82-419: Mom is a colloquial term for a mother . Mom , Moms , MOM , MoM , or M.O.M may also refer to: Mother A mother is the female parent of a child . A woman may be considered a mother by virtue of having given birth , by raising a child who may or may not be her biological offspring , or by supplying her ovum for fertilisation in the case of gestational surrogacy . A biological mother
164-407: A fetus develops from the viable zygote , resulting in an embryo . Gestation occurs in the woman's uterus until the fetus (assuming it is carried to term ) is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely , late, or in
246-403: A fully informed choice whether or not to marry, and are often influenced by their families. In Western countries, during the past decades, the nature of marriage—especially with regard to the importance of marital procreation and the ease of divorce —has changed dramatically, which has led to less social and familial pressure to get married, providing more freedom of choice concerning choosing
328-544: A " mommy track " rather than being entirely " career women ". Mothers may be stay at home mothers or working mothers . In recent decades there has been an increase in stay at home fathers too. Social views on these arrangements vary significantly by culture: in Europe for instance, in German-speaking countries there is a strong tradition of mothers exiting the workforce and being homemakers. Mothers have historically fulfilled
410-430: A child is alleged but has not been established. A stepmother is a non-biological female parent married to a child's preexisting parent, and may form a family unit but generally does not have the legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child. A father is the male counterpart of a mother. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be. The process of becoming
492-462: A dispute between families, where the dispute is 'resolved' by giving a female from one family to the other. Vani is a cultural custom found in parts of Pakistan wherein a young girl is forcibly married as part of the punishment for a crime committed by her male relatives. Vani is a form of forced child marriage , and the result of punishment decided by a council of tribal elders named jirga . Widow inheritance, also known as bride inheritance,
574-501: A forced marriage harder. In the United States, Unchained At Last is the only nonprofit organization operating to help people in the U.S. escape forced or arranged marriages by providing free legal and social services. Forced marriages are often related to violence, both in regard to violence perpetrated inside the marriage ( domestic violence ), and in regard to violence inflicted in order to force an unwilling participant to accept
656-547: A genetic mother, who provides the ovum, and a gestational (or surrogate) mother, who carries the child to term. The possibility for lesbian and bisexual women in same-sex relationships to become mothers has increased over the past few decades due to technological developments. Modern lesbian parenting originated with women who were in heterosexual relationships who later identified as lesbian or bisexual, as changing attitudes provided more acceptance for non-heterosexual relationships. Other ways for such women to become mothers
738-429: A history of domestic abuse are slightly more likely to commit filicide. Mothers are more likely to commit filicide than fathers when the child is 8 years old or younger. Matricide is most frequently committed by adult sons. In the United States in 2012, there were 130 matricides (0.4 per million people) and 383 filicides (1.2 per million), or 1.4 incidents per day. Throughout history, mothers have been depicted in
820-554: A law went into effect known as the Hakkaoui law because Bassima Hakkaoui drafted it; among other things, it includes a ban on forced marriage. Forced marriage is common in Niger . Niger has the highest prevalence of child marriage in the world; and also the highest total fertility rate . Girls who attempt to leave forced marriages are most often rejected by their families and are often forced to enter prostitution in order to survive. Due to
902-421: A marriage lack education and are often illiterate. Young ones tend to drop out of school shortly before they get married. Forced marriage often means a lifetime of rape, abuse and domestic servitude, and the loss of reproductive rights, financial rights and basic human rights. For women and girls, forced marriage often means forced motherhood. Ending a forced marriage may be extremely difficult in many parts of
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#1732876289005984-411: A mother fills many similar biological functions as a human mother. Many other mammal mothers also have numerous commonalities with humans. The behavior and role of mothers in non-human species is most similar in species most closely related to humans. This means great apes are most similar, then the broader superfamily of all apes , then all primates . Forced marriage Forced marriage
1066-457: A mother has been referred to as "matrescence". The adjective "maternal" refers to a mother and comparatively to "paternal" for a father . The verb "to mother" means to procreate or to sire a child, or to provide care for a child, from which also derives the noun "mothering". Related terms of endearment are mom ( mama , mommy ), mum ( mummy ), mumsy , mamacita ( ma , mam ) and mammy . A female role model that children can look up to
