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126-516: On 11 June 2007, a MICA launched from a Rafale successfully demonstrated its over-the-shoulder capability by destroying a target behind the launch aircraft. The target was designated by another aircraft and coordinates were transmitted via Link 16 . There are two MICA variants; MICA RF has an active radar homing seeker and MICA IR has an imaging infra-red homing seeker. Both seekers are designed to filter out counter-measures such as chaff and decoy flares . A thrust vector control unit fitted to

252-403: A hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS)-compatible configuration, with a right-handed side-stick controller and a left-handed throttle. The seat is inclined rearwards at an angle of 29° to improve g-force tolerance during manoeuvring and to provide a less restricted external pilot view. Great emphasis has been placed on pilot workload minimisation across all operations. Among the features of

378-414: A passive electronically scanned array (PESA), in which all the antenna elements are connected to a single transmitter and/or receiver through phase shifters under the control of the computer. AESA's main use is in radar , and these are known as active phased array radar (APAR). The AESA is a more advanced, sophisticated, second-generation of the original PESA phased array technology. PESAs can only emit

504-583: A built-in ladder, carrier-based microwave landing system , and the new fin-tip Telemir system for syncing the inertial navigation system to external equipment. Altogether, the naval modifications of the Rafale M increase its weight by 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) compared to other variants. The Rafale M retains about 95 percent commonality with Air Force variants including, although unusual for carrier-based aircraft, being unable to fold its multi-spar wings to reduce storage space. The size constraints were offset by

630-446: A central collimated display. These displays have been strategically placed to minimise pilot distraction from the external environment. Some displays feature a touch interface for ease of human–computer interaction (HCI). A head-mounted display (HMD) remains to be integrated to take full advantage of its MICA missiles. The cockpit is fully compatible with night vision goggles (NVG). The primary flight controls are arranged in

756-421: A common request for proposal. In 1975, the country's Ministry of Aviation initiated studies for a new aircraft to complement the upcoming and smaller Dassault Mirage 2000 , with each aircraft optimized for differing roles. The Rafale aircraft development programme was the end product of efforts by various European countries for a common fighter aircraft. In 1979, Dassault-Breguet (later Dassault Aviation) joined

882-604: A hybrid approach, the benefits of AESA (e.g., multiple independent beams) can be realized at a lower cost compared to pure AESA. Bell Labs proposed replacing the Nike Zeus radars with a phased array system in 1960, and was given the go-ahead for development in June 1961. The result was the Zeus Multi-function Array Radar (ZMAR), an early example of an active electronically steered array radar system. ZMAR became MAR when

1008-501: A joint venture between Thales and MBDA . Various methods of detection, jamming , and decoying have been incorporated, and the system has been designed to be highly reprogrammable for addressing new threats and incorporating additional sub-systems in the future. Operations over Libya were greatly assisted by SPECTRA, allowing Rafales to perform missions independently from the support of dedicated Suppression of Enemy Air Defences (SEAD) platforms. The Rafale's ground attack capability

1134-400: A lead role, with the commensurate technical and industrial primacy, whereas the other countries were accepting of a more egalitarian programme structure. There was little common ground between France and the other members of this project, but by 1983, the five countries had agreed on a European Staff Target for a future fighter. Nevertheless, differences persisted, and so France withdrew from

1260-639: A month of shore based training at Naval Air Station Oceana . In April 2005, the Air Force received its first three F2 standard Rafale Bs at the Centre d'Expériences Aériennes Militaires (CEAM, i.e. the Military Air Experiment Centre) at Mont-de-Marsan , where they were tasked to undertake operational evaluation and pilot conversion training. By this time, it was expected that Escadron de Chasse (Fighter Squadron) 1/7 at Saint-Dizier would receive

1386-491: A much simpler radar whose primary purpose was to track the outgoing Sprint missiles before they became visible to the potentially distant MAR. These smaller Missile Site Radars (MSR) were passively scanned, forming only a single beam instead of the MAR's multiple beams. While MAR was ultimately successful, the cost of the system was enormous. When the ABM problem became so complex that even

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1512-441: A much wider range of frequencies, to the point of changing operating frequency with every pulse sent out. Shrinking the entire assembly (the transmitter, receiver and antenna) into a single "transmitter-receiver module" (TRM) about the size of a carton of milk and arraying these elements produces an AESA. The primary advantage of an AESA over a PESA is the capability of the different modules to operate on different frequencies. Unlike

1638-420: A narrow range of frequencies to high power levels. To scan a portion of the sky, the radar antenna must be physically moved to point in different directions. Starting in the 1960s new solid-state devices capable of delaying the transmitter signal in a controlled way were introduced. That led to the first practical large-scale passive electronically scanned array (PESA), or simply phased array radar. PESAs took

1764-448: A non-polluting combustion chamber, single-crystal turbine blades, powder metallurgy disks, and technology to reduce radar and infrared signatures. The M88 enables the Rafale to supercruise while carrying four missiles and one drop tank. Qualification of the M88-2 engine ended in 1996 and the first production engine was delivered by the end of the year. Due to delays in engine production,

1890-433: A nucleus of 8–10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006, in preparation for full operational service (with robust air-to-air and stand off air-to-ground precision attack capabilities) starting from mid-2007 (when EC 1/7 would have about 20 aircraft, 15 two-seaters and five single-seaters). Active electronically scanned array An active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) is a type of phased array antenna, which

2016-527: A platform for testing of weapons and fire-control systems, including the RBE2 radar and the SPECTRA electronic warfare suite. The first of two Rafale M ( maritime , "naval") prototypes, M01, made its maiden flight on 12 December 1991, followed by the second on 8 November 1993. These aircraft differed from the air force variants in having reinforced structure to allow the aircraft to operate aboard ships, and provision for

