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24-609: Mélange occurrences are associated with thrust faulted terranes in orogenic belts. A mélange is formed in the accretionary wedge above a subduction zone . The ultramafic ophiolite sequences which have been obducted onto continental crust are typically underlain by a mélange. Smaller-scale localized mélanges may also occur in shear or fault zones, where coherent rock has been disrupted and mixed by shearing forces. Large-scale melanges formed in active continental margin settings generally consist of altered oceanic crustal material and blocks of continental slope sediments in

48-505: A mixture of disparate components. Its derivation, and therefore to some extent its connotation, is similar to mêlée . Mélange is the modern form of the Old French noun meslance , which comes from the infinitive mesler , meaning "to mix". Thrust fault A thrust fault is a break in the Earth's crust, across which older rocks are pushed above younger rocks. A thrust fault

72-480: A ramp and typically forms at an angle of about 15°–30° to the bedding. Continued displacement on a thrust over a ramp produces a characteristic fold geometry known as a ramp anticline or, more generally, as a fault-bend fold . Fault-propagation folds form at the tip of a thrust fault where propagation along the decollement has ceased, but displacement on the thrust behind the fault tip continues. The formation of an asymmetric anticline-syncline fold pair accommodates

96-613: A matrix of grey-green slaty mudstone and siltstone. The Eastern Desert of Egypt is part of the Neoproterozoic Arabian-Nubian Shield and displays different occurrences of Neoproterozoic ophiolitic mélanges. The mélanges contain exotic and native blocks and fragments of variable sizes and types set in a sheared and schistose volcaniclastic matrix. The main exotic blocks are ophiolitic and include metamorphosed ultramafic rocks , metagabbros , massive and pillowed metabasalts and pelagic sedimentary rocks. Based on

120-402: A sedimentary sequence, such as mudstones or halite layers; these parts of the thrust are called decollements . If the effectiveness of the decollement becomes reduced, the thrust will tend to cut up the section to a higher stratigraphic level until it reaches another effective decollement where it can continue as bedding parallel flat. The part of the thrust linking the two flats is known as

144-408: A sedimentary sequence, such as the top and base of a relatively strong sandstone layer bounded by two relatively weak mudstone layers. When a thrust that has propagated along the lower detachment, known as the floor thrust , cuts up to the upper detachment, known as the roof thrust , it forms a ramp within the stronger layer. With continued displacement on the thrust, higher stresses are developed in

168-425: A sheared mudstone matrix . The mixing mechanisms in such settings may include tectonic shearing forces, ductile flow of a water-charged or deformable matrix (such as serpentinite ), sedimentary action (such as slumping, gravity-flow , and olistostromal action), or some combination of these. Some larger blocks of rock may be as much as 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) across. Before the advent of plate tectonics in

192-399: Is a type of reverse fault that has a dip of 45 degrees or less. If the angle of the fault plane is lower (often less than 15 degrees from the horizontal ) and the displacement of the overlying block is large (often in the kilometer range) the fault is called an overthrust or overthrust fault . Erosion can remove part of the overlying block, creating a fenster (or window ) – when

216-416: Is typically a lozenge-shaped duplex. Most duplexes have only small displacements on the bounding faults between the horses, which dip away from the foreland. Occasionally, the displacement on the individual horses is more significant, such that each horse lies more or less vertically above the other; this is known as an antiformal stack or imbricate stack . If the individual displacements are still greater,

240-601: The Alps , and the Appalachians are prominent examples of compressional orogenies with numerous overthrust faults. Thrust faults occur in the foreland basin , marginal to orogenic belts. Here, compression does not result in appreciable mountain building, which is mostly accommodated by folding and stacking of thrusts. Instead, thrust faults generally cause a thickening of the stratigraphic section . When thrusts are developed in orogens formed in previously rifted margins, inversion of

264-797: The Bay of Islands ophiolite complex in Newfoundland . The Gwna Mélange in the UK extends through Anglesey and the Llŷn Peninsula onto Bardsey Island in North Wales. The Northern Palawan melange is distributed in the Philippines' Miniloc Island , west coast of Inabamalaki Island, west coast of El Nido ; Cudugman Point on Bacuit Bay, and in the Cuyo Group of Islands. It consists of a jumble of various rock types contained in

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288-412: The ocean trench margin of subduction zones, where oceanic sediments are scraped off the subducted plate and accumulate. Here, the accretionary wedge must thicken by up to 200%, and this is achieved by stacking thrust fault upon thrust fault in a melange of disrupted rock, often with chaotic folding. Here, ramp flat geometries are not usually observed because the compressional force is at a steep angle to

