The M-94 was a piece of cryptographic equipment used by the United States Army , consisting of several lettered discs arranged as a cylinder . It was also employed by the US Navy , under the name CSP 488 .
78-461: The device was conceived by Colonel Parker Hitt and then developed by Major Joseph Mauborgne in 1917; based on a system invented by Thomas Jefferson and Etienne Bazeries . Officially adopted in 1922, it remained in use until circa 1942, when it was replaced by more complex and secure electromechanical rotor machines , particularly the M-209 . The device consisted of 25 aluminium discs attached to
156-680: A 2d Lieutenant, Infantry, in the regular Army in 1903. Stationed in the Philippines several times at several infantry posts, Mauborgne attended the Army Signal School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas, in 1909–1910, graduating from the Signal Officers Course, followed by a tour of duty in Washington, D.C. , in the office of Chief Signal Officer Brigadier General George P. Scriven . While stationed at Fort Riley , Kansas, in 1912, he installed
234-637: A bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes ; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes . The National Security Language Initiative (NSLI-Y)
312-607: A civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad. The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to 273 posts around
390-548: A curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application. The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the department and to work on projects. Fellows may also work with other government entities, including
468-455: A firm which would or could make such aluminum grooved devices in quantity, Mrs. Friedman , by womanly wiles and cajolery on behalf of her own group in the U.S. Coast Guard, succeeded in inducing or enticing one firm to make them for her. And it's how the first models of strip cipher devices made of aluminum by the extrusion process came about, and how the U.S. Army, by administrative cooperation on an inter-Service level and technical cooperation on
546-512: A four-and-a-half inch long rod, each disc containing the 26 letters of the Roman alphabet in scrambled order around its circumference (with the exception of the 17th disc, which began with the letters "ARMY OF THE US"). Each wheel had a different arrangement of the alphabet, and was stamped with an identifying number and letter; wheels were identified according to the letter following "A" on that wheel, from "B 1" to "Z 25". The wheels could be assembled on
624-835: A marital level, found it practical to develop and produce in quantity its Strip Cipher Device, Type M-138-A. This was used from 1935 to 1941 or 1942 by the Army, the Navy, the Marine Corps, the Coast Guard, et al, including the Treasury and State Departments. It was used as a back-up system even after the Armed Services as well as the Department of State began employing much better and more sophisticated cipher machines of high speed and security." Another problem
702-570: A merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process. The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with
780-446: A practical instrument based upon this principle. I won't take time to show all these developments but only the final form of the one adopted by the Army, Strip Cipher Device Type, M-138-A. This form used an aluminum base into which channels with overhanging edges were cut to hold cardboard strips of alphabets which could be slid easily within the channels. It may be of interest to you to learn that after I had given up in my attempts to find
858-412: A radio transmitter in an airplane and had 1st Lt. Henry H. Arnold send him the first successful air to ground radio transmission on November 2. Two years later, while in command of the radio station at Fort Mills on Corregidor , Mauborgne went up himself with 2nd Lt. Herbert A. "Bert" Dargue in a Burgess Model I seaplane to conduct a series of experimental flight tests of an airborne radio, and made
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#1733086092116936-472: A single person responsible for that duty. A mail division was established in 1872 and the office of Keeper of Rolls was made independent of the Chief Clerk's Bureau in 1873. Congress legally recognized the bureau system and provided official salaries for some bureau positions in 1873. Following Congressional recognition, several acts of Congress modified the structure of the bureaus between 1874 and 1882. At
1014-525: Is a US Department of State ECA competitive merit-based scholarship to develop the foreign language skills of American high school students in eight critical-need languages. Korean , Mandarin , Russian , Arabic , Hindi , Bahasa Indonesian , Tajiki , and Turkish are all taught in summer and academic year programs abroad, as well as in online classes. NSLI-Y is the most prestigious foreign language program available to American high schoolers and has nearly 9,200 alumni. The Jefferson Science Fellows Program
1092-554: Is a member of the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame . General Mauborgne is also known as "The Cubic General". The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Lieutenant Colonel (Signal Corps) Joseph O. Mauborgne, United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to
1170-469: Is headed by the U.S. secretary of state , who reports directly to the U.S. president and is a member of the Cabinet . Analogous to a foreign minister , the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession . The position is currently held by Antony Blinken , who
1248-501: Is managed by a senior official. The senior official in most bureaus is an Assistant Secretary of State , with some senior officials having other titles such as Director or Ambassador-at-Large . The final tier of senior leadership below Assistant Secretary is Deputy Assistant Secretary, of which there are several dozen. Staff below the Deputy Assistant Secretary rank are generally considered "working level." Officials from
1326-813: The Playfair cipher . Mauborgne became a Major General in the United States Army , and from October 1937 to his retirement in 1941 was the Army's 12th Chief Signal Officer, in command of the Signal Corps . Mauborgne was born on February 26, 1881, in New York City to Eugene and Catherine Elizabeth McLaughlin Mauborgne. After graduating in 1901 from the College of Saint Xavier in New York, he studied fine arts until commissioned
1404-460: The State Department , is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations . Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president on international relations, administering diplomatic missions , negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing
1482-674: The State, War, and Navy Building in 1875. Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building , which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building" , in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman , who
1560-803: The Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and
1638-517: The census . President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the secretary of state still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a president or vice president wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring
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#17330860921161716-742: The 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the secretary of state, as does the US ambassador to the United Nations . From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia , the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied
1794-698: The 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium. The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors
1872-564: The Committee of Correspondence that was used by the colony of Massachusetts to communicate with the other colonies. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was renamed the Committee of Foreign Affairs in 1777. In 1781, the Department of Foreign Affairs was established as a permanent body to replace the Committee of Foreign Affairs, and the office of secretary of foreign affairs was established to lead
1950-899: The Congress , White House , and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense , Department of Commerce , and Department of Homeland Security . The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin , and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to
2028-709: The Consular Bureau; the Home Bureau; and the Keeper of the Archives, Translator, and Disbursing Agent. The office of Commissioner of Patents was created in 1836. In 1842, the Department of State was required to report to Congress on foreign commercial systems, and a clerk within the department was assigned the responsibility of arranging this information. This position was established as the Superintendent of Statistics in 1854 and
2106-806: The Corcoran Art Gallery between 1923 and 26. Portraits and etchings produced by Mauborgne were exhibited in galleries in Washington, San Francisco, and Dayton, Ohio; acquired by the United States Military Academy , and sold to private collections. Mauborgne reached the mandatory retirement age in October 1941 and retired near Fort Monmouth , New Jersey. Among his interests were music and violin -making, for which he won an international competition in The Hague in 1949. During his early career, Mauborgne
2184-405: The Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to BusinessWeek . From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched 21st Century Statecraft, with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative
2262-469: The Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting
2340-719: The Diplomatic Bureau; the Consular Bureau; the Home Bureau; the Bureau of Archives, Laws, and Commissions; the Bureau of Pardons and Remissions, Copyrights, and the Care of the Library; the Disbursing and Superintending Bureau; and the Translating and Miscellaneous Bureau. His successor John Forsyth reduced this number to just four the following year, overseen by a chief clerk: the Diplomatic Bureau;
2418-501: The Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the secretary of state, is the president's principal foreign policy advisor. The department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the president's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to
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2496-535: The Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress . Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education . It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries,
2574-566: The Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills. The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In
2652-789: The Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. As head of the Engineering and Research Division of the Signal Corps, Lieutenant Colonel Mauborgne rendered conspicuous in connection with coordinating the design and supply of new technical apparatus for the Signal Corps. He was largely responsible for the high type of radio equipment developed for the American Army and rendered unusual service in connection with cipher telegraphy. Department of State The United States Department of State ( DOS ), or simply
2730-482: The M-94 if suitable strips were provided. The original design used an aluminum base. William F. Friedman describes the problem of getting them manufactured and how it was overcome: "It soon became apparent to both Army and Navy cryptologists that a great increase in cryptosecurity would be obtained if the alphabets of the M-94 device could be made variant instead of invariant. There began efforts in both services to develop
2808-639: The Secretary through the Assistant Secretaries are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees. Since
2886-756: The Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960. In accordance with the 1984 Act to Combat International Terrorism, the U.S. State Department established the Rewards for Justice program . The Rewards For Justice program offered money as an incentive for information leading to the arrest of leaders of terrorist groups, financiers of terrorism, including any individual that abide in plotting terror attacks by cooperating with extremist groups. The Rewards For Justice program offered money as an incentive for information leading to
2964-588: The State Department spending time in the United States and interacting with their American colleagues, leadership and counterparts. Notable alumni of Professional Fellows include Edmond Fernandes , Anoka Abeyratne . The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program , is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under
3042-462: The Statistical Office was created within the department. In 1853, the office of Assistant Secretary of State was created to oversee the heads of each bureau. A Commissioner of Immigration existed between 1864 and 1868. An Examiner of Claims was established in 1868 to address claims by American citizens against foreign nations, but it was abolished in 1868 and then reestablished in 1870 under
3120-597: The U.S. at the United Nations . The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building , a few blocks from the White House , in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C. ; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym . Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch , the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It