2142-456: A rotating antenna, or similar passive array using phase or amplitude comparison . Typically RWRs store the detected pulses for a short period of time, and compare their broadcast frequency and pulse repetition frequency against a database of known radars. The direction to the source is normally combined with symbology indicating the likely purpose of the radar – airborne early warning and control , surface-to-air missile , etc. This technique

2268-451: A signal and then listening for its echo off distant objects. Each of these paths, to and from the target, is subject to the inverse square law of propagation in both the transmitted signal and the signal reflected back. That means that a radar's received energy drops with the fourth power of the distance, which is why radar systems require high powers, often in the megawatt range, to be effective at long range. The radar signal being sent out

2394-415: A signal from a single source, split it into hundreds of paths, selectively delayed some of them, and sent them to individual antennas. The radio signals from the separate antennas overlapped in space, and the interference patterns between the individual signals were controlled to reinforce the signal in certain directions, and mute it in all others. The delays could be easily controlled electronically, allowing

2520-668: A single beam of radio waves at a single frequency at a time. The PESA must utilize a Butler matrix if multiple beams are required. The AESA can radiate multiple beams of radio waves at multiple frequencies simultaneously. AESA radars can spread their signal emissions across a wider range of frequencies, which makes them more difficult to detect over background noise , allowing ships and aircraft to radiate powerful radar signals while still remaining stealthy, as well as being more resistant to jamming. Hybrids of AESA and PESA can also be found, consisting of subarrays that individually resemble PESAs, where each subarray has its own RF front end . Using

2646-618: A system like MAR could no longer deal with realistic attack scenarios, the Nike-X concept was abandoned in favor of much simpler concepts like the Sentinel program , which did not use MAR. A second example, MAR-II, was abandoned in-place on Kwajalein Atoll . The first Soviet APAR, the 5N65 , was developed in 1963–1965 as a part of the S-225 ABM system. After some modifications in the system concept in 1967 it

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2772-563: A tail hook and an in-built ladder, which increased the weight of the Rafale M by 500 kg (1,100 lb) over other production variants. Since France has no land-based catapult test facility, catapult trials were carried out in mid-1992 and early 1993 at the United States Navy facility at NAS Lakehurst , New Jersey . The aircraft then carried out shipboard trials aboard Foch in April 1993. The aircraft conducted landings and launches from

2898-419: A wide band even in a single pulse, a technique known as a "chirp". In this case, the jamming will be the same frequency as the radar for only a short period, while the rest of the radar pulse is unjammed. AESAs can also be switched to a receive-only mode, and use these powerful jamming signals to track its source, something that required a separate receiver in older platforms. By integrating received signals from

3024-576: A wide range of weapons, the Rafale is intended to perform air supremacy , interdiction , aerial reconnaissance , ground support , in-depth strike, anti-ship strike and nuclear deterrence missions. It is referred to as an "omnirole" 4.5th generation aircraft by Dassault. In the late 1970s, the French Air Force and French Navy sought to replace and consolidate their existing fleets of aircraft. In order to reduce development costs and boost prospective sales, France entered into an arrangement with

3150-456: A wider angle of total coverage. This high off-nose pointing allows the AESA equipped fighter to employ a crossing the T maneuver, often referred to as "beaming" in the context of air-to-air combat, against a mechanically scanned radar that would filter out the low closing speed of the perpendicular flight as ground clutter while the AESA swivels 40 degrees towards the target in order to keep it within

3276-401: Is a computer-controlled antenna array in which the beam of radio waves can be electronically steered to point in different directions without moving the antenna. In the AESA, each antenna element is connected to a small solid-state transmit/receive module (TRM) under the control of a computer, which performs the functions of a transmitter and/or receiver for the antenna. This contrasts with

3402-411: Is a simple radio signal, and can be received with a simple radio receiver . Military aircraft and ships have defensive receivers, called " radar warning receivers " (RWR), which detect when an enemy radar beam is on them, thus revealing the position of the enemy. Unlike the radar unit, which must send the pulse out and then receive its reflection, the target's receiver does not need the reflection and thus

3528-399: Is available in a ground-based version, VL MICA , fired from a truck-mounted box launcher, and a naval version, VL MICA-M , fired from a ship-fitted vertical launch system. On October 23, 2008, 15:30, at CELM, Biscarosse ( Landes ), a VL MICA missile successfully performed the last of its 14 test firings meaning it is now ready for mass production. The target drone was flying at low level, over

3654-567: Is capable of withstanding from −3.6 g to 9 g (10.5 g on Rafale solo display and a maximum of 11 g can be reached in case of emergency ). The Rafale is an aerodynamically unstable aircraft and uses digital fly-by-wire flight controls to artificially enforce and maintain stability. The aircraft's canards also act to reduce the minimum landing speed to 115 knots (213 km/h; 132 mph); while in flight, airspeeds as low as 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph) have been observed during training missions. According to simulations by Dassault,

3780-417: Is common on ships, for instance. Unlike the radar, which knows which direction it is sending its signal, the receiver simply gets a pulse of energy and has to interpret it. Since the radio spectrum is filled with noise, the receiver's signal is integrated over a short period of time, making periodic sources like a radar add up and stand out over the random background. The rough direction can be calculated using

3906-535: Is deliberately not employed for safety-critical elements of the aircraft's operation, such as the final release of weapons. In the area of life support , the Rafale is fitted with a Martin-Baker Mark 16F "zero-zero" ejection seat , capable of operation at zero speed and zero altitude. An on-board oxygen generating system , developed by Air Liquide , eliminates the need to carry bulky oxygen canisters. The Rafale's flight computer has been programmed to counteract pilot disorientation and to employ automatic recovery of