1148-638: A new crime against humanity (AFRC decision). The SCSL Trial Chamber in the Charles Taylor decision found that the term 'forced marriage' should be avoided and rather described the practice in war as 'conjugal slavery' (2012). In 2013, the first United Nations Human Rights Council resolution against child , early, and forced marriages was adopted; the resolution recognizes child, early, and forced marriage as involving violations of human rights which "prevents individuals from living their lives free from all forms of violence and that has adverse consequences on
1230-527: A petition against the bill, including representatives of the Mogadishu -based Elman Peace and Human Rights Center . More than 45% of young women in Somalia marry or are "in union" before the age of 18. In South Africa, ukuthwala is the practice of abducting young girls and forcing them into marriage, often with the consent of their parents. The practice occurs mainly in rural parts of South Africa , in particular
1312-565: A spouse. Historically, forced marriage was also used to require a captive ( slave or prisoner of war ) to integrate with the host community, and accept his or her fate. One example is the English blacksmith John R. Jewitt , who spent three years as a captive of the Nootka people on the Pacific Northwest Coast in 1802–1805. He was ordered to marry, because the council of chiefs thought that
1394-442: A strong social stigma . Historically, this stigma not only applied to the mother, but also to her child. This continues to be the case in many parts of the developing world today, but in many Western countries the situation has changed radically, with single motherhood being much more socially acceptable now. For more details on these subjects, see Legitimacy (family law) and single parent . The total fertility rate (TFR), that is,
1476-424: A third party such as a matchmaker in finding and choosing a spouse. There is often a continuum of coercion used to compel a marriage, ranging from outright physical violence to subtle psychological pressure. Though now widely condemned by international opinion, forced marriages still take place in various cultures across the world, particularly in parts of South Asia and Africa . Some scholars object to use of
1558-555: A variety of art works, including paintings, sculptures and written texts, that have helped define the cultural meaning of 'mother', as well as ideals and taboos of motherhood. Fourth century grave reliefs on the island of Rhodes depicted mothers with children. Paintings of mothers with their children have a long tradition in France . In the 18th century, these works embodied the Enlightenment's preoccupation with strong family bonds and
1640-403: A wife and family would reconcile him to staying with his captors for life. Jewitt was given a choice between forced marriage for himself and capital punishment for both him and his "father" (a fellow captive). "Reduced to this sad extremity, with death on the one side, and matrimony on the other, I thought proper to choose what appeared to me the least of the two evils" (p154). Forced marriage
1722-562: A woman other than the biological parent, especially if she fulfills the main social role in raising the child. This is commonly either an adoptive mother or a stepmother (the biologically unrelated partner of a child's father ). The term " othermother " or "other mother" is also used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the child's primary mother. Adoption, in various forms, has been practiced throughout history, even predating human civilization. Modern systems of adoption, arising in
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#17328762890051804-408: Is Mary Kelly's Post-Partum Document . Bypassing typical themes of tenderness or nostalgia, this work documents in extensive detail the challenges, complexities and day-to-day realities of the mother-child relationship. Other artists have addressed similar aspects of motherhood that fall outside dominant ideals, including maternal ambivalence, desire, and the pursuit of self-fulfillment. While
1886-410: Is a marriage in which one or more of the parties is married without their consent or against their will. A marriage can also become a forced marriage even if both parties enter with full consent if one or both are later forced to stay in the marriage against their will. A forced marriage differs from an arranged marriage , in which both parties presumably consent to the assistance of their parents or
1968-451: Is a cultural and social practice whereby a widow is required to marry a kinsman of her late husband, often his brother. It is prevalent in certain parts of Africa. The practice of wife inheritance has also been blamed for the spread of HIV/AIDS . "In conflict areas, women and girls are sometimes forced to marry men on either side of the conflict. This practice has taken place recently in countries such as Syria , Sierra Leone , Uganda and
2050-461: Is a woman who bears a child that came from another woman's fertilized ovum on behalf of a couple unable to give birth to children. Thus the surrogate mother carries and gives birth to a child that she is not the biological mother of. Surrogate motherhood became possible with advances in reproductive technologies , such as in vitro fertilization . Not all women who become pregnant via in vitro fertilization are surrogate mothers. Surrogacy involves both