3198-449: The United States. All foreign affairs activities—US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more—are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget. The department's core activities and purpose include: The Department of State conducts these activities with
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3276-620: The age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste . YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States , virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia , and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement , sustainable development , economic development , governance , and
3354-430: The arrest of leaders of terrorist groups , financiers of terrorism, including any individual that abide in plotting terror attacks by cooperating with extremist groups . In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet. The 3rd millennium saw the department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and
3432-538: The bureau was replaced by an office to facilitate the transfer of information between consular offices and the new department. The Passport Bureau was restored the same year, and its name was changed to the Bureau of Citizenship in 1907. The department underwent a major reform in 1909 when Congress expanded its funding. Separate divisions were established within the Department for Latin American Affairs, Far Eastern Affairs, Near Eastern Affairs, Western European Affairs, and Information. An additional Division of Mexican Affairs
3510-506: The country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests. See also Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced / w aɪ s iː ˈ l iː / ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia . The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within
3588-426: The decision. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, the Department of State under Secretary Jefferson comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts. When Jefferson took charge of the department, one clerk oversaw The Foreign Office and another oversaw the Home Office. Congress authorized the department hire a chief clerk for each office in June 1790, but
3666-412: The department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint , keeping the Great Seal of the United States , and administering
3744-425: The department. The U.S. Constitution , drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the president responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states. To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to reestablish the Department of Foreign Affairs under the new government, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making
3822-433: The departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies. The most senior official in the Department is the Secretary of State. The Secretary is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the president of the United States . The Secretary organizes and supervises
3900-430: The early 1930s, Mauborgne was Signal Officer for the 9th Corps Area and later Director of the Signal Corps Aircraft Factory, Wright Field , Ohio. He attended the Army War College during its 1931–32 academic session. In 1937, as a Signal Corps officer, he used a Dictaphone to record Japanese radio signals at the Presidio of San Francisco . As Chief of Signal, Mauborgne supported technological development and oversaw
3978-456: The end of the nineteenth century, the department consisted of the Chief Clerk's Bureau, the Diplomatic Bureau, the Consular Bureau, the Bureau of Accounts, the Bureau of Foreign Commerce, the Bureau of Appointments, and the Bureau of Archives. Other offices, such as that of translator, also operated separately from the bureau system. In 1903, the Bureau of Foreign Commerce was transferred to the newly created Department of Commerce and Labor , and
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#17330860921164056-439: The entire department and its staff. Immediately subordinate to the Secretary are the Deputy Secretary and the Deputy Secretary for Management and Resources , the second- and third-highest ranking officials in the department. Ranking below the two Deputy Secretaries are six Under Secretaries , who each oversee several bureaus and offices tasked with specific areas of policy and administration. Each bureau or office, in turn,
4134-429: The final months of World War I, the Bureau of Citizenship was split into the Division of Passport Control and the Visa Office. Other changes made during World War I include the conversion of the Division of Information into the Division of Foreign Intelligence in 1917 and the establishment of the Correspondence Bureau in 1918. The Division of Russian Affairs was established in 1919, and the Division of Political Information
4212-420: The financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge. In 1833, Secretary of State Louis McLane oversaw a major restructure of the Department of State into a formal collection of seven bureaus:
4290-411: The first two-way radio telegraphy between an airplane and a station on the ground on December 16, 1914. After World War I , in the 1920s and 1930s, Mauborgne pursued communication advancements in numerous research-and-development assignments, including a stint as chief of the Signal Corps Engineering and Research Division and as commander of the Signal Corps laboratory in the Bureau of Standards . During
4368-432: The global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote , as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki , Diplopedia ; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board ; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year,
4446-472: The mass production of the SCR-268 and SCR-270 Army radars . Just a few months after he retired (September 30, 1941), two Signal Corps soldiers — using an SCR-270 radar at Oahu, Hawaii , in the early morning of December 7, 1941 — spotted Japanese aircraft on their way in to attack Pearl Harbor . In addition to his professional study, Mauborgne attended the Chicago Art Institute in 1922–1923. Returning to Washington D.C. in 1923 he continued his art studies at
4524-459: The newly established Law Bureau. In 1870, Secretary of State Hamilton Fish reorganized the department into twelve bureaus: the Chief Clerk's Bureau, two Diplomatic Bureaus, two Consular Bureaus, the Law Bureau, the Bureau of Accounts, the Statistical Bureau, the Bureau of Translations, the Bureau of Pardons and Commissions, the Bureau of Domestic Records, and the Passport Bureau. The bureaus of law, translations, and domestic records each consisted of
4602-483: The offices were consolidated under a single clerk the following month. In 1793, responsibility over patents was transferred from the cabinet to the Department of State. The office of superintendent of patents was created to carry out this responsibility, but the office was not recognized by Congress until 1830. In the 19th century, the U.S. State Department was responsible for administering the consular services and Diplomatic Security Service (DSS). The Department of State