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4032-413: Is heavily reliant upon sensory targeting pods, such as Thales Optronics 's Reco New Generation/Areos reconnaissance pod and Damocles electro-optical/laser designation pod . Together, these systems provide targeting information, enable tactical reconnaissance missions, and are integrated with the Rafale's IMA architecture to provide analysed data feeds to friendly units and ground stations, as well as to

4158-456: Is inconceivable that we should not be able to build the weapons necessary for our independence". France had earlier entered unsuccessful talks with Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway, about the possible collaboration on the project. To meet the various roles expected of the new aircraft, the Air Force required two variants: the single-seat Rafale C ( chasseur , meaning "fighter") and

4284-454: Is much less useful against a radar with a frequency-agile (solid state) transmitter. Since the AESA (or PESA) can change its frequency with every pulse (except when using doppler filtering), and generally does so using a random sequence, integrating over time does not help pull the signal out of the background noise. Moreover, a radar may be designed to extend the duration of the pulse and lower its peak power. An AESA or modern PESA will often have

4410-506: Is significantly degraded at those ranges. From 0 to 7 km MICA has maneuverability of 50g, however by 12 km this is reduced to 30g as energy is lost. [REDACTED]   Armenia Rafale The Dassault Rafale ( French pronunciation: [ʁafal] , literally meaning "gust of wind", or "burst of fire" in a more military sense) is a French twin-engine , canard delta wing , multirole fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation . Equipped with

4536-434: Is then disconnected and the antenna is connected to a sensitive receiver which amplifies any echos from target objects. By measuring the time it takes for the signal to return, the radar receiver can determine the distance to the object. The receiver then sends the resulting output to a display of some sort . The transmitter elements were typically klystron tubes or magnetrons , which are suitable for amplifying or generating

4662-423: Is typically outfitted with 14 hardpoints (only 13 on Rafale M version), five of which are suitable for heavy armament or equipment such as auxiliary fuel tanks, and has a maximum external load capacity of nine tons. In addition to the above equipment, the Rafale carries the 30 mm GIAT 30 revolver cannon and can be outfitted with a range of laser-guided bombs and ground-attack munitions. According to Dassault,

4788-442: Is used. Target motion analysis can estimate these quantities by incorporating many directional measurements over time, along with knowledge of the position of the receiver and constraints on the possible motion of the target. Since each element in an AESA is a powerful radio receiver, active arrays have many roles besides traditional radar. One use is to dedicate several of the elements to reception of common radar signals, eliminating

4914-406: Is why AESAs are also known as low probability of intercept radars . Modern RWRs must be made highly sensitive (small angles and bandwidths for individual antennas, low transmission loss and noise) and add successive pulses through time-frequency processing to achieve useful detection rates. Jamming is likewise much more difficult against an AESA. Traditionally, jammers have operated by determining

5040-691: The Gulf of Oman , where its complement of Rafales undertook training operations. In June 2002, while Charles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea, Rafales conducted several patrols near the India-Pakistan border. In 2016, Rafales operating from Charles de Gaulle struck targets associated with the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (IS). In December 2015, American and French military officials reportedly discussed

5166-500: The MBB / BAe "European Collaborative Fighter" project which was renamed the "European Combat Aircraft" (ECA). The company contributed the aerodynamic layout of a prospective twin-engine, single-seat fighter; however, the project collapsed in 1981 due to differing operational requirements of each partner country. In 1983, the "Future European Fighter Aircraft" (FEFA) programme was initiated, bringing together France, Italy, Spain, West Germany and

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5292-576: The MICA at beyond visual range distances; it can also be used for detecting and identifying airborne targets, as well as those on the ground and at sea. Dassault describes the OSF as being immune to jamming and capable of providing covert long-range surveillance. In 2012, an improved version of the OSF was deployed operationally. Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to the F1 ("France 1") standard, which were equipped for

5418-487: The 'building blocks' of an AESA radar. The requisite electronics technology was developed in-house via Department of Defense research programs such as MMIC Program. In 2016 the Congress funded a military industry competition to produce new radars for two dozen National Guard fighter aircraft. Radar systems generally work by connecting an antenna to a powerful radio transmitter to emit a short pulse of signal. The transmitter

5544-444: The 1960s, followed by airborne sensors as the electronics shrank. AESAs are the result of further developments in solid-state electronics. In earlier systems the transmitted signal was originally created in a klystron or traveling wave tube or similar device, which are relatively large. Receiver electronics were also large due to the high frequencies that they worked with. The introduction of gallium arsenide microelectronics through

5670-448: The 1980s served to greatly reduce the size of the receiver elements until effective ones could be built at sizes similar to those of handheld radios, only a few cubic centimeters in volume. The introduction of JFETs and MESFETs did the same to the transmitter side of the systems as well. It gave rise to amplifier-transmitters with a low-power solid-state waveform generator feeding an amplifier, allowing any radar so equipped to transmit on

5796-461: The AESA system of a Raptor to act like a WiFi access point, able to transmit data at 548 megabits per second and receive at gigabit speed; this is far faster than the Link 16 system used by US and allied aircraft, which transfers data at just over 1 Mbit/s. To achieve these high data rates requires a highly directional antenna which AESA provides but which precludes reception by other units not within

5922-517: The AESA's 60 degree off-angle limit. With a half wavelength distance between the elements, the maximum beam angle is approximately ± 45 {\displaystyle \pm 45} °. With a shorter element distance, the highest field of view (FOV) for a flat phased array antenna is currently 120° ( ± 60 {\displaystyle \pm 60} °), although this can be combined with mechanical steering as noted above. The first AESA radar employed on an operational warship