2132-567: Is also practiced in Malawi. After marriage, wives have very limited rights and freedoms; and general preparation of young girls for marriage consists in describing their role as that of being subordinated to the husband. Forced marriage in Mauritania takes three principal forms: forced marriage to a cousin (known as maslaha ); forced marriage to a rich man for the purpose of financial gain; and forced polygamous marriage to an influential man. In 2018,
2214-455: Is an amount of money or property or wealth paid by the groom (or his family) to the parents of the bride upon marriage. Marriage by abduction, also known as bride kidnapping, is a practice in which a man abducts the woman he wishes to marry. Marriage by abduction has been practiced throughout history around the world and continues to occur in some countries today, particularly in Central Asia ,
2296-428: Is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English) than fathers. Since the 1970s, in vitro fertilization has made pregnancy possible at ages well beyond "natural" limits, generating ethical controversy and forcing significant changes in the social meaning of motherhood. This is, however, a position highly biased by Western world locality: outside
2378-526: Is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes". About 56% of maternal deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa and another 29% in South Asia . In 2006, the organization Save
2460-424: Is from Middle English moder, from Old English mōdor, from Proto-Germanic *mōdēr (cf. East Frisian muur, Dutch moeder, German Mutter), from Proto-Indo-European *méh₂tēr (cf. Irish máthair, Tocharian A mācar, B mācer, Lithuanian mótė). Other cognates include Latin māter, Greek μήτηρ, Common Slavic *mati (thence Russian мать (mat')), Persian مادر (madar), and Sanskrit मातृ (mātṛ). In zoology , particularly in mammals ,
2542-489: Is however often difficult to draw, due to the implied familial and social pressure to accept the marriage and obey one's parents in all respects. The rejection of an offer to marry was sometimes seen as a humiliation of the prospective groom and his family. In Europe, during the late 18th century and early 19th century, the literary and intellectual movement of romanticism presented new and progressive ideas about love marriage , which started to gain acceptance in society. In
Mom (disambiguation) - Misplaced Pages Continue
2624-401: Is sometimes referred to as a mother-figure . Biological motherhood for humans , as in other mammals , occurs when a pregnant female gestates a fertilized ovum (the "egg"). A female can become pregnant through sexual intercourse after she has begun to ovulate . In well-nourished girls, menarche (the first menstrual period ) usually takes place around the age of 12 or 13. Typically,
2706-401: Is the female genetic contributor to the creation of the infant, through sexual intercourse or egg donation . A biological mother may have legal obligations to a child not raised by her, such as an obligation of monetary support. An adoptive mother is a female who has become the child's parent through the legal process of adoption . A putative mother is a female whose biological relationship to
2788-494: Is the state of not having children. Childlessness may have personal, social or political significance. Childlessness may be voluntary childlessness , which occurs by choice, or may be involuntary due to health problems or social circumstances. Motherhood is usually voluntary, but may also be the result of forced pregnancy , such as pregnancy from rape . Unwanted motherhood occurs especially in cultures which practice forced marriage and child marriage . Mother can often apply to
2870-729: Is through adopting, foster parenting or in vitro fertilization. Transgender women may have biological children with a partner by utilizing their sperm to fertilize an egg and form an embryo. For transgender women, there is currently no accessible way to carry a child. However, research is being done on uterus transplants , which could potentially allow transgender women to carry and give birth to children through Caesarean section . Other types of motherhood include adoption or foster parenting. However, adoption agencies often refuse to work with transgender parents or are reluctant to do so. The social roles associated with motherhood are variable across time, culture, and social class. Historically,
2952-520: The Caucasus and parts of Africa . A girl or a woman is kidnapped by the groom-to-be, who is often helped by his friends. The victim is often raped by the groom-to-be, for her to lose her virginity , so that the man is able to negotiate a bride price with the village elders to legitimize the marriage. The future bride then has no choice in most circumstances, but to accept: if the bride goes back to her family, she (and her family) will often be ostracized by
3034-510: The Democratic Republic of the Congo . Historically, this was common throughout the world, with women from the communities of the war enemy being considered "spoils of war", who could be kidnapped, raped and forced into marriage or sexual slavery". Because women were regarded as property, it seemed reasonable to see them as the chattel of the war enemy, which could now be appropriated and used by