312-514: The buried paleo-rifts can induce the nucleation of thrust ramps. Foreland basin thrusts also usually observe the ramp-flat geometry, with thrusts propagating within units at very low angle "flats" (at 1–5 degrees) and then moving up-section in steeper ramps (at 5–20 degrees) where they offset stratigraphic units. Thrusts have also been detected in cratonic settings, where "far-foreland" deformation has advanced into intracontinental areas. Thrusts and duplexes are also found in accretionary wedges in

336-446: The continuing displacement. As displacement continues, the thrust tip starts to propagate along the axis of the syncline. Such structures are also known as tip-line folds . Eventually, the propagating thrust tip may reach another effective decollement layer, and a composite fold structure will develop with fault-bending and fault-propagation folds' characteristics. Duplexes occur where two decollement levels are close to each other within

360-569: The early 1970s, it was difficult to explain mélanges in terms of known geological mechanisms. A particularly troubling paradox was the occurrence of blueschist blocks (low temperature and high pressure metamorphic rocks) in direct contact with graywacke (a coarse sandstone with lithic fragments) that was deposited in a sedimentary environment. Examples include the Franciscan Complex along the Coast Ranges of central and northern California and

384-429: The footwall of the ramp due to the bend on the fault. This may cause renewed propagation along the floor thrust until it again cuts up to join the roof thrust. Further displacement then takes place via the newly created ramp. This process may repeat many times, forming a series of fault-bounded thrust slices known as imbricates or horses , each with the geometry of a fault-bend fold of small displacement. The final result

408-505: The horses have a foreland dip. Duplexing is a very efficient mechanism of accommodating the shortening of the crust by thickening the section rather than by folding and deformation. Large overthrust faults occur in areas that have undergone great compressional forces. These conditions exist in the orogenic belts that result from either two continental tectonic collisions or from subduction zone accretion. The resultant compressional forces produce mountain ranges. The Himalayas ,

432-549: The mode of occurrences of the ophiolitic components and the processes of mélange formation, the ophiolitic mélanges of the Central Eastern Desert are classified and mapped into tectonic mélange, olistostrome and olistostromal mélange. Both tectonic and sedimentary processes played a major role during mélange formation in a back-arc or inter-arc setting. The term mélange in English is a loan word from French , used to mean

456-503: The name of Thrust-planes. They are strictly reversed faults, but with so low a hade that the rocks on their upthrown side have been, as it were, pushed horizontally forward. Window (geology) A tectonic window , or fenster (lit. "window" in German ), is a geologic structure formed by erosion or normal faulting on a thrust system. In such a system the rock mass ( hanging wall block ) that has been transported by movement along

480-847: The sedimentary layering. Thrust faults were unrecognised until the work of Arnold Escher von der Linth , Albert Heim and Marcel Alexandre Bertrand in the Alps working on the Glarus Thrust ; Charles Lapworth , Ben Peach and John Horne working on parts of the Moine Thrust in the Scottish Highlands ; Alfred Elis Törnebohm in the Scandinavian Caledonides and R. G. McConnell in the Canadian Rockies. The realisation that older strata could, via faulting, be found above younger strata

504-500: The thrust is called a nappe . When erosion or normal faulting produces a hole in the nappe where the underlying autochthonous (i.e. un-transported) rocks crop out this is called a window. Klippen are also a feature near windows. The klippe is the remnant portion of a nappe after erosion has removed connecting portions of the nappe. This process results in an outlier of exotic, often nearly horizontally translated strata overlying autochthonous strata. Windows can be almost any size, from

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528-563: The underlying block is exposed only in a relatively small area. When erosion removes most of the overlying block, leaving island-like remnants resting on the lower block, the remnants are called klippen (singular klippe ). If the fault plane terminates before it reaches the Earth's surface, it is called a blind thrust fault. Because of the lack of surface evidence, blind thrust faults are difficult to detect until rupture. The destructive 1994 earthquake in Northridge, Los Angeles, California ,

552-439: Was arrived at more or less independently by geologists in all these areas during the 1880s. Geikie in 1884 coined the term thrust-plane to describe this special set of faults. He wrote: By a system of reversed faults, a group of strata is made to cover a great breadth of ground and actually to overlie higher members of the same series. The most extraordinary dislocations, however, are those to which for distinction we have given

576-456: Was caused by a previously undiscovered blind thrust fault. Because of their low dip , thrusts are also difficult to appreciate in mapping, where lithological offsets are generally subtle and stratigraphic repetition is difficult to detect, especially in peneplain areas. Thrust faults, particularly those involved in thin-skinned style of deformation, have a so-called ramp-flat geometry. Thrusts mainly propagate along zones of weakness within

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