6048-477: The AM39 Exocet sea skimming missile, while reconnaissance flights would use a combination of onboard and external pod-based sensor equipment. Furthermore, the aircraft could conduct nuclear strikes when armed with ASMP-A missiles. In 2010, France ordered 200 MBDA Meteor beyond-visual-range missiles which greatly increases the distance at which the Rafale can engage aerial targets. The F4 standard program

6174-562: The Areos reconnaissance pod, and it has been reported that all aircraft built to the earlier F1 and F2 standards are to be upgraded to become F3s. F3 standard Rafales are capable of undertaking many different mission roles with a range of equipment, namely air defence/superiority missions with Mica IR and EM air-to-air missiles, and precision ground attacks typically using SCALP EG cruise missiles and AASM Hammer air-to-surface missiles. In addition, anti-shipping missions could be carried out using

6300-1012: The French Navy. It has been marketed for export to several countries, and was selected for purchase by the Egyptian Air Force , the Indian Air Force , the Indian Navy , the Qatar Air Force , the Hellenic Air Force , the Croatian Air Force , the Indonesian Air Force , the United Arab Emirates Air Force and the Serbian Air Force . The Rafale is considered one of the most advanced and capable warplanes in

6426-825: The French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180. The Rafale is manufactured almost entirely in France, except for some imported non-sensitive components. Different components are produced in various plants across the country, including the fuselage in Paris, wings in Martignas, and fins in Biarritz, with final assembly taking place in Merignac near Bordeaux. Dassault carries out 60% of

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6552-465: The IMA greatly assists combat operations via data fusion, the continuous integration and analysis of the various sensor systems throughout the aircraft, and has been designed for the incorporation of new systems and avionics throughout the Rafale's service life. The Rafale features an integrated defensive-aids system named SPECTRA , which protects the aircraft against airborne and ground threats, developed as

6678-494: The PESA, where the signal is generated at single frequencies by a small number of transmitters, in the AESA each module generates and radiates its own independent signal. This allows the AESA to produce numerous simultaneous "sub-beams" that it can recognize due to different frequencies, and actively track a much larger number of targets. AESAs can also produce beams that consist of many different frequencies at once, using post-processing of

6804-672: The Rafale A demonstrator was initially powered by the General Electric F404 engine. In May 2010, a Rafale flew for the first time with the M88-4E engine, an upgraded variant with lower maintenance requirements than the preceding M88-2. The engine is of a modular design for ease of construction and maintenance and to enable older engines to be retrofitted with improved subsections upon availability, such as existing M88-2s being upgraded to M88-4E standard. There has been interest in more powerful M88 engines by potential export customers, such as

6930-475: The Rafale A demonstrator. Although superficially similar to the heavier test vehicle, the aircraft was smaller, with a length of 15.3 m (50 ft) and a wingspan of 10.9 m (36 ft). It was less detectable by radar due to the canopy being gold-plated and the addition of radar-absorbent materials; Dassault had also removed the dedicated airbrake. The sole Rafale B two-seat preproduction aircraft, B01, made its first flight on 30 April 1993, and served as

7056-459: The Rafale B ( biplace , "two-seater"). Its first flight on 19 May 1991 occurred at the company's test facility in Istres. This signalled the start of a test programme which primarily aimed to test the M88-2 engines, man-machine interface and weapons, and expand the flight envelope . Due to budgetary constraints, the second single-seat prototype was never built. The aircraft differed significantly from

7182-453: The Rafale M was declared operational with the French Navy in June 2004. The Rafale M is fully compatible with United States Navy aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks. On 4 June 2010, during an exercise on USS  Harry S. Truman , a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its engine replaced on board an American aircraft carrier. In 2002,

7308-552: The Rafale after it was officially re-activated prior to the delivery of the sixth Rafale. Flottille 12F immediately participated in Trident d'Or aboard the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle with warships from ten other nations. During the maritime exercise , the Navy tested the Rafale's avionics during simulated interceptions with various foreign aircraft, in addition to carrier take-offs and landings. After almost four years of training,

7434-416: The Rafale has sufficient low speed performance to operate from STOBAR -configured aircraft carriers, and can take off using a ski-jump with no modifications. The Rafale M features a greatly reinforced undercarriage to cope with the additional stresses of naval landings, an arrestor hook , and "jump strut" nosewheel, which only extends during short takeoffs, including catapult launches. It also features

7560-447: The Rafale programme. Originally scheduled to enter service in 1996, the Rafale suffered significant delays due to post- Cold War budget cuts and changes in priorities. There are three main variants: Rafale C single-seat land-based version, Rafale B twin-seat land-based version, and Rafale M single-seat carrier-based version. Introduced in 2001, the Rafale is being produced for both the French Air Force and for carrier-based operations in

7686-581: The Rafale to launch miniaturised satellites . In January 2014, the defence ministry announced that funds had been allocated towards the development of the F3R standard. The standard includes the integration of the Meteor BVR missile, among other weapons and software updates. The standard was validated in 2018. Development work started on the F4 standard in 2019. The design received radar and sensor upgrades that facilitate

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7812-669: The Rafale's airframe , avionics , propulsion system and armament , the resultant aircraft was to replace a multitude of aircraft in the French Armed Forces . The Rafale would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of specialised platforms, including the Jaguar , Mirage F1C/CR/CT , Mirage 2000C/-5/ N in the French Air Force, and the F-8P Crusader , Étendard IVP/M and Super Étendard in French Naval Aviation. At

7938-499: The Rafale's onboard mission systems enable ground attack and air-to-air combat operations to be carried out within a single sortie, with many functions capable of simultaneous execution in conjunction with another, increasing survivability and versatility. The Rafale is fitted with two Snecma M88 engines, each capable of providing up to 50 kilonewtons (11,000 pounds-force) of dry thrust and 75 kN (17,000 lb f ) with afterburners. The engines feature several advances, including