3116-697: The Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal . The girls who are involved in this practice are frequently under-aged, including some as young as eight. The practice received negative publicity, with media reporting in 2009 that more than 20 Eastern Cape girls are forced to drop out of school every month because of ukuthwala. In Tanzania, the practices of forced marriage and child marriage impacts the human rights and childhood of girls. Families sell their girls to older men for financial benefits, causing pain among young girls. Oftentimes, girls are married off as soon as they hit puberty, which can be as young as seven years old. To
3198-516: The Virgin Mary , an archetypal mother and a key historical basis for depictions of mothers in western art from the European Renaissance onwards. Mothers depicted in dominant art works are also primarily white, heterosexual, middle class and young or attractive. These ideals of motherhood have been challenged by artists with lived experience as mothers. An example in western contemporary art
3280-439: The freedom and autonomy of individuals. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that a person's right to choose a spouse and enter freely into marriage is central to their life and dignity , and their equality as a human being. The Roman Catholic Church deems forced marriage grounds for granting an annulment —for a marriage to be valid both parties must give their consent freely. The Supplementary Convention on
3362-526: The large scale abduction of women , ( kidnapping ) either for marriage or enslavement (particularly sexual slavery ). The practice is surmised to have been common since anthropological antiquity. In the 21st century, forced marriages have come to attention in European countries, within the context of immigration from cultures in which they are common. The Istanbul Convention prohibits forced marriages (see Article 37). The 1956 Supplementary Convention on
Mom (disambiguation) - Misplaced Pages Continue
3444-485: The "institution of motherhood" rather than diverse lived experiences. At the same time, art concerning motherhood has been historically marginalized within the feminist art movement , though this is changing with an increasing number of feminist publications addressing this topic. The institution of motherhood in western art is often depicted through "the myth of the all-loving, all-forgiving and all-sacrificing mother" and related ideals. Examples include works featuring
3526-514: The 19th century, marriage practices varied across Europe, but in general, arranged marriages were more common among the upper class. Arranged marriages were the norm in Russia before early 20th century, most of which were endogamous . Child marriages were common historically, but began to be questioned in the 19th and 20th centuries. Child marriages are often considered to be forced marriages, because children (especially young ones) are not able to make
3608-476: The 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations . In recent decades, international adoptions have become more and more common. Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries). In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the US accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide. A surrogate mother
3690-594: The Abolition of Slavery also prohibits marriage without right to refusal by both parties and requires a minimum age for marriage to prevent this. Similarly, the International Labour Organization recognizes forced marriage as a form of modern slavery. In 2009, the Special Court for Sierra Leone 's (SCSL) Appeals Chamber found the abduction and confinement of women for "forced marriage" in war to be
3772-556: The Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery defines "institutions and practices similar to slavery" to include: c) Any institution or practice whereby: The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence , also known as the Istanbul Convention, states: Article 32 – Civil consequences of forced marriages Parties shall take
3854-456: The Children has ranked the countries of the world, and found that Scandinavian countries are the safest places to give birth, whereas countries in sub-Saharan Africa are the least safe to give birth. This study argues a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is over 750 times more likely to die in pregnancy or childbirth , compared to a mother in the top ten ranked countries, and a mother in
3936-481: The Netherlands, and France and the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970, it was only in 1985 that a legal reform abolished the stipulation that the husband had the sole power to administer the children's property. An arranged marriage is not the same as a forced marriage: in the former, the spouse can reject the offer; in the latter, they do not. The line between arranged and forced marriage
4018-463: The Western world, in-vitro fertilization has far less prominence, importance or currency compared to primary, basic healthcare, women's basic health, reducing infant mortality and the prevention of life-threatening diseases such as polio , typhus and malaria . Traditionally, and still in most parts of the world today, a mother was expected to be a married woman, with birth outside of marriage carrying