4680-399: The oldest U.S. civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research , and maintains a law enforcement arm , the Diplomatic Security Service (DSS). The Articles of Confederation did not designate a separate executive branch of the government. Foreign affairs were delegated to the Committee of Secret Correspondence by the Congress of the Confederation in 1775, based on
4758-489: The remaining lines around the circumference of the cylinder was sent as the ciphertext . To decrypt, the wheels were turned until one line matched a 25 letter block of ciphertext. The plaintext would then appear on one of the other lines, which could be visually located easily, as it would be the only one likely to "read." The principle upon which the M-94/CSP-488 is based was first invented by Thomas Jefferson in 1795 in his "wheel cypher" but did not become well known, and
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#17330860921164836-456: The renovation of the buildings on the 11.8 acres (4.8 ha) Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency . In June 2022 the State Department launched a new transnational association , the Minerals Security Partnership . The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within
4914-401: The rod in any order; the ordering used during encoding comprised the key . There were 25! (25 factorial ) = 15,511,210,043,330,985,984,000,000 (more than 15 septillion) possible keys, which can be expressed as about an 84-bit key size . Messages were encrypted 25 letters at a time. Turning the discs individually, the operator aligned the letters in the message horizontally. Then, any one of
4992-422: The system was compromised, letting multiple Axis countries decipher it. Like most classical ciphers , strip ciphers can be easily cracked if there is enough intercepted ciphertext. However, this takes time and specialized skills, so the M-94 was still good enough during the early years of World War II for its intended use as a "tactical cipher"; in a similar way to the more modern DRYAD and BATCO . The M-138-A
5070-429: The systems, was exploiting its vulnerability to the known-plaintext attack (e. g., when the same text was published in press releases), as well as the fact that the embassies used too little keys and strips. Joseph Mauborgne Joseph Oswald Mauborgne (February 26, 1881 – June 7, 1971) co-invented the one-time pad with Gilbert Vernam of Bell Labs . In 1914 he published the first recorded solution of
5148-450: The world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings , and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including
5226-420: Was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy. As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom". The US Department of State has in the recent years rolled out Professional Exchange Fellows who have risen to professional ranks in their lives and are chosen by the US Embassies worldwide to be a professional fellows of
5304-453: Was a recognized marksman, on the "Distinguished Shooters" list of the Civilian Marksmanship Program . In December 1907, Mauborgne married Katherine Hale Poore, the daughter of Major General Benjamin A. Poore . They were the parents of two sons, one of whom was also a career Army officer. Mauborgne moved to Atlanta, Georgia , in ill health in 1970 and died on June 7, 1971. He was buried at Andersonville National Cemetery . General Mauborgne
5382-631: Was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the U.S. Senate on January 26, 2021, by a vote of 78–22. As of 2024 , the State Department maintains 271 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China . It also manages the U.S. Foreign Service , provides diplomatic training to U.S. officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration , and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas , posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers
5460-417: Was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with
5538-439: Was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government. Colin Powell , who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice ,
5616-566: Was established in 1915. The Bureau of Trade Relations was abolished in 1912 and replaced by an Office of Foreign Trade Advisers, and the Office of the Adviser on Commercial Treaties was split from this office in 1916. During World War I , the Bureau of Citizenship was tasked with vetting every person who entered or departed from the United States to ensure public safety. New branches of the Bureau of Citizenship were opened in New York and San Francisco. In
5694-538: Was established in 1920. The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924 , which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service , a professionalized personnel system under which the secretary of state is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with
5772-501: Was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy. The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $ 50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $ 10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of
5850-582: Was independently invented by Etienne Bazeries a century later. In an extension of the same general principle, the M-138-A strip cipher machine, used by the US Army, Navy (as CSP-845), Coast Guard and State Department through World War II, featured hundreds of flat cardboard strips. Each strip contained a scrambled alphabet, repeated twice, that could be slid back and forth in a frame; with 30 being selected for each cipher session. The strip cipher could interoperate with
5928-413: Was stronger because slips with new alphabets could be issued periodically, even by radio using more secure systems like SIGABA , however this was not practiced until the US found out that their strips were compromised in early 1943. Both were replaced by the M-209 mechanical rotor machine as these became available. The main method of M-138-A cryptanalysis practiced by Axis, besides physically capturing
6006-444: Was that aluminum was in short supply early in the war and attempts were made to make the strip cipher bases out of plastic or mahogany, with limited success. Fortunately, aluminum became available again for this use in the fall of 1943. Besides the military, Department of State and many other civilian agencies (like OSS ) were using it for most important messages, and despite it being a powerful method in theory, made many mistakes so
6084-684: Was the second female secretary of state and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $ 2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning
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