8064-541: The Rafale's unit cost had significantly increased due to additional development work to improve the RBE2's detection range. The RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar now replaces the previous passively scanned RBE2. The RBE2 AA is reported to deliver a greater detection range of 200 km, improved reliability and reduced maintenance demands over the preceding radar. A Rafale demonstrator began test flights in 2002 and has totaled 100 flight hours as of December 2011 . By December 2009, production of

8190-483: The Rafale's visibility to threats remain classified. The Rafale's glass cockpit was designed around the principle of data fusion —a central computer selects and prioritises information to display to pilots for simpler command and control. For displaying information gathered from a range of sensors across the aircraft, the cockpit features a wide-angle holographic head-up display (HUD) system, two head-down flat-panel colour multi-function displays (MFDs) as well as

8316-557: The Rafale, and provides a significantly improved reconnaissance capability over preceding platforms. Areos has been designed to perform reconnaissance under various mission profiles and condition, using multiple day/night sensors and its own independent communications datalinks. The Rafale was first outfitted with the Thales RBE2 passive electronically scanned multi-mode radar . Thales claims to have achieved increased levels of situational awareness as compared to earlier aircraft through

8442-503: The Rafales were first deployed to a combat zone; seven Rafale Ms embarked aboard Charles de Gaulle of the French Navy during " Mission Héraclès ", the French participation in " Operation Enduring Freedom ". They flew from the aircraft carrier over Afghanistan, but the F1 standard precluded air-to-ground missions and the Rafale did not see any action. In March 2002, the aircraft carrier was stationed in

8568-524: The Sniper and LITENING pods; so work began on an upgraded pod, designated Damocles XF, with additional sensors and added ability to transmit live video feeds. A new Thales targeting pod, the Talios, was officially unveiled at the 2014 Farnborough Air Show and is expected to be integrated on the Rafale by 2018. Thales' Areos reconnaissance pod is an all-weather, night-and-day-capable reconnaissance system employed on

8694-572: The UK, Germany, Italy and Spain to produce an agile multi-purpose "Future European Fighter Aircraft" (which would become the Eurofighter Typhoon ). Subsequent disagreements over workshare and differing requirements led France to pursue its own development programme. Dassault built a technology demonstrator that first flew in July 1986 as part of an eight-year flight-test programme, paving the way for approval of

8820-605: The United Arab Emirates (UAE). As of 2007 , a thrust vectoring variant of the engine designated as M88-3D was also under development. In December 2000, the French Naval Aviation ( Aéronavale ), the air arm of the French Navy, received its first two Rafale M fighters. On 18 May the following year, the squadron Flottille 12F , which had previously operated the F-8 Crusader , became the first squadron to operate

8946-521: The United Kingdom to jointly develop a new fighter, although the latter three had their own aircraft developments. French officials envisioned a lightweight, multirole aircraft that—in addition to fulfilling both air force and naval roles —it was believed, would be attractive on the export fighter market. This was in contrast to the British requirement for a heavy long-range interceptor. France also demanded

9072-515: The Zeus program ended in favor of the Nike-X system in 1963. The MAR (Multi-function Array Radar) was made of a large number of small antennas, each one connected to a separate computer-controlled transmitter or receiver. Using a variety of beamforming and signal processing steps, a single MAR was able to perform long-distance detection, track generation, discrimination of warheads from decoys, and tracking of

9198-502: The air-to-air interceptor combat duties, but lacked any armament for air-to-ground operations. The F1 standard became operational in 2004. Later deliveries were to the "F2" standard, which added the capability for conducting air-to-ground operations; the first F2 standard Rafale M was delivered to the French Navy in May 2006. Starting in 2008 onwards, Rafale deliveries have been to the nuclear-capable F3 standard that also added reconnaissance with

9324-480: The aircraft during negative flight conditions. The auto-pilot and autothrottle controls are also integrated, and are activated by switches located on the primary flight controls. An intelligent flight suit worn by the pilot is automatically controlled by the aircraft to counteract in response to calculated g-forces. The Rafale core avionics systems employ an integrated modular avionics (IMA), called MDPU (modular data processing unit). This architecture hosts all

9450-417: The aircraft had been flown by Air Force, Navy and CEV test pilots. Its port-side F404 engine was replaced with the 72.9 kN (16,400 lbf) M88 in early 1990, and the aircraft flew under the updated powerplant configuration in May 1990. The aircraft thereafter attained a speed of Mach 1.4 without the use of engine reheat , thereby demonstrating supercruise. The Rafale A was used until January 1994, and

9576-575: The aircraft had two 68.8 kN (15,500 lbf) General Electric F404 engines that were then in service with the F/A-18 Hornet, pending the availability of the Snecma M88 turbofan engines . It was rolled out in December 1985 at Saint-Cloud , and on 4 July 1986, made its first flight from the company's Istres test facility in southern France, piloted by Guy Mitaux-Maurouard. During the one-hour flight,

9702-463: The aircraft reached an altitude of 11,000 m (36,000 ft) and a speed of Mach 1.3. The aircraft participated in the Farnborough air show the following month. The aircraft participated in an intensive flight test programme that saw it simulate air force and naval operations. The test vehicle flew approaches to the carrier Clemenceau , and also tested for coordination with Foch . By 1987,

9828-459: The aircraft's sensors and avionics, and to allow additional armament integration. In 2011, upgrades under consideration included a software radio and satellite link, a new laser-targeting pod, smaller bombs and enhancements to the aircraft's data-fusion capacity. In July 2012, fleetwide upgrades of the Rafale's battlefield communications and interoperability capabilities commenced. At one stage, French officials were reportedly considering equipping