4100-560: The black female body and of maternity and slavery in the US, the latter of which is often characterized by the "extreme passivity and devalued love" typically associated with motherhood. The proverbial "first word" of an infant often sounds like "ma" or "mama". This strong association of that sound with "mother" has persisted in nearly every language on earth, countering the natural localization of language. Familiar or colloquial terms for mother in English are: In many other languages, similar pronunciations apply: The modern English word
4182-459: The bottom ten ranked countries is 28 times more likely to see her child die before reaching their first birthday. The most recent data suggests that Italy , Sweden and Luxembourg are the safest countries in terms of maternal death and Afghanistan , Central African Republic and Malawi are the most dangerous. Childbirth can be a dangerous process in the absence of effective measures to reduce death. When none of these measure are taken,
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#17328762890054264-510: The case of stillbirth , do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infant's immune system , and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of age. Childlessness
4346-400: The community because the community thinks she has lost her virginity, and she is now 'impure'. A different form of marital kidnapping, groom kidnapping , occurs in some areas where payment of a dowry is generally expected. Money marriage refers to a marriage where a girl, usually, is married off to a man to settle debts owed by her parents. A forced marriage is also often the result of
4428-577: The enjoyment of human rights, such as the right to education, [and] the right to the highest attainable standard of health including sexual and reproductive health", and also states that "the elimination of child, early and forced marriage should be considered in the discussion of the post-2015 development agenda." The elimination of this harmful practice is one of the targets of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 . Arranged marriages were very common throughout
4510-612: The existing Virgin Mary archetype while subverting its norms around sexuality by centering her identity as a lesbian. Rather than attempting to make her experience of motherhood fit into existing norms, Opie's photographs are "non-traditional and non-apologetic representations". In her 2020 photography collection, Solana Cain explored the meaning of joy for Black mothers to challenge the lack of images in mainstream media that represent Black motherhood. Renee Cox's Yo Mama series of nude self-portraits challenge historical representations of both
4592-443: The family or community, including honor killings . The term "shotgun wedding" is an American colloquialism , though it is also used in other parts of the world. It is based on a hyperbolic scenario in which the pregnant (or sometimes only "deflowered") woman's father resorts to coercion (such as threatening with a shotgun ) to ensure that the male partner who caused the pregnancy goes through with it, sometimes even following
4674-455: The food crisis, girls are being sold into marriage. Balkissa Chaibou [ ca ; es ; eu ; he ] is known as one of the most famous activists against forced marriage in Niger. Chaibou was 12 when she was informed by her own mother that she was to be married to her cousin, and when she was 16, she took to the courts. With little success, Chaibou was forced to a women's shelter before she
4756-815: The ideal of maternal self-sacrifice and the 'good mother' forms an important part of many works of art relating to the Holocaust , other women's Holocaust and post-Holocaust art has engaged more deeply with mothers' trauma, taboos, and the experiences of second and third-generation Holocaust survivors. For example, works by first-generation survivors of the Holocaust such as Ella Liebermann-Shiber and Shoshana Neuman have depicted mothers abandoning and suffocating their children in an effort to stay alive themselves. Increasingly diverse representations of motherhood can be found in contemporary works of art. Catherine Opie's self-portrait photographs, including of herself nursing, reference
4838-455: The man to the altar to prevent his escape. The use of violent coercion to marry was never legal in the United States , although many anecdotal stories and folk songs record instances of such intimidation in the 18th and 19th centuries. Purposes of the wedding include recourse from the man for the act of impregnation and to ensure that the child is raised by both parents as well as to ensure that
4920-435: The marriage they will be " cursed ". In some cases, the husband is much older than his bride, and when she becomes a widow, she is discriminated and excluded by society. According to Human Rights Watch, Malawi has "widespread child and forced marriage" and half of the girls marry before 18. The practice of bride price, known also as lobolo , is common in Malawi, and plays a major role in forced marriage. Wife inheritance
5002-513: The marriage, or to punish a refusal (in extreme cases women and girls who do not accept the marriage are subjected to honor killings ). Depending by jurisdiction, a forced marriage may or may not be void or voidable . Victims may be able to seek redress through annulment or divorce . In England and Wales , the Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 stipulates that a forced marriage is voidable. In some jurisdictions, people who had coerced
