government of Japan . This made it impossible for the developers to assign copyright to FSF, as

3240-612: The letters and other characters that spell out the message. Since its original inception, the telegraph key's design has developed such that there are now multiple types of keys. A straight key is the common telegraph key as seen in various movies. It is a simple bar with a knob on top and an electrical contact underneath. When the bar is pressed down against spring tension, it makes a closed electric circuit. Traditionally, American telegraph keys had flat topped knobs and narrow bars (frequently curved), while European telegraph keys had ball shaped knobs and thick bars. This appears to be purely

3312-416: The lever in either direction. A series of dits can be sent by rocking the arm back and forth. This first new style of key was introduced in part to increase speed of sending, but more importantly to reduce the repetitive strain injury affecting telegraphers, then popularly called " glass arm " or clinically "telegraphic paralysis" . The side-to-side motion reduces strain, and uses different muscles than

3384-669: The line, allowing the operator in the next town to receive a message from the central office. Although occasionally included in later keys for reasons of tradition, the shorting bar is unnecessary for radio telegraphy, except as a convenience to produce a steady signal for tuning the transmitter. The straight key is simple and reliable, but the rapid pumping action needed to send a string of dots (or dits as most operators call them) poses some medically significant drawbacks. Transmission speeds vary from 5 words (25 characters) per minute, by novice operators, up to about 30 words (150 characters) per minute by skilled operators. In

3456-475: The most well-known code page suites are " Windows " (based on Windows-1252) and "IBM"/"DOS" (based on code page 437 ). Despite no longer referring to specific page numbers in a standard, many character encodings are still referred to by their code page number; likewise, the term "code page" is often still used to refer to character encodings in general. The term "code page" is not used in Unix or Linux, where "charmap"

3528-408: The operator's keying action can be about one dit ahead of the actual transmission. The electronics in the keyer adjusts the timing so that the output of each letter is machine-perfect. Electronic keyers allow very high speed transmission of code. Using a keyer in what's called " iambic " mode requires a key with two paddles: One paddle produces dit s and the other produces dahs . Pressing both at

3600-529: The other for dahs are called dual or dual-lever paddles. With a dual paddle both contacts may be closed simultaneously, enabling the " iambic " functions of an electronic keyer that is designed to support them: By pressing both paddles (squeezing the levers together) the operator can create a series of alternating dits and dahs , analogous to a sequence of iambs in poetry . For that reason, dual paddles are sometimes called squeeze keys or iambic keys . Typical dual-paddle keys' levers move horizontally, like

3672-423: The paddles are released, the keying continues by sending one more element than has already been heard. I.e., if the paddles were released during a dah then the last element sent will be a following dit ; if the paddles were released during a dit then the sequence will end with the following dah . Users accustomed to one mode may find it difficult to adapt to the other, so most modern keyers allow selection of

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3744-424: The paddles are released, the keying stops with the last dot or dash that was being sent while the paddles were held. Mode  B is the second mode, which devolved from a logic error in an early iambic keyer. Over the years iambic mode  B has become something of a standard and is the default setting in most keyers. In mode  B , dots and dashes are produced as long as both paddles are depressed. When

3816-412: The punched card code then in use only allowed digits, upper-case English letters and a few special characters, six bits were sufficient. These BCD encodings extended existing simple four-bit numeric encoding to include alphabetic and special characters, mapping them easily to punch-card encoding which was already in widespread use. IBM's codes were used primarily with IBM equipment; other computer vendors of

3888-460: The repertoire over time. A coded character set (CCS) is a function that maps characters to code points (each code point represents one character). For example, in a given repertoire, the capital letter "A" in the Latin alphabet might be represented by the code point 65, the character "B" by 66, and so on. Multiple coded character sets may share the same character repertoire; for example ISO/IEC 8859-1 and IBM code pages 037 and 500 all cover

3960-412: The right thumb (pressing the single paddle rightward, or for a double-paddle key, pressing the left paddle with the thumb, rightwards towards the center) creates a series of dits . Pressing a paddle with the right knuckle (hence swinging a single paddle leftward, or the right paddle on a double-paddle key leftward to the center) creates a series of dahs . Left-handed telegraphers sometimes elect to reverse

4032-491: The same character. An example is the XML attribute xml:lang. The Unicode model uses the term "character map" for other systems which directly assign a sequence of characters to a sequence of bytes, covering all of the CCS, CEF and CES layers. In Unicode, a character can be referred to as 'U+' followed by its codepoint value in hexadecimal. The range of valid code points (the codespace) for

4104-537: The same repertoire but map them to different code points. A character encoding form (CEF) is the mapping of code points to code units to facilitate storage in a system that represents numbers as bit sequences of fixed length (i.e. practically any computer system). For example, a system that stores numeric information in 16-bit units can only directly represent code points 0 to 65,535 in each unit, but larger code points (say, 65,536 to 1.4 million) could be represented by using multiple 16-bit units. This correspondence

4176-522: The same semantic character. Unicode and its parallel standard, the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set , together constitute a unified standard for character encoding. Rather than mapping characters directly to bytes , Unicode separately defines a coded character set that maps characters to unique natural numbers ( code points ), how those code points are mapped to a series of fixed-size natural numbers (code units), and finally how those units are encoded as