9954-454: The antennas beamwidth, whereas like most Wi-Fi designs, Link-16 transmits its signal omni-directionally to ensure all units within range can receive the data. AESAs are also much more reliable than either PESAs or older designs. Since each module operates independently of the others, single failures have little effect on the operation of the system as a whole. Additionally, the modules individually operate at low powers, perhaps 40 to 60 watts, so

10080-592: The battle for the F/A-18s, I guess you could say that we had at least some success by 'persuading' the government to give us initial delivery priority". The first production Rafale B took its first flight on 24 November 1998, followed by the first Rafale M for the French Navy on 7 July 1999. The Rafale has been designed with an open software architecture that facilitates straightforward upgrades. Dassault and its industry partners have therefore undertaken continuous tests and development primarily aimed at progressively improving

10206-496: The beam to be steered very quickly without moving the antenna. A PESA can scan a volume of space much quicker than a traditional mechanical system. Additionally, thanks to progress in electronics, PESAs added the ability to produce several active beams, allowing them to continue scanning the sky while at the same time focusing smaller beams on certain targets for tracking or guiding semi-active radar homing missiles. PESAs quickly became widespread on ships and large fixed emplacements in

10332-429: The capability to alter these parameters during operation. This makes no difference to the total energy reflected by the target but makes the detection of the pulse by an RWR system less likely. Nor does the AESA have any sort of fixed pulse repetition frequency, which can also be varied and thus hide any periodic brightening across the entire spectrum. Older generation RWRs are essentially useless against AESA radars, which

10458-653: The combined signal from a number of TRMs to re-create a display as if there was a single powerful beam being sent. However, this means that the noise present in each frequency is also received and added. AESAs add many capabilities of their own to those of the PESAs. Among these are: the ability to form multiple beams simultaneously, to use groups of TRMs for different roles concurrently, like radar detection, and, more importantly, their multiple simultaneous beams and scanning frequencies create difficulties for traditional, correlation-type radar detectors. Radar systems work by sending out

10584-464: The detection of airborne stealth targets at long range, as well as improved capabilities in the helmet-mounted display. With improved communications equipment, it is also more effective in network-centric warfare. Flight tests were conducted starting in 2021 and the first F4-standard aircraft was delivered in 2023. Previous aircraft will be upgraded to the standard, with a further 30 aircraft to be ordered in 2023. The total programme cost, as of FY2013,

10710-500: The development cost, with first flight to take place in 1986. At the time, there was no guarantee that the effort would result in a full-scale development programme, and the aircraft remained a purely "proof-of concept" test vehicle. In an effort to harmonize design specifics with the requirements of other countries while collaboration talks were being held, Dassault sized the ACX aircraft in the 9.5 tonne range. After France decided to pull out of

10836-459: The earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for close combat and long-range interception, as well as real-time generation of three-dimensional maps for terrain-following and the real-time generation of high resolution ground maps for navigation and targeting. In early 1994, it was reported that technical difficulties with the radar had delayed the Rafale's development by six months. In September 2006, Flight International reported

10962-434: The entry of the aircraft into service. At one stage, French naval authorities investigated the possibility of acquiring used F/A-18s to replace the obsolete F-8 for its carriers, but the French government intended an all-Rafale fleet, and did not go ahead with the plan. Deliveries of the Rafale M were subsequently given a high priority to replace the Navy's aged F-8 fighters. In the words of a naval official, "Although we lost

11088-551: The first aircraft series formally started in December 1992, but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic uncertainty, and resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of Defence and Dassault agreed on a 48-aircraft (28 firm and 20 options) production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007. A further order of 59 F3 Rafales was announced in December 2004. In November 2009

11214-548: The first time they would fly combat missions from one. As many as 18 Rafale Ms could be deployed on a carrier, although some room would have to be made for French Navy support crews familiar with maintaining the Rafale, as well as for spare parts and munitions. Operation Chesapeake, a test of this interoperability, was conducted in May 2018, when 12 Rafales of Flottilles 11F, 12F, and 17F , along with nearly 350 support personnel embarked aboard USS George H.W. Bush for two weeks of carrier qualifications and exercises after conducting

11340-512: The highly digitised cockpit is an integrated direct voice input (DVI) system, allowing a range of aircraft functions to be controlled by spoken voice commands, simplifying the pilot's access to many of the controls. Developed by Crouzet  [ fr ] , the DVI is capable of managing radio communications and countermeasures systems, the selection of armament and radar modes, and controlling navigational functions. For safety reasons, generally DVI

11466-419: The initial technology demonstrator include a reduction in the size of the tail-fin, fuselage reshaping, repositioning of the engine air inlets underneath the aircraft's wing, and the extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns for the construction of the trailing edges of the wings and canards. Seventy percent of the Rafale's surface area is composite. Many of the features designed to reduce

11592-450: The introduction of Charles de Gaulle , France's first nuclear-powered carrier , which was considerably larger than previous carriers, Foch and Clemenceau . Although not a full-aspect stealth aircraft , the cost of which was viewed as unacceptably excessive, the Rafale was designed for a reduced radar cross-section (RCS) and infrared signature . In order to reduce the RCS, changes from

11718-491: The main aircraft functions such as the flight management system , data fusion, fire control , and the man-machine interface. The total value of the radar, electronic communications and self-protection equipment is about 30 percent of the cost of the entire aircraft. The IMA has since been installed upon several upgraded Mirage 2000 fighters, and incorporated into the civilian airliner, the Airbus A380 . According to Dassault,

11844-424: The minimal cockpit systems and a fly-by-wire flight control system for the validation of the design's basic airframe-engine layout. The company desired to use the Rafale A to continue the company approach of risk reduction through incremental improvement and to test the aerodynamically unstable delta wing-canard configuration. The aircraft was Dassault's 92nd prototype in 40 years. At the time of its construction,