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#17328762890055084-738: The maternal death rate has been estimated as being within the order of magnitude of 1,500 deaths per 100,000 births. Modern medicine has greatly alleviated the risk of childbirth. In modern Western countries the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per 100,000 births. Nearly all world religions define tasks or roles for mothers through either religious law or through the glorification of mothers who served in substantial religious events. There are many examples of religious law relating to mothers and women. Major world religions which have specific religious law or religious texts that comment on mothers include: Christianity , Judaism , and Islam . Some examples of honoring motherhood include
5166-591: The mid-20th century, many Western countries had enacted legislation establishing legal equality between spouses in family law . The period of 1975–1979 saw a major overhaul of family laws in countries such as Italy, Spain, Austria, West Germany, and Portugal. In 1978, the Council of Europe passed the Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law . Among the last European countries to establish full gender equality in marriage were Switzerland, Greece, Spain,
5248-558: The necessary legislative or other measures to ensure that marriages concluded under force may be voidable, annulled or dissolved without undue financial or administrative burden placed on the victim. Article 37 – Forced marriage There are numerous factors which can lead to a culture which accepts and encourages forced marriages. Reasons for performing forced marriages include: strengthening extended family links; controlling unwanted behavior and sexuality; preventing 'unsuitable' relationships; protecting and abiding by cultural values; keeping
5330-511: The number of children born per woman, differs greatly from country to country. The TFR in 2013 was estimated to be highest in Niger (7.03 children born per woman) and lowest in Singapore (0.79 children/woman). In the United States , the TFR was estimated for 2013 at 2.06 births per woman. In 2011, the average age at first birth was 25.6 and 40.7% of births were to unmarried women. A maternal death
5412-480: The older men, these young brides act as symbols of masculinity and accomplishment. Child brides endure forced sex, causing health risks and growth impediments. Primary education is usually not completed for young girls in forced marriages. Married and pregnant students are often discriminated against, and expelled and excluded from school. The Law of Marriage Act currently does not address issues with guardianship and child marriage. The issue of child marriage establishes
5494-523: The perceived need for such measures. Early and forced marriages can contribute to girls being placed in a cycle of poverty and powerlessness. Most are likely to experience mistreatment such as violence, abuse and forced sexual relations. This means that women who marry younger in age are more likely to be dominated by their husbands. They also experience poor sexual and reproductive health. Young married girls are more likely to contract HIV and their health could be in jeopardy. Most people who are forced into
5576-561: The power to initiate a marriage contract on behalf of a child before puberty, but once the child attains puberty he or she can accept or reject the marriage. The marriage contract can be annulled on grounds of coercion. However, in the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, a guardian is not needed to make the marriage valid. Forced marriage is prevalent in Madagascar . Girls are married off by their families, and often led to believe that if they refuse
5658-708: The primary role in raising children, but since the late 20th century, the role of the father in child care has been given greater prominence and social acceptance in some Western countries. The 20th century also saw more and more women entering paid work. Mothers' rights within the workforce include maternity leave and parental leave . The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children. Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their children's contributions in conversation. The way mothers speak to their children ( "motherese" )
5740-549: The relation between mothers and children. At the end of the nineteenth century, Mary Cassatt was a painter well known for her portraits of mothers. American poet, essayist and feminist Adrienne Rich has noted "the disjuncture between motherhood as patriarchal institution and motherhood as complexly and variously lived experience". The vast majority of works depicting motherhood in western art history have been created by artists who are men, with very few having been created by women or mothers themselves, and these often focus on
5822-427: The role of women was confined to some extent to being a mother and wife, with women being expected to dedicate most of their energy to these roles, and to spend most of their time taking care of the home. In many cultures, women received significant help in performing these tasks from older female relatives, such as mothers in law or their own mothers. Regarding women in the workforce , mothers are said to often follow