4248-432: The same time (a "squeeze") produces an alternating dit-dah-dit-dah (   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄  ) sequence, which starts with a dit if the dit side makes contact first, or a dah (   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄  ) if

4320-433: The solution was to implement variable-length encodings where an escape sequence would signal that subsequent bits should be parsed as a higher code point. Informally, the terms "character encoding", "character map", "character set" and "code page" are often used interchangeably. Historically, the same standard would specify a repertoire of characters and how they were to be encoded into a stream of code units — usually with

4392-425: The telegrapher operates an electronic keyer by tapping a paddle key, swinging its lever(s) from side-to-side. When pressed to one side (usually left), the keyer electronics generate a series of dahs ; when pressed to the other side (usually right), a series of dits . Keyers work with two different types of keys: Single paddle and double paddle keys. Like semi-automatic keys, pressing the paddle on one side produces

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4464-459: The telegrapher remains responsible for timing the dahs to proportionally match the dits . The clockwork pendulum needs the extra kick that the stronger thumb press provides, which established the standard left-right paddle directions for the dit - dah assignments that persists on the paddles on 21st century electronic keys. A few semi-automatic keys were made with mirror-image mechanisms for left-handed telegraphers. Like semi-automatic keys,

4536-400: The thumb of the right hand. When the paddle is pressed to the right (with the thumb), it kicks a horizontal pendulum which then rocks against the contact point, sending a series of short pulses ( dits or dots) at a speed which is controlled by the pendulum’s length. When the paddle is pressed toward the left (with the knuckle) it makes a continuous contact suitable for sending dahs (dashes);

4608-405: The transmitter in place of a telegraph key, or circuitry incorporated in modern amateurs' radios. The first widely accepted alternative key was the sideswiper or sidewinder , sometimes called a cootie key or bushwhacker . This key uses a side-to-side action with contacts on both the left and right and the arm spring-loaded to return to center; the operator may make a dit or dah by swinging

4680-401: The up-and-down motion (called "pounding brass"). Nearly all advanced keys use some form of side-to-side action. The alternating action produces a distinctive rhythm or swing which noticeably affects the operator's transmission rhythm (known as ‘ fist ’). Although the original sideswiper is now rarely seen or used, when the left and right contacts are electrically separated a sideswiper becomes

4752-504: Was adopted fairly widely. ASCII67's American-centric nature was somewhat addressed in the European ECMA-6 standard. Herman Hollerith invented punch card data encoding in the late 19th century to analyze census data. Initially, each hole position represented a different data element, but later, numeric information was encoded by numbering the lower rows 0 to 9, with a punch in a column representing its row number. Later alphabetic data

4824-667: Was encoded by allowing more than one punch per column. Electromechanical tabulating machines represented date internally by the timing of pulses relative to the motion of the cards through the machine. When IBM went to electronic processing, starting with the IBM 603 Electronic Multiplier, it used a variety of binary encoding schemes that were tied to the punch card code. IBM used several Binary Coded Decimal ( BCD ) six-bit character encoding schemes, starting as early as 1953 in its 702 and 704 computers, and in its later 7000 Series and 1400 series , as well as in associated peripherals. Since

4896-485: Was needed in telegraph systems wired in the style of North American railroads, in which the signal power was supplied from batteries only in telegraph offices at one or both ends of a line, rather than each station having its own bank of batteries, which was often used in Europe. The shorting bar completed the electrical path to the next station and all following stations, so that their sounders could respond to signals coming down

4968-409: Was often improved by many equipment manufacturers, sometimes creating compatibility issues. In 1959 the U.S. military defined its Fieldata code, a six-or seven-bit code, introduced by the U.S. Army Signal Corps. While Fieldata addressed many of the then-modern issues (e.g. letter and digit codes arranged for machine collation), it fell short of its goals and was short-lived. In 1963 the first ASCII code

5040-634: Was originally based on Nemacs, a version of Emacs extended to handle Japanese , released in 1987. Development stalled, and the effort to incorporate increased language functionality into the main Emacs version stalled, until the fork between Lucid Inc. and the Free Software Foundation (FSF) led to XEmacs , which for several years boasted considerably better support for multiple languages and character sets. This competition reinvigorated development of GNU Emacs's language handling abilities and prompted

5112-582: Was released (X3.4-1963) by the ASCII committee (which contained at least one member of the Fieldata committee, W. F. Leubbert), which addressed most of the shortcomings of Fieldata, using a simpler code. Many of the changes were subtle, such as collatable character sets within certain numeric ranges. ASCII63 was a success, widely adopted by industry, and with the follow-up issue of the 1967 ASCII code (which added lower-case letters and fixed some "control code" issues) ASCII67

5184-576: Was via machinery, it was often used as a manual code, generated by hand on a telegraph key and decipherable by ear, and persists in amateur radio and aeronautical use. Most codes are of fixed per-character length or variable-length sequences of fixed-length codes (e.g. Unicode ). Common examples of character encoding systems include Morse code, the Baudot code , the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) and Unicode. Unicode,

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