11970-445: The multilateral talks in July 1985 to preserve the technological independence of its fighter aircraft industry. West Germany, the UK and Italy opted out and established a new European Fighter Aircraft (EFA) programme. In Turin , on 2 August 1985, West Germany, the UK and Italy agreed to go ahead with the EFA, and confirmed that France, along with Spain, had chosen not to proceed as a member of

12096-430: The multilateral talks, designers focused on a more compact size, as specified by the Air Force. The ACX programmed was renamed Rafale ("squall") in April 1985. Construction of the Rafale A (ACX) technology demonstrator started in 1984. It had a length of 15.8 m (52 ft), a wingspan of 11 m (36 ft), and a 9.5 t (21,000 lb) empty weight. The austere aircraft lacked in major subsystems, and had

12222-480: The need for a large high-voltage power supply is eliminated. Replacing a mechanically scanned array with a fixed AESA mount (such as on the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet ) can help reduce an aircraft's overall radar cross-section (RCS), but some designs (such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and Gripen NG ) forgo this advantage in order to combine mechanical scanning with electronic scanning and provide

12348-464: The need for a separate radar warning receiver. The same basic concept can be used to provide traditional radio support, and with some elements also broadcasting, form a very high bandwidth data link . The F-35 uses this mechanism to send sensor data between aircraft in order to provide a synthetic picture of higher resolution and range than any one radar could generate. In 2007, tests by Northrop Grumman , Lockheed Martin, and L-3 Communications enabled

12474-452: The nuclear-powered aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle in July 1999. Testing showed that the aircraft had the ability to land with significant loads of unexpended ordnance. The Rafale B was initially expected to be just a trainer, but the Gulf War showed that a second crew member was invaluable on strike and reconnaissance missions. The Air Force therefore switched its preferences towards

12600-433: The one to be used to jam. Most radars using modern electronics are capable of changing their operating frequency with every pulse. This can make jamming less effective; although it is possible to send out broadband white noise to conduct barrage jamming against all the possible frequencies, this reduces the amount of jammer energy in any one frequency. An AESA has the additional capability of spreading its frequencies across

12726-472: The operating frequency of the radar and then broadcasting a signal on it to confuse the receiver as to which is the "real" pulse and which is the jammer's. This technique works as long as the radar system cannot easily change its operating frequency. When the transmitters were based on klystron tubes this was generally true, and radars, especially airborne ones, had only a few frequencies to choose among. A jammer could listen to those possible frequencies and select

12852-472: The outbound interceptor missiles. MAR allowed the entire battle over a wide space to be controlled from a single site. Each MAR, and its associated battle center, would process tracks for hundreds of targets. The system would then select the most appropriate battery for each one, and hand off particular targets for them to attack. One battery would normally be associated with the MAR, while others would be distributed around it. Remote batteries were equipped with

12978-461: The pilot. Damocles provides targeting information to the various armaments carried by the Rafale and is directly integrated with the Rafale's VHF / UHF secure radio to communicate target information with other aircraft. It also performs other key functions such as aerial optical surveillance and is integrated with the navigation system as a FLIR . The Damocles designation pod was described as "lacking competitiveness" when compared to rivals such as

13104-414: The possibility of French naval Rafale Ms flying combat missions from a US Navy Nimitz -class aircraft carrier as soon as January 2017. This would enable continued French Navy operations against ISIL while Charles de Gaulle undergoes its year-and-a-half-long major refit, scheduled to begin in early 2017. Although Rafales have launched and landed on U.S. carriers to demonstrate interoperability, it would be

13230-489: The possible configurations of the new fighter under the codename Rapace ("Bird of Prey"). By March 1980, the number of configurations had been narrowed down to four, two of which had a combination of canards , delta wings and a single vertical tail-fin . The ACX project was given political impetus when the French government awarded a contract for two (later reduced to one) technology demonstrator aircraft on 13 April 1983. The government and industry would each provide half of

13356-408: The pre-series RBE2 AA radars was underway. In early October 2012, the first Rafale equipped with an RBE2 AA radar arrived at Mont-de-Marsan Air Base for operational service (the development was described by Thales and Dassault as "on time and on budget"). By early 2014, the first Air Force front-line squadron were supposed to receive Rafales equipped with the AESA radar, following the French Navy which

13482-533: The programme, as it implemented recently developed processes such as digital mockup and product data management (PDM). Engineers worked directly with computers in generating 3D models of the aircraft, and took advantage of the design software in facilitating machine-tool preparation. The system consisted of 15GB databases of each of the Rafale's components, assisting with various aspects of the design, manufacture and through-life support. The computer-aided arrangement also simplified routine maintenance. Production of

13608-459: The project needed to compete with other defense acquisition programmes for a dwindling national defense budget. This occurred in a political environment in which the chief security threat, the Soviet Union, no longer existed. The French government consequently reduced Rafale orders, which Dassault and other companies involved claimed impeded production management and led to higher costs, and delayed

13734-417: The project. Despite pressure from France, Spain rejoined the EFA project in early September 1985. The four-nation project eventually resulted in the Eurofighter Typhoon 's development. In France, the government proceeded with its own programme. The Ministry of Defence required an aircraft capable of air-to-air and air-to-ground, all-day and adverse weather operations. As France was the sole developer of

13860-546: The project. The Rafale is distinct from other European fighters of its era in that it is almost entirely built by one country, involving most of France's major defence contractors , such as Dassault , Thales and Safran . Many of the aircraft's avionics and features, such as direct voice input , the RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar and the optronique secteur frontal infra-red search and track (IRST) sensor, were domestically developed and produced for