5904-400: The term "forced marriage" because it invokes the consensual legitimating language of marriage (such as husband/wife) for an experience that is precisely the opposite. A variety of alternative terms have been proposed, including "forced conjugal association" and "conjugal slavery". The United Nations views forced marriage as a form of human rights abuse , since it violates the principle of
5986-419: The time and place the marriage would occur. Often, the marriage ceremony would be the first time the future spouses would meet. Parents and other family members were not allowed to participate in selecting the spouse or to attend the marriage ceremony. The Khmer Rouge maintained that parental authority was unnecessary because it "w[as] to be everyone's 'mother and father.'" Raptio is a Latin term referring to
6068-800: The veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary as Mother of God and the multiple positive references to active womanhood as a mother in the Book of Proverbs . Hindu 's Mother Goddess and Demeter of ancient Greek pre-Christian belief are also mothers. History records many conflicts between mothers and their children. Some even resulted in murder , such as the conflict between Cleopatra III of Egypt and her son Ptolemy X . In modern cultures, matricide (the killing of one's mother) and filicide (the killing of one's son or daughter) have been studied but remain poorly understood. Psychosis and schizophrenia are common causes of both, and young, indigent mothers with
6150-426: The victim into marriage may face criminal charges. In Islamic law, consent is needed for a valid marriage. Islamic marriage is concluded (but not excluding the bride) between the guardian ( wali ) of the bride and bridegroom, not between bridegroom and bride but her permission is still necessary and her wali, guardian, merely represents her. The guardian (wali) of the bride can only be a free Muslim . The wali has
6232-445: The wealth in the extended family; dealing with the consequences of pregnancy out of wedlock; considering the contracting of a marriage as the duty of the parents; obtaining a guarantee against poverty; aiding immigration. The traditional customs of dowry and bride price contribute to the practice of forced marriage. A dowry is the property or money that a wife (or wife's family) brings to her husband upon marriage. A bride price
6314-408: The winner. A shotgun wedding is a form of forced marriage occasioned by an unplanned pregnancy . Some religions and cultures consider it a moral imperative to marry in such a situation, based on reasoning that premarital sex or out-of-wedlock births are sinful, not sanctioned by law, or otherwise stigmatized. Giving birth outside marriage can, in some cultures, trigger extreme reactions from
6396-506: The woman has material means of support. In some cases, a major objective was the restoring of social honor to the mother. Shotgun weddings have become less common as the stigma associated with out-of-wedlock births has gradually faded and the number of such births has increased; the increasing availability of birth control , sex education and abortion , as well as material support to unwed mothers, such as Elterngeld , child benefits , parental leave , and free kindergartens have reduced
6478-424: The world until the 18th century. Typically, marriages were arranged by parents, grandparents or other relatives. The actual practices varied by culture, but usually involved the legal transfer of dependency of the woman from her father to the groom. The movement towards the emancipation of women in the 19th and 20th centuries led to major changes to marriage laws , especially regarding property and economic status. By
6560-678: The world. For instance, in parts of Africa, one of the main obstacles for leaving the marriage is the bride price . Once the bride price has been paid, the girl is seen as belonging to the husband and his family. If she wants to leave, the husband may demand back the bride price that he had paid to the girl's family. The girl's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back. Some countries also have Male Guardianship requirements, prohibiting women from paying themselves out, but in other countries it has happened multiple times. British citizens escaping forced marriage abroad are forced to pay their repatriation costs or get into debt. This makes escaping
6642-522: Was also practiced by authoritarian governments as a way to meet population targets. The Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia systematically forced people into marriages, to increase the population and continue the revolution. These marriage ceremonies consisted of no fewer than three couples and could be as large as 160 couples. Generally, the village chief or a senior leader of the community would approach both parties and inform them that they were to be married and
6724-539: Was finally able to go home where she learned of her parents changed views on forced marriage, that they were now against it. The "Sexual Intercourse Related Crimes Bill" proposed in August 2020 in Somalia would allow both child marriage and forced marriage. The new bill "risks legitimizing child marriage, among other alarming practices," U.N. human rights chief Michelle Bachelet said. Thousands of people in Somalia circulated
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