13986-502: The rocket motor increases the missile's agility. The missile is capable of lock-on after launch (LOAL) which means it is capable of engaging targets outside its seeker's at-launch acquisition range. Mounted on the Rafale , the MICA IR can provide IR imagery to the central data processing system, thus acting as an extra sensor. MICA can also be employed as a short-range surface-to-air missile . It

14112-520: The same time as the multinational talks were occurring, Dassault-Breguet had been busy designing its Avion de Combat Experimental (ACX). During late 1978, prior to France's joining of the ECA, Dassault received contracts for the development of project ACT 92 ( Avion de Combat Tactique , meaning "Tactical Combat Airplane"). The following year, the National Office for Aviation Studies and Research began studying

14238-590: The sea, 12 km away; despite this distance, MICA, equipped with an active radar seeker, locked on the target and shot it down. Corvettes too small to have the big and costly Aster missile system are the most likely customers for the VL MICA-M, which offers similar capability as the Aster 15 but without its booster and PIF-PAF vectorial control. While the VL MICA has an advertised range of 20 km, aerodynamic performance

14364-477: The signal drops off only as the square of distance. This means that the receiver is always at an advantage [neglecting disparity in antenna size] over the radar in terms of range - it will always be able to detect the signal long before the radar can see the target's echo. Since the position of the radar is extremely useful information in an attack on that platform, this means that radars generally must be turned off for lengthy periods if they are subject to attack; this

14490-539: The successor to the Rafale as the New Generation Fighter . This fighter aircraft, under development by Dassault Aviation and Airbus Defence and Space , is to replace France's Rafale, Germany's Eurofighter Typhoon, and Spain's F/A-18 Hornet in the 2030–2040 timeframe. The Rafale was developed as a modern jet fighter with a very high level of agility; Dassault chose to combine a delta wing with active close-coupled canard to maximize manoeuvrability. The aircraft

14616-530: The targets' own radar along with a lower rate of data from its own broadcasts, a detection system with a precise RWR like an AESA can generate more data with less energy. Some receive beamforming-capable systems, usually ground-based, may even discard a transmitter entirely. However, using a single receiving antenna only gives a direction. Obtaining a range and a target vector requires at least two physically separate passive devices for triangulation to provide instantaneous determinations, unless phase interferometry

14742-448: The two-seater, and planned that the variant would constitute 60 percent of the Rafale fleet. The service originally planned to order 250 Rafales, later reduced to 234 aircraft, 95 "C" and 139 "B" models", and then to 212 aircraft. The Navy originally planned to order 86 Rafales, which was reduced to 60 by to budget cuts, 25 M single-seaters and 35 two-seat Ns. The two-seater was later cancelled. The ACX and subsequent production Rafale

14868-507: The work, its partner Thales 25%, and its other partner Safran 15%. The three companies rely on a network of 500 subcontractors, many of which are small and medium enterprises , providing work for 7,000 direct and indirect employees. As of 2012 , each fighter took 24 months to manufacture, with an annual production rate of eleven aircraft. The Rafale was originally planned to enter service in 1995. The aircraft's development proceeded on time, on budget, and without major difficulties. However,

14994-423: The world, and among the most successful internationally. It has been used in combat over Afghanistan, Libya, Mali, Iraq and Syria. In the mid-1970s, the French Air Force ( Armée de l'Air ) and French Navy ( Marine Nationale ) had separate requirements for a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service. Because their requirements were similar, and to reduce cost, both services issued

15120-627: Was around €45.9 billion, which translated to a unit programme cost of approximately €160.5 million. This figure takes in account improved hardware of the F3 standard, and which includes development costs over a period of 40 years, including inflation. The unit flyaway price as of 2010 was €101.1 million for the F3+ version. The Rafale is planned to be the French Air and Space Force's primary combat aircraft until at least 2040. In 2018, Dassault announced

15246-425: Was awarded on 21 April 1988 for a test and validation programme. There was nevertheless government uncertainty in the programme, as it was expected to cost some Ffr120 billion (1988 francs) in total development and procurement costs. Prime minister Michel Rocard was concerned about the state of the project and the failure of the previous government to secure cooperation with other countries, but stated that, "It

15372-571: Was built at Sary Shagan Test Range in 1970–1971 and nicknamed Flat Twin in the West. Four years later another radar of this design was built on Kura Test Range , while the S-225 system was never commissioned. US based manufacturers of the AESA radars used in the F-22 and Super Hornet include Northrop Grumman and Raytheon. These companies also design, develop and manufacture the transmit/receive modules which comprise

15498-489: Was designed in a "virtual" format. Dassault used the experience and technical expertise of its sister company Dassault Systèmes , which had invented the CATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application) system, a three-dimensional computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacture (CAD/CAM) software suite that became standard across the industry. CATIA enabled digitization and efficiency improvements throughout

15624-493: Was launched on 20 March 2017 by the French ministry of defence. The first F4.1 standard test aircraft was delivered in March 2023. For compatibility with armaments of varying types and origins, the Rafale's onboard store management system is compliant with MIL-STD-1760 , an electrical interface between an aircraft and its carriage stores, thereby simplifying the incorporation of many of their existing weapons and equipment. The Rafale

15750-406: Was retired after 867 sorties. The early successful demonstration programme increased French industry and government confidence in the viability of a full-scale development programme for the Rafale. In June 1987, French prime minister Jacques Chirac declared that the government would proceed with the project. A contract for four pre-production aircraft (one Rafale C, two Rafale Ms and one Rafale B)

15876-437: Was slated to receive AESA-equipped Rafales starting in 2013. To enable the Rafale to perform in the air supremacy role, it includes several passive sensor systems. The front-sector electro-optical system or Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF), developed by Thales, is completely integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths. The OSF enables the deployment of infrared missiles such as

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